Chapter 4

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM)

4.1 Oscillations
Sound waves, light waves, earthquakes, pendulums, bridges, buildings,
cars, musical instruments, mobile phones, radios and televisions are some
of many examples of the importance of oscillations in nature.
Oscillations occur when something is displaced and that displacement
results in a restoring force that opposes the displacement. Simple Har-
monic Motion (SHM) is the simplest example of such behaviour and is
of huge importance across all of physics.

4.2 Mass on a spring

The archetypal oscillator is a mass m attached to a spring:

x
m
k
a
x=0 NB a defined to
point to +x so
that
The key property of springs is that they produce a force F that is linear a = d2 x/dt2 .
in the displacement x from their natural length, i.e.

33
CHAPTER 4. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) 34

F = kx,
where k is the spring constant that depends upon the strength of the
spring. The minus sign indicates that the force acts in the opposite
direction to the displacement.
Applying N2 , we have
F = ma = kx,
so
d2 x k
= x.
dt2 m
For reasons that will become clear, we will write this as

d2 x
2
+ 2 x = 0, (4.1)
dt
where we define
k
2 = .
m
: Greek
oh-may-gah,
Equation 4.1, the equation of SHM is one of the key equations of physics. not double-you
Also often see
x + 2 x = 0,
using Newtons dot notation for time derivatives (v = x, a = x).

4.3 Solving the SHM equation

You can if you
prefer integrate
Its easiest to solve the SHM equation by guesswork. Try x = A cos t, it as in the last
where A and are constants. Then chapter.
dx
x = = A sin t,
dt
and
x = A2 cos t.
Substitute into x + 2 x = 0:
A2 cos t + 2 A cos t = 0,
CHAPTER 4. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) 35

which is true if:

2 = 2 ,
or = . So = , but
x = A cos t, cos = cos(),
so it makes no
is a solution of the SHM equation. So is x = B sin t where B is another difference.
constant. In fact The sum of any
two solutions is
x = A cos t + B sin t also a solution
because Eq. 4.1
is the general solution of the SHM equation. is linear.
is the angular frequency in radians per unit time. The frequency f in
cycles per unit time is related to by

f= .
2
Finally the period T is given by

1 2
T = = .
f
The motion is periodic because x(t + nT ) = x(t) for any integer n since:

cos (t + nT ) = cos(t + nT ) = cos(t + 2n) = cos t.

An alternative version of the general solution is

x = A0 cos (t + ) ,
where A0 and are constants. In this case A0 is called the amplitude Be prepared to
while is called the phase angle. hear t +
referred to as
the phase.
CHAPTER 4. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) 36

Figure: A plot of A cos(t + ) with A = 1.15, = 1

(i.e. T = 2) and = 2.8, with key parameters indicated
graphically.

All forms of general solution of Eq. 4.1 involve two unknown constants.
This stems from the presence of the second derivative, leading to its
being termed a second order differential equation.

Example 4.1. Calculate the oscillation period when a mass of 0.1 kg is

attached to a spring with k = 100 N m1 .

Answer. Since 2 = k/m and T = 2/, then

r r
m 0.1
T = 2 = 2 = 0.199 s.
k 100

4.4 Initial conditions

The two undetermined constants (A and B, or A0 and ) reflect a true
freedom in the problem: we need more information to fix them. One way
is to know two parameters at t = 0. These are called initial conditions.

Example 4.2. A mass m = 2 kg is attached to a spring of strength

k = 8 N m1 . At t = 0, x = 2 m and x = 6 m s1 .
Find x as a function of t.
I will suppress
units for
simplicity
CHAPTER 4. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) 37

Answer. Again we start from general expressions for x and x:

x = A cos t + B sin t,
x = A sin t + B cos t.

Setting t = 0 and using the initial values given:

A = 2,
B = 6.

From earlier r r
k 8
= = = 2,
m 2
and so B = 3, leading to the final result:

x = 2 cos 2t + 3 sin 2t.

More complex conditions could work too, e.g. x at t = 1, x at t = 3.

4.5 Energy and SHM

The work you need to do to stretch a spring of constant k by x is
Z x
1
W = kx0 dx0 = kx2 .
0 2
Defining x = 0 as the zero potential, the potential energy of a spring Depends on x
can be written only:
conservative
1
U = kx2 .
2

If you see a parabolic potential ( x2 ), think SHM.

If a mass on a spring is executing SHM with x = A cos t, then

1
U = kA2 cos2 t.
2
CHAPTER 4. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) 38

On the other hand, the KE is given by

1 1 1
T = mx2 = m (A sin t)2 = mA2 2 sin2 t.
2 2 2
Remembering that 2 = k/m, then
1
T = kA2 sin2 t.
2
Thus the total energy
1
1
E = T + U = kA2 sin2 t + cos2 t = kA2 ,
2 2
a constant, as expected.
The energy sloshes back and forth between T and U , but they balance
on average, i.e.

