Counter Examples in Algebra
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Raj RoyCounter Examples in Algebra
Uploaded by
Raj RoyCounterexamples in Algebra
August 3, 2015
We use k, F , K to denote the fields, and R to denote the rings. Denote by Z the ring of rational
integers, Q the field of rational numbers, R the field of real numbers, and C the field of complex numbers.
Denote by A the ring of algebraic integers.
1 Groups
A Noncyclic Group of Order 4. Z/2Z Z/2Z.
A Presentation Gives a Trivial Group. hx, y, z|xyx1 y 1 = y, yzy 1 z 1 = z, zxz 1 x1 = xi.
Two Nonisomorphic Groups with the Same Character Table. D4 and Q8 .
A Nonabelian p-Group.
a b 2
Gp = |a, b Z/(p ), a 1 mod p .
0 1
This is a nonabelian group of order p3 .
Another example of a nonzbelian group of order p3 is
1 a b
Hp = 0 1 c |a, b, c Z/(p) .
0 0 1
In fact, these are the only nonabelian groups of order p3 . On the other hand, every group of order p2 is
abelian.
Solvable Groups. Every finite group of order < 60, every Abelian group, any p-group.
Finite Simple Groups. Cyclic groups Z/pZ, alternating groups An with n 5, groups of Lie type,
sporadic groups.
Group Homomorphisms of Additive Group of R.
There are linear functions f (x) = ax. There are also nonlinear ones, consider a projection onto one
basis element of the vector space R over Q.
A Paradoxical Decomposition of a Group.
Let F2 be the free group with two generators a, b. Consider S(a), S(a1 ), S(b), and S(b1 ) be the set
of elements starting with a, a1 , b, and b1 respectively. Then we have
F2 = hei S(a) S(a1 ) S(b) S(b1 ).
We have also
F2 = aS(a1 ) S(a),
and
F2 = bS(b1 ) S(b).
These decompositions are used in the proof of Banach-Tarski Theorem.
2 Rings
A Commutative Ring with Identity that is Not an Integral Domain. Z Z, Z/6Z.
A Commutative Ring without Identity. 2Z, {0, 2} in Z/4Z.
A Noncommutative Ring without Identity. M2 (2Z).
A Noncommutative Division Ring with Identity. The real quarternion H.
A Ring with Cyclic Multiplicative Group.
R = Z/nZ with n = 2, 4, pk , 2pk . Any finite fields. Also Z has units {1} which is isomorphic to Z/2Z
and is cyclic.
A Subring that is Not an Ideal. Z Q.
An Order of a Ring is Larger than its Characteristic. Any GF(pn ) for n 2.
A Prime Ideal that is Not a Maximal Ideal.
Let R = Z[x]. The ideal P = (x) is a prime ideal since R/P = Z is an integral domain. Since Z is not
a field, P is not a maximal ideal. In PID, every prime ideal is maximal and vice versa. In fact, if R is an
integral domain that is not a field, for example Z, then (0) is a prime ideal that is not maximal.
A Homomorphic Image Need Not be an Ideal. Z Q.
An Additive Group Homomorphism that is Not a Ring Homomorphism.
The derivative map D : R[x] R[x]. We have D(f + g) = D(f ) + D(g) but D(f g) = gD(f ) + f D(g).
A Multiplicative Group Homomorphism that is Not a Ring Homomorphism.
Let f : R R be f (x) = x2 .
The Unique Ring Homomorphism from R to R. The identity.
A Commutative Ring with Infinitely Many Units. Z[ 2].
A Noncommutative Ring with Infinitely Many Units. M2 (Z).
A Non-Dedekind Domain.
The ring Z[ 3] is a subring of A Q( 3) = Z[(1 + 3)/2]. This is not Dedekind since it is not
integrally closed.
A Dedekind Domain which is Not a UFD. Z[ 5].
This is a ring of integers in Q( 5). We have
the non-unique factorization 6 = 2 3 = (1 + 5)(1 5).
A UFD which is Not Dedekind. k[x, y]. The Krull-dimension of this ring is 2.
A UFD which is Not a PID. Z[x]. Since Z is UFD, Z[x] is a UFD. However, this is not PID because
(x, 2) is not principal.
A PID which is Not a ED.
The ring of integers in Q( 19). This is Z[(1 + 19)/2].
A Ring R such R.
Q that R = R
Let R = i=1 Z. Then R = R R by the following isomorphism:
f :RRR
defined by
f (x1 , x2 , ) = ((x1 , x3 , ), (x2 , x4 , )) .
