Challenges and

way forward in
the urban sector
Sustainable Development
in the 21st century (SD21)
Challenges and
way forward in
the urban sector
Sustainable Development
in the 21st century (SD21)
This study is part of the Sustainable Development in the
21st century (SD21) project. The project is implemented
by the Division for Sustainable Development of the United
Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs and
funded by the European Commission Directorate-
General for Environment Thematic Programme for
Environment and sustainable management of Natural
Resources, including energy (ENRTP).

The study was done by Kaarin Taipale (CKIR, Aalto

University School of Economics, under the supervision
of David Le Blanc (UN-DESA). Claire Fellini (UN-DESA)
prepared the manuscript for posting. The author extends
her warmest thanks to the experts who provided inputs
for this study, including Priyanka Kochar, Patricia Kranz,
Ashok Lall, Steffen Lehmann, Noel Morrin, Chrisna du
Plessis, AbdouMaliq Simone, Sanjivi Sundar, Beate
Weber, Wayne Wescott, Zhiqiang Wu and Annemie
Wyckmann.

This publication has been produced with the assistance of

the European Union. The contents of this publication are
the sole responsibility of the United Nations Department
of Economic and Social Affairs and can in no way be
taken to reflect the views of the European Union.
Executive summary of the city. It builds on an inclusive and holistic

Executive Summary
vision, applies integrated planning and transparent
Urban issues have risen high on many agendas governance, and monitors implementation rigorously.
that deal with global questions. Most of the worlds Even a huge amount of excellent but disconnected
resources are consumed in cities, where the majority pieces does not make a well functioning whole.
of people live. It has become obvious that the value Because money is not going to stop talking, its
of a single green building or eco-labeled product is language will have to become sustainability. A locally
marginal if it is not supported by sustainable urban rooted, democratized culture of sustainability has to be
infrastructure and a culture of sustainability. the foundation of urban development.

In all fairness, cities are at different stages in their Recommendations: Ten steps on the way
development, and many of them in the global South forward
have to struggle with enormous growth rates and
immigration. Some urban areas in the North have It would be misleading to categorize conclusions
opposite challenges of negative growth after old or recommendations according to region or level of
industries have died out or left. development. Cities in the North keep learning from
cities in the South Curitiba and Porto Alegre as prime
Inequity and segregation seem to be common examples. In most major cities, the developed and the
challenges to cities all over the world. Urban inequity developing world coexist in some form, creating the
and segregation are also an indication of global tensions of segregation and the challenge of inclusion.
inequity. While more and more cities want to focus Inclusion is not a separate issue but an approach that
on services and hi-tech, the dirty work of the world has to be taken when decisions about governance,
remains to be done in the poorest cities with the most participation, public transport and urban infrastructure
meager resources to develop. are prepared and made.

Cities compete with each other globally trying to please One of the most decisive factors that puts cities in
investors. There is hardly any municipality that does not different categories is their ability to access financing,
in its official strategy claim that sustainability is one of its be it by collecting taxes and fees for service, getting a
key targets. However, it is a totally different story if one share of tax income from their national governments,
asks into what actions this declaration translates. or by being able to issue municipal bonds or get
low-interest loans on international money markets.
Yes, sustainability criteria may be used at the City That is where their attitude to traditional versus high
Hall when envelopes are purchased but what is technology or commercial versus non-market solutions
the point if every other product and service is the becomes significant: are cities able to come up with
outcome of an unsustainable process? Yes, there is innovative solutions that do not depend on the most
a Dow Sustainability Index but what use is it if not expensive technology and maintenance requirements?
all companies, investments and financing support The development of the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) model
sustainability? Yes, there may be a solar panel here in Curitiba, instead of a traditional subway system
and there, but zero emissions mean nothing less than requiring heavy investments, is a prime example.
100% renewable energy. Yes, there may be tree-lined
roads but as long as the pedestrian is not the king of 1. Vision: Inclusive and locally rooted visions
the street, the city is not sustainable! of 21st century cities for all

