Complex.

nb 1

COMPLEX NUMBERS

Consider the quadratic equation;

x2 1
0

It has no solutions in the real number system since

    

x2  

1 or x   1  j

   1
   ie. j2 

Similarly x 2 

16  0 gives x     16
     

or x     16
       


   1
     4j

Powers of j
j   


   1
  

j2 


j3  j 2. j 


j4  j.j 3  j   j  ! j2 1

j5 j4j j

j6 j 4. j 2 j2

j7 j 4. j 3 j3

Clearly all the powers of j can be described by j, j 2 , j 3 , j 4.

e.g. j 2307 "

j 2304. j 3
576.
j4 j
& '

%
# $

j
'

)
Complex.nb 2

General form of complex numbers

Consider now the quadratic equation

x2 b2


2x 10
0 

4 ac 

2   4

40

x 
                                  


2   


   36      

                              

2
2 6


          

j
2  2

 

1  3j

This leads us t oa general form for complex numbers

z a bj 
 a and b are real
a real part of z   Re z
 

b  imaginary part of z Im z   

In the previous example;

roots  z

1 ! 3 j,

hence a " # 1, b " $ 3

For complex numbers :

3 2 j, % & 4, 2 & 7 j, 16 j are all special cases

a % bj is purely real if b 0 , a . ' ( ) *

a + bj is purely imaginary if a 0 , bj . , - . /
Complex.nb 3

Basic Rules of algebra :

Consider : z1 a1 b1 j,

z2 a2 b2 j



Sum : z1 

z2 


a1 
a2  


b1 
b2 j 

Difference : z1 
z2 
a1 
a2

b1 
b2 j

Example :
for : z1 
3 
4 j and : z2  
4 
7j

z1 
z2 
3  
4

 
4

7 j
 
1 3j


z1 
z2 
3  
4

 
4

7 j

7 11 j


Product : z1. z2 
a1 b1 j a2 b2 j







a1 a2 a1 b2 j b1 a2 j b1 b2 j2   


a1 a2 b1 b2 a1 b2 a2 b1 j 
 

Example :
if z1 
2 
3 j and z2  
1 
j find z1 2 z2 
1

z1 2 z2 1 2 z1 z2 z1


2 2 3 2 3 j 2 
         3j
2 1 5j 2 3j 

    

4 7j 


Complex.nb 4

Complex Conjugate :
For any complex number a bj there corresponds a complex number

a
bj

obtained by changing the sign of the "imarigary part".

a  bj is the Complex Conjugate of a  bj.

Notation :
If z a bj then z
 

  a  bj

_
Clearly z z 2a


and z z 2 bj,
 

1 _  

hence


a z z Re z


  

1 
_  

b 
    

z  z Im z  

Also zz    a  bj  a bj !

 a2 j2 b2 , ! 

hence zz   a2  b2 ,
Complex.nb 5

Quotient :
z1

To find where z1 a1 b1 j,
z2

z2  a2 b2 j

       
z1 z1 z2 
z1 z2 
a1 b1 j
 a2  b2 j
                                                                           
         
z2 z2 z2 z2 z2 a2  b2 j a2  b2 j

 

a1 a2  b1 b2  b1 a2  a1 b2 j
                                                                    
a2 2  b2 2 j2



a1 a2  b1 b2 a2 b1  a1 b2 j
                                                             

a2 2  b2 2 a2 2  b2 2

Complex number in general form

z1
NB : to find the quotient         in general a  bj form we multiply above
z2
and below by the complex conjugate of the denominator
 
ie. by z2

Equality
Let z1  a1  b1 j
and z2  a2  b2 j

then z1  z2 when a1  a2 and b1  b2

ie Re  z1   Re  z2 
and Im  z1   Im  z2 

Complex Number zero :

0 0j  a 0 and b 0! ie. both real part and imaginary
part are zero.
Example :
find the real numbers " and # such that z1 $ z2 % 0,
given that z1 & 3' ( j and z2 ) * + 5 j.

z1 , z2 - 3 . / 0 1 2 3 54 j 5 0 if 3 6 7 8 0 or 7 8 9 3
and : 9 5 ; 0 or < = 5
Complex.nb 6

For complex numbers, z1 , z2 and z3 :

Commutative property :
z1 z2

z2 
z1 and z1 z2 
z2 z1

Associative property :
z1 z2 z3 z1 z2 z3 and


      

z1 z2 z3 z1 z2 z3
  

Distributive property :
z1 z2 
z3  
z1 z2 
z2 z3

Geometrical Representation:
A complex number a b j can be represented either as a point a, b
 

or as a position vector of a, b in the x y plane complex plane

   

or z plane. 

x axis is called real axis

y axis is called imaginary axis.