1
hT i = hU i = kA2 .
4

4.6 SHM and complex exponentials

Trigonometric functions are closely connected to the exponential func-
tion: Eulers formula;
ei = cos + i sin , i2 = 1.

Using this, the general solution of the SHM equation in the form
x = A0 cos (t + ) ,
can also be written as
 
0 i(t+)
x = Re A e ,

where Re is the real part. This can also be written

x = Re A0 ei eit ,
 

and so, if we define a complex amplitude a by

a = A0 ei ,
CHAPTER 4. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) 39

we can write
x = Re aeit .

The modulus of a is the amplitude A0 of the oscillation, while its argu-

ment is the phase angle, .
We can often ignore the Re real part factor. In fact the complex
quantity
z = aeit ,
is itself a solution of
z + 2 z = 0,
because
z = (i)aeit = (i)z,
and so
z + 2 z = (i)2 z + 2 z = 0.

By now, you may be wondering but why complicate things??. The

benefit of the complex exponential approach comes once we consider
damped SHM and forced SHM.

4.7 Damped oscillations

Real oscillations do not last forever, but are damped by friction, viscosity,
air resistance and other energy loss mechanisms. Consider a viscously-
damped mass on a spring:

x=0
x
m
k
a
Figure: Mass attached to a spring and a viscous damper
mechanism
CHAPTER 4. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) 40

We assume viscosity opposes motion in proportion to the speed x. This

gives a force bx where b is a constant controlling the strength of the
damping ( since it always acts against the motion). Applying N2
mx = kx bx,
and so
mx + bx + kx = 0.
Dividing through by m, setting 2 = k/m as before, and defining

b
= ,
m
we obtain the equation of damped SHM:

x + x + 2 x = 0.

sin and cos are not solutions to this equation. Instead, motivated by the
exponentials that we saw above, lets first swap x for z (in anticipation
of complex solutions):
z + z + 2 z = 0,
and then try
z = aept ,
where a and p are constants. The derivative of this is easy:
z = paept = pz,
and similarly
z = p2 z.
Substituting this into the equation for damped SHM we then find
p2 + p + 2 z = 0.

Assuming that z 6= 0, we obtain a quadratic equation for p

p2 + p + 2 = 0,
with roots
r 
2
p= 2. (4.2)
2 2
CHAPTER 4. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) 41

4.8 The three regimes of damping

Different physical consequences arise according to the sign of the dis-
criminant (/2)2 2 .

< 2: light or under-damping.

> 2: heavy or over-damping.

= 2: critical damping.

4.8.1 Light damping

If < 2, it is better to write Eq. 4.2 as

r
2
 2
p= i .
2 2
Writing r  2
0
= 2
2
for short, and remembering the trial solution aept , then the solution is
(the real part of)
0
z = ae(/2i )t ,
which we can factor into
0
z = aet/2 ei t .

Writing a = |a|ei and taking the real part

x = |a|et/2 cos ( 0 t + ) .
This solution describes the case of light damping.
This is the first pay-off for adopting complex exponentials: it is hugely
easier to deal with aept in the original substitution than it is to deal with
the expression above.
Damping reduces the oscillation frequency from to 0 , and adds an
exponential decay term, et/2 . Writing the latter as et/(2/) , shows
CHAPTER 4. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) 42

that the amplitude decreases by 1/e in a time = 2/. The energy, which
scales as the square of the amplitude, drops by the same amount in time
= 1/.

Figure: Decaying oscillations of a lightly-damped oscilla-

tor.

4.8.2 Heavy damping

If > 2, then the system is said to be over-damped or heavily

damped. The solution is then the sum of two exponetials

x = aep1 t + bep2 t ,
where
r 
2
p1 = 2,
2 r 2
 2
p2 = + 2.
2 2
Both of these are negative, so these are decaying exponentials.
CHAPTER 4. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) 43

Figure: Heavily-damped SHM.

4.8.3 Critical damping

Critical damping is the case of = 2, when there is only one solution for
p = /2. It is of practical importance because critical damping ensures
the most rapid return to zero. It is thus used in car shock absorbers and
in scientific instruments.
Mathematically it presents a small problem. Taking the heavy damping
solution
x = aep1 t + bep2 t ,
and setting p1 = p2 = /2, we end up with

x = (a + b)et/2 = a0 et/2 ,

and we seem to have lost a degree of freedom.

With this solution we could never have x = 0 at t = 0, without x = 0
for all t, which makes no physical sense.
In fact it turns out that in this case tet/2 is also a solution, so that the Can show by
general solution takes the form substitution.

x = (a + bt)et/2 ,

where once again a and b are fixed by the initial conditions.