The process towards sustainable cities starts with There is no one top-down solution to urban
profound analyses of the past and present culture sustainability but a wealth of bottom-up approaches

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector iii

instead. One of the strengths of cities in both poor and Cities all over the world need inclusive pro-poor
wealthier countries is the initiative and inventiveness strategies and guidelines enabling innovative
of their citizens. Seizing this opportunity requires local solutions. If the city is good for its weakest
critical rethinking, application of innovative non-market citizen a child, an aged person, a new immigrant,
solutions and the active involvement of all those a handicapped person, it is going to be good for
concerned. everyone else, too. Integration and inclusion have to be
on top of the urban sustainability agenda.
One-way information does not fulfil the contemporary
requirement for the quality standards of citizen Sustainable development has to be democratized
involvement. People have to be given the possibility at the local level in every country.
to become the key resource of cities. Citizen need a Existing methods of citizen participation, such as
supporting infrastructure: places for people to meet participative budgeting, should be used in every
and get organized, an attentive media to communicate city, selecting the locally most appropriate tools
their concerns, and tools, processes and channels and most urgent issues.
to create initiatives and communicate. Some cities New methods of inclusion should be developed
are fortunate to have visionary leaders for one or and disseminated among cities.
two electoral periods, while most cities cannot wait
for enlightened leadership but have to establish Goals:
permanent solutions of public participation.
2. Towards a culture of sustainability
Methods and processes exist already, very similar in
developing and developed countries, and are ready The cities that come up with interesting pilot projects
to be applied: participatory budgeting, stakeholder dont do it by chance. In many cases they have a
forums, popular votes on urban issues, user co- long history of trial and error behind them think of
creation of basic services, e-participation, or kiosks Barcelona that has worked consistently since the
for basic services, information and internet access 1970s. The profile of a city cannot be upheld with
for example. The right to participate is not linked individual projects any more but every decision should
to the home address only, does not concern only be weighed on the scale of sustainability.
geographical communities but also communities of
old or young people, pedestrians or bus drivers, street Cities should be patient in developing a culture of
vendors and restaurant owners. sustainability and transformation, which is based
on a continuous analysis of their local identity and
The urban agenda will have to democratize sustainable history.
development further. This can only happen at the local
level. After the success of Local Agenda 21, at some 3. Integrated planning of sustainable urban
point the sustainability agenda has been hijacked by infrastructures
civil servants as if it was only a matter of finding the
most appropriate technical solutions, and cornered to An integrated approach is the only way to avoid
the cities environmental departments. The next urban decisions being prepared under wrong assumptions:
agenda has to be more inclusive, both in terms of the prevailing preference of an economic view has
participants and issues. Social and budgetary agendas to be replaced by a sustainable one, which includes
have to be integral parts of it. Economic questions must ecological and social considerations and mid- and
not be left to economists only but the financial decisions long-term thinking. Only if potential impacts of
have to fulfill sustainability criteria, too. decisions are broadly assessed, will the development
of cities become sustainable step by step. To achieve

iv Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

this, both the administration and political decision and maintenance needs capacity building in ones

Executive Summary
making have to work across sectors. Free access to own language. Only reliable, comparable facts-based
public data is an essential prerequisite for integrated information is useful. Institutions and tools for data
planning, and not just data and access, but the collection and platforms to share it need to become
possibility to look for specific information and trends. stronger.