A Commutative Ring with 4 Elements that is Not Isomorphic to Z/4Z or Z/2Z Z/2Z.
x 0
The matrices over Z/2Z = GF(2). This is isomorphic to GF(2)[x]/(x2 ) by
y x
1 0
7 1 + (x2 ),
0 1
0 0
7 x + (x2 ).
1 0
This is not isomorphic to Z/4Z since the characteristic is not 4. This is not isomorphic to Z/2Z Z/2Z
since this ring has two solutions in x2 = 0.
Another example is the 4-element subring of Z/16Z, where the multiplication of any pair is zero.
A Commutative Ring with Identity that the Converse of CRT Holds.
Let R be a commutative ring with identity. The converse of CRT is:
If I, J are ideals with I + J 6= R, then
R/I J
6 R/I R/J.
=
Z, F [x] where F is a field. Further, any Dedekind Domain.
A Commutative Ring with Identity that the Converse of CRT does Not Hold.
R= I = J = (0). Then I + J 6= R and R/I J
Q
i=1 Z, and = R/I R/J.
A Commutative Ring with Identity that is Noetherian but not Artinian. Z, k[x].
A Commutative Ring with Identity that is neither Noetherian nor Artinian.
A the ring of algebraic integers, k[x1 , x2 , ] the ring of polynomials in infinitely many variables.
A Local Noetherian Ring. k[[x]] the formal power series ring over a field k.
This has a unique maximal ideal (x), and it is Noetherian by Hilberts Basis Theorem. Furthermore,
this is a DVR.
Integral Domains A, B which Contains a Field F but A F B is Not an Integral Domain.
Let A = B = GF(p)(X) and F = GF(p)(X p ). Then A and B are integral domains containing F , but
X 1 1 X A F B
is a nonzero element in A F B satisfying
(X 1 1 X)p = X p 1 1 X p = 0.
Hence, A F B is not an integral domain.
A Group Ring which is Not Semisimple.
k[x]/(xp 1) with k = GF(p). This is a group ring kG with a cyclic group G or order p. This is not
semisimple by Maschkes theorem. This is a local ring with maximal ideal I := ker(kG
k) = Rad(kG).
3 Fields
An Algebraically Closed Field of Finite Characteristic. GF(p).
An Infinite Field of Finite Characteristic. GF(p), GF(p)(x) the field of rational functions over GF(p).
A Real Transcendental Extension. Q Q().
1
A Real Field which is Not Totally Real. Q(2 ).
3
A Totally Real Field. Q( 2).
p
A Normal Extension of a Normal Extension may Notbe Normal. Q Q( 2) Q( 2).
An Algebraic Extension of Infinite Degree. Q( 2, 3, 5, ) over Q, Q over Q, GF(p) over GF(p).
A Nontrivial Finite Extension that is Isomorphic to the Ground Field.
Let F = Q(x) and k = Q( x). Then k is a degree-2 extension of F . However, they are isomorphic.
A Finite Extension which Contains Infinitely Many Subextensions.
1 1
Let p be a prime. Let F = GF(p)(x, y) and k = GF(p)(x p , y p ). For any f (y) GF(p)(y),
1 1
K = F (x p f (y) + y p )
is a nontrivial subextension of k.
An Irreducible Polynomial f Q[x] with Reducible f Z/pZ[x] for Every p.
2
Let x4 + 1 Q[x]. If p = 2, then x4 + 1 = (x2 + 1)2 . If p 6= 2, then x4 + 1|x8 1|xp 1 1.
4 Modules
A Noetherian Module which is Not Artinian. Z-module Z.
An Artinian Module which is Not Noetherian. Z-module M = i
i=1 (p Z/Z).
A Free Module with Infinite Basis. Q-vector space R.
An Injective Module which is Not Torsion-Free. Z-module Q/Z
A Torsion-Free Module which is Not Flat.
Let R = k[x, y] and I = (x, y). Then I is a torsion-free R-module. This is not flat because
I I I R
is not injective. In fact, 0 6= x y y x Ker (I I I R).
A Projective Module which is Not Free.
Let R = Z/2Z Z/2Z, and consider Z/2Z (0) a submodule of R-module R. This is projective since
it is a direct summand of free module but it is too small to be free.
A Flat Module which is Not Projective. Z-module Q.
A Flat Module which is Neither Projective Nor Injective.
The Z-module Q Z. This is flat because it is a direct sum of flat modules. This is not projective
because of Q, not injective because of Z.
A Semisimple Module which is Not Simple. CS3 = C C M2 (C).
A Module which is Faithful and Flat, but Not Faithfully Flat. Z-module Q.