CHAPTER 4. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) 44

Figure: A mass on a spring is hit with a hammer at t = 0

when it is at x = 0, giving it a positive x-velocity. The
three curves show the responses under different levels of
damping, H(eavy), C(ritical) and L(ight). The critically
damped case is the fastest to return to converge back to
zero.

4.9 Forced oscillations

Consider applying an oscillating force F = F0 cos t to the damped mass
on a spring we had before:

mx + bx + kx = F0 cos t.

Dividing through by m, this equation is the real part of

F0 it
z + z + 02 z = e , (4.3)
m
if we set x = Re(z). A subscript 0 has been added to the natural
frequency of the oscillator 02 = k/m to distinguish it from the applied
angular frequency .
The system will oscillate at the applied frequency , so lets try NB: z = iaeit
is complex form
z = aeit , of velocity.

as a solution.
A bit of sleight of hand here: initially there will also be some damped
oscillations of the form discussed in the previous section (known as tran-
sients in electrical circuit theory), but they die away, leaving only a
CHAPTER 4. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) 45

solution of the form above. Mathematically, we are discussing here the

particular integral as opposed to the complementary function of free
oscillations. The general solution is a sum (or superposition) of each
type.
As before, z = (i)z, z = (i)2 z, so
F0 it
(i)2 z + (i)z + 02 z = e ,
m
or
F0
2 + i + 02 aeit = eit .


m
Therefore
F0 /m
a= .
(02 2 ) + i

What does the complex a mean? Writing

a = |a|ei ,

the complex solution becomes

z = |a|ei(t+) ,

the real part of which is the physical solution:

x = Re(z) = |a| cos (t + ) .

Thus a being complex translates to the system responding with a phase

offset relative to the applied force, F0 cos t.
The amplitude modulus |a| and phase are given by Justify these for
yourself.
F0 /m
|a| = q ,
2
(02 2 ) + ()2
and

tan = .
02 2
CHAPTER 4. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) 46

For = 0,
F0 F0
|a| = |a|0 = = ,
m02 k
(since 02 = k/m). This is just the response of a spring to a steadily
applied force. Scale overall response relative to this value:

|a| 02
=q .
|a|0 2 2 2 2
(0 ) + ()

Figure: Left: amplitude versus driving frequency. Right:

phase angle versus frequency. A negative angle means
the displacement lags behind the driving force.
Key features:

1. The amplitude varies with , and peaks close to the natural fre-
quency 0 for lightly-damped systems. This is resonance.
2. The system responds in phase ( = 0) at very low frequencies
(  0 ). As increases, < 0, so x lags the applied force.
= 90 for = 0 , and 180 (anti-phase) as .
3. The width of the resonance peak at half its maximum height Full
Width at Half Maximum (FWHM) when plotted in terms of en-
ergy ( |a|2 ) is .
4. For strong resonances, the peak response |a|/|a|0 0 /. Ratio
of natural frequency to FWHM. Known as the quality- or Q-
factor: Q = 0 /.
CHAPTER 4. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) 47

Examples: human voice, hairs of inner ear, radio and TV tuners, ocean
tides, earthquake damage, musical instruments, colours, lasers, . . . Ultra-high
Q = 1011 lasers
The phenomenon of resonance is important for tides. e.g. the tidal range
around the British Isles reaches 15 m compared to 0.6 m in the open
ocean.
It is also significant in earthquakes when sometimes short and tall build-
ings can be left standing while ones of intermediate height with unlucky
natural frequencies are destroyed.

4.10 Pendulums and SHM

T
a

m
s
mg

Figure: A simple pendulum

NB a defined to
point to +.
Consider a mass m suspended on a string of length `, displaced an angle
from the vertical. Resolving in the direction of a to eliminate the
unknown string tension T :

F = ma = mg sin .

Here a = d2 s/dt2 , but since s = `, we find

d2
m` = mg sin ,
dt2
or
d2 g
= sin ,
dt2 `
CHAPTER 4. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION (SHM) 48

the equation of motion of a simple pendulum.

The sin makes this hard to solve, but since
1 3 1 5
sin = + ...,
3! 5!
then for small , the higher order terms can be neglected and sin
so NB Different
d2 g physics, but
, same maths.
dt2 `
which is the equation of SHM with
g
2 = .
`
This leads to the equation for the period of a simple pendulum:
s
l
T = 2 .
g

This is one of the most well-known equations in physics. Its an easy one
to test yourself: tie a heavy object to some string, time its oscillation
period for different l, plot T 2 versus l which should be a straight line of
gradient 4 2 /g. Keep the amplitude small.