In an ideal world urban planning starts at the regional National and international research institutes and
and metropolitan scale and proceeds from larger scale their networks have to be commissioned to create
down to neighborhood scale. No development, no databases, benchmarks, a set of core criteria
construction, in particular no infrastructure investment and targets, as well as to monitor and report
should be permitted without adherence to approved about progress to national platforms of urban
larger scale plans. For the approval of planning information sharing that should be established in
documents, there has to be a transparent process, every country.
where the roles of different institutions, stakeholders,
experts and decision makers are clearly defined. 6. Appropriate mandates and financing at all
levels of government
The use of instruments for integrated
urban planning and sustainability impact Governance for an urban culture of sustainability is not
assessments (SIA) should be mandatory at possible without local power to decide and financing
national and local levels. to support it. Cities and metropolitan regions are
two among all levels of government. Decentralization
Principles for action: has to delegate appropriate mandates and secure
financial resources to the relevant levels. About issues
4. Valuing local skills and non-market based that cross city borders in an area, networked cities
solutions have to recentralize the decision making power to
institutions of metropolitan governance.
Many technological innovations and modern solutions
The local level is the level closest to people,
tend to be short-lived, difficult to maintain and repair,
their needs and their knowledge. It is the level of
and costly. Cities and the built environment need
implementation of sustainable development policies
solutions that have been adapted to local climate,
in the form of urban infrastructure, basic services
materials and handicraft skills, maintenance capacities
and land use and mobility planning. Taxation, cross-
and culture. Heavy infrastructure and the latest
subsidies and user fees at local, metropolitan and
technology is not necessarily the best solution.
national level can support sustainable development
and curb unsustainable consumption, if they are
National and local standards for buildings and
designed with these goals in mind.
infrastructure should encourage and incentivize
the development of contemporary technological
National governments should engage in a dialogue
solutions that are based on traditional
with local and regional government and agree on
principles and local skills and materials.
mandates and financing that are appropriate
from the point of view of urban sustainability.
5. Measuring success and sharing data
and knowledge
7. Cities proactive in a globalized world

Everybody in the long chain from research and

Globalization and financialization have direct impacts at
expertise to political decision-making, implementation
the local level. Changes in our urban landscape may be

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector v

shaped more by global political and economic decisions Positive impacts of public transport, biking and walking
than by the seemingly more visible results of local must be brought to the public and decision makers.
urban planners. Among other things, cities will need a
renewed portfolio of municipal foreign affairs, because It should be mandatory for all municipalities to
the global level that sets the rules for everyone has until offer public transport, biking lanes and safe
now been unduly inaccessible to local governments. pedestrian sidewalks to their citizens.
Cities will also have to analyse more carefully, what Urban development projects should be charged
are the characteristics and roles of the private and a transport levy which can finance restricted
the public sector, and what are the conditions for parking facilities and public transport.
cooperation and partnerships on an equal basis. Road safety must become the priority for city
leaders.
Cities join their forces both in order to get their voice
heard, but also to disseminate best practices. City 9. Sustainable construction processes,
networks play an important role for peer learning, buildings and maintenance
as information and good and bad experiences can be
exchanged, and everyone does not have to re-invent It is important to renew the city with energy-efficient
the wheel. Joint preparation of projects or procedures and more flexible buildings of long-term value and
is possible and even very small city departments longevity. Functional flexibility leads to a longer
can profit from the organizational, human resources life for buildings, because they can be adapted to
and financial strength of bigger ones. Common changing needs. Technical systems and services
action can be taken e.g. to achieve better results in that have a shorter life-cycle than the structure of the
climate protection, reduction of waste, sustainable building have to be installed so that it is easy to renew
procurement or new transport strategies, or to push them. This means applying technical aids sparingly,
necessary regional, national or international legislation. maintaining them and making the most of all passive
means. Buildings should generate more energy than
International organizations should take they consume, and collect and purify their own water.
ambassadors of local governments to the
negotiation tables as equal partners with national Many cities have started with retrofitting their own
governments and private sector representatives. public buildings with enormous success to serve as
The global competition of cities, to the extent there good examples within the city and outside. Experience
needs to be one, should focus on competing in in northern European markets indicates that low-
sustainability. income housing stock can be successfully retrofitted
Worldwide networks of cities should be enabled to for profit, as well.
involve all those cities that have no sustainability
strategies, yet, in particular those with biggest Monitoring tools are necessary to measure building
estimated growth. performance and progress. Criteria are also needed as
assessment tools in all procurement, investment and
Sectoral measures and actions: subsidy decisions. Some of the indicators can be used
worldwide, but when the rating system is developed
8. Decent urban mobility for everyone within a specific region, it can contain assumptions
about appropriate performance benchmarks and the
Land use and mobility planning have to be so closely relative importance of issues such as selection of site,
integrated that they become one. Awareness has to water and energy resources, risk of earthquakes or
increase about the environmental and health impacts of flooding, local climate, solar hours, cultural aspects,
emissions, noise and the space requirement for cars. availability of materials, and so on.