This geographical representation is called Argand Diagram

Example :

Modulus of a complex number

Let z 

a  bj, the modulus of z is denoted by z and  

                     

z a2 b2


 

  

Example : For z 

3  4j

2
32
   ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !

z " # $

4 %

& ' (

9 ( ( ( (

)
( ( ( (

16 ( ( ( ( (

* + (

25
( ( ( ( ( (

z length of the vector for z and is always 0

, , -

Also zz / 0 1 a 2bj a 3 4 5 bj 6

a2 b2 8

7 9

z 2 9
Complex.nb 7

Polar form of z
Point x, y represents z
 x  yj, where x  r cos , y   r sin 

thus z  r cos  j r sin

r cos  j sin    This is called the polar form of z

Here x2 y2


r            


        


 
 

z 

is called the "argument of z" denoted by arg z



 

The  arg z is not unique since

   2k ! k an integer produces
"

another value of arg z.

However # $ % & ' ( gives the principle value of arg z .

x
23 4

Clearly r2 )

x2 *

y2 and + , tan -
1 ./0

0
1 1 1 1 1

x x
Also cos 5 6
7 7 7 7 7

6
7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7

r
8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

x2 y2
:

; <

y y
sin = >
? ? ? ? ? ?

A
? ? ? ?

B
?

B
?

B
?

B
?

B
?

B
?

B B
? ?

B B
? ?

B
? ?

B
?

B
? ?

B B
?

B
?

B
?

B
? ?

B
?

B
?

B
? ? ?

r @
C

x2 D

y2 E
Complex.nb 8

Determination of pricipal
Argument of z :
   

1. z  x  jy in first quadrant x  0, Y 0

x
 

1
arg z
 

   tan 



    

 
0   
     

y 2


Example : determine the modulus and argument of

z  32j

r  z ! 3 " 2j #

$ % &

32 & & & & & &

'
& & & &

22
& & & & &

( ) * *

13 * * * * * *

2
56 7

7 8

1
arg z tan 0.588 radians
+ ,

123

4 4 4 4 4

- . / 0

2. z 9 x : zy in second quadrant x ; < 0, y = 0 >

x
JK L

1
arg z tan ,
? @ P Q R

FGH

I I I I I N N N N N

A B C D E M

y 2 O

Example : Determine S z and arg z for z S T U V W 1 X j

r Y Z z Z [

Z \ 1 ] j ^

12 12
b b

_ ` a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a

c d

e f g

2
g g g

1
jkl op q

l q r

1 1
r

Since tan tan 1

r

r
m m m m m m m m w w w w w

h t u v

1 4
r

rr

ii

thus x y arg z z { | } ~

rad.
4 4
Complex.nb 9

3. z x zy in third quadrant x 0, y 0 :

   

x


1
arg z tan ,
 

         

 
  

       

y 2

Example
Determine the polar form of complex number

z   


   6   
 

2 j

r ! " z "

# $ % & '

6
' ' ' % & '

2 j ' ' ' $

+ , -

2
( ) * * * * * * * *

62
* * * * *

.
* * *

/
* * * * *

0
* *

1
* * *

2
* * * *

3
*

2
3
*

3
*

3
* *

4
* * * *

5 6 7

8
7 7 7

1
x 1
2
Also tan 8
9:;

;
< < < < <

tan A
BCD

D
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H

y
D

=> ?

? @
D E

I
F

J
G

6 G

K
G

K
G

LM N

1
1
O

tan P
QRS

S
T

U
T T T T

V
T

V
T

V
T T

V
T T

SS

3 WX Y

YY

\
[

\ \ \ \

rad.
6
Complex.nb 10

Example : Verify the inequailities

z1

z2   
z1    
z 

Triangle inequality 

5   2
  

Also  z1 
z2   
2  5j 

  

29
     

5    2      z !