vi Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

 All buildings should produce their own energy. Energy can be democratized. In the new era,

Executive Summary
Local and national governments will have businesses, municipalities and homeowners become
to lead in setting the benchmarks for new the producers as well as the consumers of their
construction, maintenance and renovation of their own energy We began to envision a world where
own buildings. hundreds of millions of people are empowered, both
Maintenance and renovation of existing literally and figuratively, with far reaching implications
buildings should become a key business sector, for social and political life. In the 21st century,
where innovative solutions are incentivized. individual access to energy also becomes a social and
National research institutes should be human right. Every human being should have the right
commissioned to develop local building and the opportunity to create their own energy locally
sustainability assessment systems in and share it with others across regional, national and
cooperation with local sector stakeholders. continental intergrids.
The criteria should cover e.g. environmental
impacts, decent work and fair trade requirements, Energy production should be increasingly
and anti-corruption measures. decentralized and based on renewable energy
sources.
10. Energy security and empowerment through National governments should enact legislation
distributed renewable energy systems that provides fair subsidies to support the shift to
renewable energy sources.
Using less energy through savings, i.e. decreasing Cities and metropolitan regions should establish
consumption, by increasing energy efficiency energy information offices to give locally
with more sustainable procurement, buildings, appropriate advice to both municipal departments,
infrastructure and service provision, and shifting private companies and citizens.
energy production to renewable fuels are self-evident
targets that a city has the possibilities to implement.
The localized energy revolution requires also new
patterns of distributed production and distribution.

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector vii

Contents

Executive summary iii

Preface x
From local authorities 1992 to cities 2012 xi
Pace of urbanization worldwide xii
Africa xiii
Asia-Pacific xiii
Europe xiii
Latin America and the Caribbean xiii
North America xiv
Amendments to the urban agenda since 1992 1
From migration and segregation to integration and inclusion 1
From climate change awareness to action in uncertainty 2
From buildings to systemic solutions 3
From recentralization to decentralization and metropolitanization 3
From administration to new public management 6
From globalization to city branding 6
From (neo)liberalization to financialization, privatization and remunicipalisation 7
From commercial to non-market solutions 8
From top-down to bottom-up and e-governance 9
From urban voids to public space and public realm 9
From idolizing the new to valuing heritage and low-tech 10
Challenge of socially inclusive cities 11
Competitive or affordable cities? 11
Vibrancy of the small scale 12
Is ICT going to give a voice to the poor? 13
Towards more sustainable cities 14
The life and death of the functionalist city 14
Green and other colors of the visions for the future 15
Green or Green cities? 16
Triple zero or energy cities 17
Eco-cities 18
Towards sustainable cities 19
Are we learning from pilot projects and eco-cities? 19
Integrated policies for sustainable cities 20
Sustainable urban infrastructure 20
Transport and urban density 21
Sustainable buildings and construction 23
Energy systems for decentralized prosumption 26
Cities as agents of behavioural change 28

viii Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

 Contents
Governance for more sustainable cities 30
The power space of cities 30
Sustainable financing for cities 31
Transparent governance 32
Inclusive and participatory governance 33
Learning from Porto Alegre and participative budgeting 34
Governing African urban futures 35
Recommendations: Ten steps on the way forward 37
1. Inclusive and locally rooted visions of 21 century cities for all
st
37
2. Integrated planning of sustainable urban infrastructures 38
3. Decent urban mobility for everyone. 39
4. Sustainable construction processes, buildings and maintenance 39
5. Energy security and empowerment through distributed renewable energy systems 39
6. Valuing local skills and non-market based solutions 40
7. Measuring success and sharing data and knowledge 40
8. Appropriate mandates and financing at all levels of government 40
9. Cities proactive in a globalized world 40
10. Towards a culture of sustainability 41
A postscript 42
Endnotes 44

List of Tables
Table 1. Tasks for all levels of government 4
Table 2. Progressing in urban sustainability 16
Table 3. Do cities have the mandate and resources to drive sustainability? 32
List of Figures
Figure 1. Map of a metropolitan region X 5
Figure 2. Global and local pre- and post-globalization 6
Figure 3. Quadrant illustrating changes in the public sphere 7
Figure 4. 3D representation of the spatial distribution of population
in 7 metropolis represented at the same scale 22

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector ix

Preface
 The six-lane street cuts across barren land, and sanitation are left out, not because they would not

Preface
flanked on both sides by skyscrapers standing be crucial, but because they continue to be discussed
in haphazard order, their glass facades reflecting extensively in other forums.
the burning sun. The clumsy towers, which are
surrounded by vast fields for parking, house In contemporary discourse, urban governance
multinational corporate headquarters and pricy does not mean control and dominance. Quite the
apartments for their employees. For leisure, there contrary, it describes the various platforms for
are several golf courses in the vicinity, artificially dialogue and decision making, as well as processes
irrigated in the water-poor region. Behind the for implementation. On the one hand, cities fight
roundabout, where the boulevard ends, a sea for autonomy and resources, on the other they turn
of corrugated steel roofs covers the ground, to their citizen for priorities and support. Some of
sheltering the families of the petty shopkeepers, the bottlenecks are transparency, participation and
waste scavengers, construction workers, drivers limitations of cities mandates, of their power space.
and cleaning ladies that keep the city functioning. Governance is probably the one aspect of urban
No pedestrians in sight, neither buses, trams nor a sustainability which has the greatest variety of forms
metro. For shopping, there is a shopping mall half in different parts of the world, depending on local
an hours drive away, air conditioned to be freezing political history.
cold. This fictional glimpse of an instant satellite
of a megacity could be from anywhere.1 The final chapter draws conclusions from lessons
learnt and lists steps that could and should be taken
This report highlights some of the top challenges and on the way forward.
priorities for the next 30-50 years in the urban sector.
The chapters take stock of urban developments since This report is based on literature research and the
1992, and point out certain trends and figures as invaluable inputs by urban sustainability experts,
well as successes and failures. There are inspiring among them Priyanka Kochar, Patricia Kranz, Ashok
examples but most steps taken by cities are only Lall, Steffen Lehmann, Noel Morrin, Chrisna du Plessis,
incremental improvements over the business-as-usual. AbdouMaliq Simone, Sanjivi Sundar, Beate Weber,
Progress towards sustainability is slow. Wayne Wescott, Zhiqiang Wu and Annemie Wyckmann,
to whom the author extends her warmest thanks.
To illustrate the speed of urbanization some figures are
presented, and to understand the change in the role From local authorities 1992 to cities 2012
of cities since 1992, a number of amendments to the
urban agenda are described. Half the worlds population now lives in urban areas.
This is projected to rise to 60 per cent by 2030,
Among the many urban sustainability challenges with almost all the urban growth occurring in low- and
inclusion is seen as the most urgent one to tackle. middle-income countries. Regardless of size, cities will
Like most other sustainability aspects, it cannot be become the new home of the biggest share of hundreds
solved separately in a silo, but it keeps reappearing of millions of migrants. However, the staggering
as a cross-cutting issue. The need for integration in numbers of urbanization dont reveal the whole picture.
urban planning concerns not only inclusion but urban Cities matter for a great number of reasons.
infrastructure, the solid basis on which sustainable
cities are built. A chapter discusses mobility, the built The premise of the Chapter 28 of Agenda 21
environment and energy systems, all of which can (1992) continues to be valid. Because so many of
have an impact on human behavior, as well. Some key the problems and solutions being addressed by
infrastructure and basic services, such as freshwater Agenda 21 have their roots in local activities, the