1 "
z2 #

$ % &

29 & & & & & &

Polar form of z :

5 5
12 3 ;< =

3 4 = >

/ 9

z ' ( ) 8 cos
) ) ) * +,-

- .
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

j sin 567

7 8
: : : : : : : : :

6 6

5 5
HI J QR S

J K S T

F O

? @ A

8 cos
A A A

B CDE

E
G G G G G G G G G

j sin LMN

N
P P P P P P P P P

6 6

4. z U x V jy in fourth quadrant W x X Y , y Z 0 : [

x
def hi j

f j k

1
k

arg z tan 0
k
\ ]

g g g g g n n n n n

k
^ _ ` a b

y 2
k

kk

o p q
l

cc

Example : find the priciple argument of z r 1 s j.

x
{|} 

1
arg z tan

~ ~ ~ ~ ~

r
u v w x y

zz

1
tan

1
tan 1

rad.
4
Complex.nb 11

Exponential form of z :
Recall refer to "Tables of mathmatical formulas"

x2 x3 x4
ex 

1  x 
       


       


       


...
2  3  4 

Let x  j
j  


1 

2 

3 

4
j
j   j   j  

e  

1  j  
 


                                             

...
2   3   4  


2 
4 %

3 %

5


1                

... j !"
& & & & & & & & & & & & & & & &

... )* +

2 4 3 5
"
+

"
+

" # $
+

 
' ( ' (
   

cos - . jsin /

Thus z 0 r 1 cos 2 3 jsin 2 4 has a new form

z 5 r ej 6

the exponential form

Complex.nb 12

Important Points :
1. For the correct value in exponential form must be
in radians not in degrees.

2. Negative
is measured in the clockwise direction.

Replacing  by   in

ej  
cos   jsin

j 
we get e
cos     sin     ,

or ej  
cos   jsin 

3. ej and e  j
are complex cojugates hence

z  rej and z re ! j"

Consider ej" # cos $ % & ' sin ( ) * and

e + j, -
cos . / 0 1 sin 2 3 4

Adding and substracting

ej 5 1 e6 j5 7
2 j sin 3

gives two important results :

1 ;
cos 8 9 : : : :: ej < =
e> j? @

2
1 D
sin A B C C C CC ej E F
eG jH I

Log of complex numbers :

Let z rej 2 k J
K L M N O P
k Q 0, 1, 2, ... R

ln z S ln T rej U V W 2 kX Y Z
[
ln r \ j ] ^ _ 2 k ` a ln e
b
ln r c j d e c 2 k f a

The principal value of ln z is ln z g ln r h ji j k g 0k

Example :
opn o o o
Principal value of ln 2 ej l
m
4 q
2 kr s t

is ln 2 u j w v w w ww 0.693 y 0.785 j
4 x
Complex.nb 13

Multiplication in polar form

Let z1 r1 cos  1  j sin  1 
z2  r2  cos  2  j sin  2 

then

z1 z2  r1 r2  cos  1  j sin  1   cos  2  j sin  2 

 r1 r2 cos
1 cos  2  sin 1 sin 2
 j  sin  1 cos  2  cos  1 sin  2 
 r1 r2  cos   1   2   jsin   1   2 

 r1 r2 e  j  1 ! 2"

Similarly
z1 r1 &
#### ### %%%% %%% cos '( 1 ) * 2 + , jsin - . 1 / . 20 1
z2 $ r2

2 3 3 3 r3 3 13 3 e 4 j5 16 7 28
r2

Clearly

9 9 : : ; <
z1 z2 r1 r2 z=
>?> z2 @@@1
@@@
@@
A B EEE G H H
D D D D D D D D D D zD D D CD D D 1D D EEE
EE D D D rD D 1D D D D G D D D D H D D D zD D D ID D D1D D D HD D
z2 F r2 F zI 2

and arg z1 z2
F J 1 K L 2 M arg z1 K arg z2

arg N N N zN N 1N N N 1 Q R 2 S arg z1 Q arg z2

z2 O P

Example :
for z1 T 2 U cos W V W W W j sin Z YZ Z Z [
4 X 4
[
and z2 \ 3 ] cos _ ^ _ _ _ j sin _ ^ _ _ _
3 ` 3

z1 z2 \ 2a 3 b cos c e d e e e e de e e j sin i k j k k k k kk k
4 f 3g h 4 l 3 m n o
wx y z 7 ~
p 3 q cos rst v 7v v v uv v v j sin {|}       
12 12

z
1
and 2 cos
z2 3 12

j sin
Complex.nb 14

De Moivre ' s Theorem :

r1 ej

If z1 1

z2 
r2 ej 

zn 
rn ej 

then
..
z1 z2 zn 
r1 r2 rn ej 1  

  2    n

r1 r2 rn cos 

1   2 
.   n  

j sin  

1 


2 
. 