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector xi

participation and cooperation of local authorities will vis--vis national governments, while at the same
be a determining factor in fulfilling its objectives. Local time the impacts of the globalization of the economy
authorities construct, operate and maintain economic, have become more visible at the local level. All of
social and environmental infrastructure, oversee these challenges pose a heavy burden on models of
planning processes, establish local environmental financing and patterns of urban governance. While
policies and regulations, and assist in implementing cities face more risks they are required to become
national and sub-national environmental policies. As more resilient. All politics is local, the famous quote
the level of governance closest to the people, they play by Tip ONeill, an American politician and long-time
a vital role in educating, mobilizing and responding to Speaker of the House, is more valid than ever. All
the public to promote sustainable development. economy is local is the later statement of the great
urbanist Jane Jacobs.3
Local Agenda 21 became a movement of thousands
of cities that made a political commitment to promote Pace of urbanization worldwide4 , 5 , 6

sustainability through participatory processes of

assessment, priority setting, implementation, reporting our future is not only globally intertwined, but
and monitoring. Already in 2002, 6,416 local authorities increasingly urban. In the next 20 years Africa and Asia
in 113 countries had either made a formal commitment will see by far the fastest growth in urban settlements.
to Local Agenda 21 or were actively undertaking In Africa alone, the growth in population will equal the
the process.2 Even so, there is no single sustainable current entire population of the USA. Not only the
city in the world, yet, and a lot of work remains to be 21 megacities in 2010 with over 10 million, and
done. While cities and urban lifestyles are seen as the 33 with 5 10 million inhabitants, but the worlds
root cause of many sustainability challenges, there is medium sized and smaller towns and cities will be
a common understanding that the solutions can be responsible for receiving and looking after millions of
found in cities only. new urban dwellers. About half of the urban population
continues to live in cities smaller than 0,5 million
Since 1992, the urban agenda and attitudes towards inhabitants. Moreover, as the worlds urban population
cities have changed. Today, the Chapter 28 would be grows, the interdependence of town and countryside
written in a different tone, acknowledging the proactive become even tighter.
role of local governments as independent stakeholders
not merely as local authorities implementing the During the two centuries until 1950, about 400 million
ordinances of central governments. At the same time, people moved to cities worldwide. Current projections
cities have identified challenges that are not new as suggest that by 2050 more than 6 billion people, almost
such, but have not necessarily appeared on urban 70% of the total world population, will live in urban
sustainability agendas earlier. Among these evolving areas. Cities in developing countries are expected to
issues are migration, segregation and an urgent need grow by 1,3 billion people in 2030. The lowest, even
for more inclusion, metropolitanization, financialization negative growth rates are in Eastern Europe.
and privatization, energy efficiency and renewable
energy production, as well as methods of public Urban inequity and segregation are also a token of
participation. Urban mobility is now seen as one of the global inequity. While more and more cities want to
main challenges and as key to both urban density and focus on services and hi-tech, the dirty work of the
equity. Buildings and construction have a new task in world remains to be done in the poorest cities with
helping reduce energy consumption. the most meager resources to protect their citizen.
The least developed countries are predicted to have
The role of cities, metropolitan regions and local the fastest rate of urbanization, almost 4 percent, in
government organizations has become stronger the 2010-2020.