n  

Set z1 
z2 . ..  
zn 
z 
r ej  

r cos    j sin  

then, zn 

rn cos j sin n ! " ! #

n jn
$

r e %

rn cos n j sin n ! " ! #

Set r $

1 to give De Moivre' s Theorem

&

n
cos ' ( j sin ) *
+ ,

cos n - . j sin n / 0

Application :
If 1 z 1 2 1 then z 3 cos 4 5 j sin 4 3 ej 6

1 8
1 cos 9 ;
j sin <

7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =

z cos 9 : j sin 9 cos <

; j sin <

>
cos <
;
j sin <

= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =

2
cos2 < ?
sin <

>
cos <
;
j sin <

= = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = = =

j
>

e @
A

Hence zn B

ejn A
B

cos n C D j sin n C

n jn
and z @
B

e @
A
B

cos n C E j sin n C

Adding and subtracting gives

1
2 cos n C
B

zn D
F F F F F F F

zn
1
and 2 j sin n C
B

zn E
F F F F F F F

zn
Complex.nb 15

Example : Evaluate


3
i
cos 


   

j sin 


   

6  6 

25
ii
 1  j
,

1

iii

.
8
 1  j

Solution : By De Moivre ' s Theorem

3 

i   cos 


   

j sin 


   

cos 3 



   

j sin 3 



   

6  6  6   6

cos 



   

j sin 



   

2 
2

0 j


Let z j, then
"

ii # $ 1 % r $ & z & ' ( ) 2 ) ) )

1
and * + arg z + tan ,
-

/
.

/ / / /

25
Thus z25 0 1 2 3

2 3 3 3

4 cos 6

5
6 6 6 6

j sin 9

8
9 9 9 9

4 7 4 : :

25 25
HI J

25 @AB

B
C F
J

; < = >

2
> > >

? cos D D D D D D D D D D D D

j sin G G G G G G G G G G G G

4 E 4

25 U

2 cos 6 j sin 6
L L L L L L L

2 M M

N O
Q

P
Q Q Q Q

T U
V V V V V

4 R S S 4 R R

212 X Y

2 Y Y Y

Z cos \

[
\ \ \ \

j sin _

^
_ _ _ _

4 ] 4 `

qr s s

1 1
s s

s s

12
ss ss

tu

2 b c

2 c c c

def

f
g

h
g g g g

i
g

i
g

i
g g

i
g g

j klm

m
n

o
n n n n

p
n

p
n

p
n

p
n n n

f m

ff

2 j
mm

212 1 w

x j y

Set z j thus from ii

z

iii y { 1 | } ~ r  z 2

1
and arg z tanh

1 8
8
Thus

z 2 cos

j sin

z8

4 4
Complex.nb 16

8 8
   

     8 



 


  

2   cos


 
        

j sin 

 
        

4 4

1


cos 2 " # j sin 2 $ %

24 !

&
1
' ' ' ' ' ' '

16

Powers of cos ( and sin (

:

6
1 1
012 56 7

2 7 8

Example : cos6 ) * + ,-.

.
/ / / / /

z 3
4 4 4 4 4

2 z

Binomial expansion gives

1
cos6 9 :

; ; ; ; ; ; ;

z6 =

6 z4 =

15 z2 =

20 =

15 z >
2 ?

6z @
4 A

z @
6 B

26 <

1 1 1 1
KL M TU V ]^ _

M N V W _

E FGH

z6 6 z4 15 z2
H

D D D D D D D
I

J J J J J J J

OPQ
R

S S S S S S S

XYZ
[

\ \ \ \ \ \ \
[

20 `

z6 z4 z2
Q Z

64

1
a

b b b b b b b

2 cos 6 d e 12 cos 4 f e 30 cos 2 f e 20 g

64 c

1 3 15 5
h

i i i i i i i

cos6 j k
i i i i i i i

cos 4 j k
i i i i i i i

cos 2 j k
i i i i i i i

32 16 32 16
Complex.nb 17

Example : Express cos 6 and sin 6 in terms of cos
and sin

1
Example :
     

Sketch z 
    

3  j on an Argand Diagram


2
24
and evaluate z

 
3

1

z          

1  1
4  4      

arg z  



   

Polar form of z is

z  1  cos  



   

j sin 
"

!
" " " "

6   6 # #

cos "

!
" " " "

j sin "

!
" " " "

6 6

j
e
' ' ' '

%
6
&

24 j 24
ej 4
0

Hence z e cos 4 j sin 4 1

- - - -

6
) *
, 1 2

. /

+ 3 4 5 6
Complex.nb 18

Roots of complex numbers :

Recall de Moivre' s theorem;

For

z r cos j sin    

zn rn cos n  

 j sin n


fFor any value of n integer or fraction, positive or negative 

This is a very important result.

When n is a fraction we are finding roots of complex numbers

Consider wn 

z  integer 

The n different solutions w0 , w1, w 2, , ..., wn 

1 of this equation
are the ' nth roots of z' denoted by

n 1
    

z or zn
   

Let z 

r cos j sin     

and w cos j sin      !

Equation wn "

n
gives #
$

cos n % & j sin n ' ( ) r cos * + , j sin - .

Equality of two complex numbers in polar form means that;

their modulus are equal

/

i 0

1
n
i.e. r or rn
4 4 4 4

2 2

1 3

their arguments, arg wn and arg z may differ by a

5

ii 6

multiple of 2 , say 2 k , 7 7

k 0, 1, 2. .. 8

Thus n 9 : ; < 2k =

2k =

or > ?
B

@
B B B B

A
B B B B B B B B B B B B B B B

, k C 0, 1, 2, ..., n D 1
n

all other choicesof k duplicate the values of

E

F G

Thus nth roots of z, w0 , w1, w 2, , ..., wn H

1 are given by

2k 2k
ST U ^_ `

1
U V ` a

Q \

wk rn
J J J J J J

I
K

cos LMN

N
R

O
R R R R

P
R R R R R R R R R R R R R R R

j sin WXY

Y
]

Z
] ] ] ]

[
] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ] ]

n n

1 2k
r n exp j
g

k 0, 1, 2. .., n 1
c c c c c c h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h h

n
d e f

j k
Complex.nb 19

Example : Find all the cube roots of 8

Set z


8,
then r
 

8  

8,
arg   8

Hence  8  8 cos   j sin  

1 1 2k
8 3 expj


and 8
                       

  
3 
 

2k 2k
&' ( 12 3

( ) 3 4

3 
$ /

  

8
  

cos !

!
%

"
% % % %

#
% % % % % % % % % % % % % % %

j sin *+,

,
0

-
0 0 0 0

.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

3 3

k 5 0, 1, 2 6 since n 7 3 8

There are 3 cube roots of w3 9

z 9 :

Thus the 3 cube roots of z ; < 8 are

w0 ; 2 cos =
?

>
? ? ? ?

j sin B

A
B B B B

3 @ 3 C

1 3
D

2 EFG
H H H H H

j L

J
L L L L

K
L

K
L

K
L L

K
L L

2 2
G

N O

1 Q R S 3 j S S S

w1 T
2 cos U V W j sin V X

2 Z [ 1 \ 0 ]

[ 2

5 5
gh i

b e

w2 ^

2 cos _`a

a
c c c c c c c c c

j sin f f f f f f f f f

3 d 3

1 3
j

2 klm
n n n n n

j r

p
r r r r

q
r

q
r

q
r r

q
r r

2 2
m

t u

1 w x y 3 j
y y y
Complex.nb 20

2   

3
   

w0 , w1, w2 are equally spaced radians 120 apart on circle of radius 2



 8 ,
3
centered at 0, 0

2 n
For wn


z roots are spaced by

rad and lie on a circle of radius   r

  

Example : Find the values of j 3


2   

2
There are two ways depending upon how you express j 3
   

2 1 1
j2
   

3


i j3 1
       

3


  

 

 

i.e find 3 cube roots of  1

2 1 2
i.e find the 3 cube roots of j


ii j3 j3
# # # #

! " $

and square them .

Here it appears sensible to use method i % &

polar form of
'

i &
( 1:

r ) * + 1 , - 1 and . / arg 0 1 1 2 3 4

1
wk 1
9 9 9 9

8
3
5 6 7

2k 2k
FG H QR S

H I S T

3 =>? ?
D O

: ; <

1
< < <
?

cos ?

@A
E
B

E E E E
C

E E E E E E E E E E E E E E E

j sin JKL

L
P

M
P P P P

N
P P P P P P P P P P P P P P P

3 3
k U 0, 1, 2

b c c c c

1 3
w0 U cos V
X

W
X X X X

j sin [
]

\
] ] ] ] ` ` ` ` ` d d d d d d d d d d d

j
3 Y Z 3 ^ _ 2 a 2

w1 e
cos f g j sin f

e h
1

~    

5 5 1 3
op q xy z

q r z {

m v

w2 i
cos jkl

l
n n n n n n n n n

j sin stu

u
w w w w w w w w w | | | | |

j
3 3 2 } 2

Exercise : Solve the equation

3
w2 j