xii Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

Urbanization will continue throughout the world. But Asia-Pacific

Preface
very different types of cities are emerging. In Asia,
for example, the current urban population of Half of the planet lives in Asia, which is experiencing
38% is predicted to increase to 50% by 2015, with rapid urbanization, largely thanks to the
many people concentrated in metropolitan areas. In industrialization of China and India. The worlds most
other regions such as Latin America, where 70% of populous continent is also culturally and politically
the population is urban, middle-sized and small cities diverse, with economic extremes of wealth and
keep growing. In the northern hemisphere, cities often poverty. The influence of Asian cities on the world
struggle to maintain an increasingly mobile workforce, stage is increasingly apparent. Between 2008 and
and compete for both young, skilled workers and 2025, Shanghai is expected to soar up the global city
new enterprises as local industries decline. Rapid GDP rankings from 25th place to 9 th, and Mumbai is
urbanization is not only concentrated on mega cities expected to rise in the same period from 29 th to
such as Lagos or Mexico City. Smaller cities face 11th place. In the region, the urban population of
enormous growth rates. 1675 million (41%) in 2010 is expected to rise to
2086 million (47%) in 2020.
Megacities are high density metropolises with at least
10 million inhabitants. The number of these megacities Europe
climbed from 10 in 1992 to 21 in 2010. Fifteen of the
worlds 21 megacities are in developing countries. The In this century, less than one third of European
largest is Tokyo which counts nearly 37 million persons. cities remained stable in population, while more than
one third of cities grew, and more than one third
While many industrialized countries are concerned experienced a decline in population. In particular,
about the growing number and proportion of elderly industrial based cities that are remote from markets
people, the worlds youth population, ages 15 to 24, and not well serviced by transport are shrinking.
will be concentrated in Africa and Asia. By 2050, the Overall, cities in Northern and Southern Europe have
number of youth will have risen from just under a half been growing faster than cities in the West, and
billion in 1950 to 1.2 billion. At that point, about nine especially Central/Eastern Europe where population
in 10 youths will be in developing countries. This very loss is very high. In the region, the urban population
large group will need sufficient education, decent work of 533 million (73%) in 2010 is expected to rise to
and access to basic services.7 552 million (75%) in 2020.

Africa Latin America and the Caribbean

Africa, with the most recent urban tradition and Past century changes have turned Latin America into
experience of city life, is currently urbanising at a highly urbanized region at the expense of rural areas.
more than 4% annually. In 1995 only 28 cities on the Currently, some 540 million (78%) of Latin Americans
continent had populations exceeding 1 million, by are estimated to live in cities, differing between
2005 this has grown to 43 cities, and it is expected 90% urban population in Southern countries like
that by 2015 there will be 59 African cities with Argentina to 50% in central American counties like
populations exceeding 1 million. In the region, the Nicaragua. In 1980, urbanization rates in Latin America
urban population of 413 million (40%) in 2010 is were about 65% and rose to almost 75% in 2000. In
expected to rise to 569 million (45%) in 2020. the region, the urban population of 469 million (80%)
in 2010 is expected to rise to 533 million (83%) in
2020.

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector xiii

North America

The total population of the United States grew by

0,9% annually in 2000-2010, and growth in metro
areas accounted for over 75 percent of it. Metropolitan
expansion was concentrated in the outer suburbs,
which grew at three times the rate of high-density
inner suburbs and cities. However, not all metro areas
experienced growth equally. In the first half of the
decade, migration from the northern regions toward
the warmer areas of the southern United States and
rapid expansion in the suburbs were the dominant
trends. However, in several gateway metro areas
such as New York City, Los Angeles, and Miami,
immigration balanced domestic resident outmigration
and ensured that these areas continued to expand.8

The United States has the largest number of immigrants

in the world at 21% of the world total, but as a
percentage of total country population, Canada has
a higher number of than the US at 19% compared to
13%. More than 35% of the current populations of
Toronto and Vancouver were born outside of Canada.
In the region, the urban population of 289 million (82%)
in 2010 is expected to rise to 324 million (85%) in 2020.

xiv Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

 Amendments to
the urban agenda
since 1992

The urban agenda is growing much longer, assuming From migration and segregation
that the role of cities is changing. In many parts of the to integration and inclusion
world the role was limited to implementing policies set
at the national level, and to taking care of the most Migration is certainly not a new phenomenon, but its
basic services like providing access to water, primary sheer numbers, links to urbanization and governments
education and primary health care. Even energy has attitudes are different than in the past. The pre-World
often been provided by a monopoly company under War I pro-migration consensus changed towards
the Ministry of Energy, with cities having little to say. In the end of the 19th century, when many countries
many countries, the income base of cities continues to introduced entry restrictions. However, even if trade
be weak, based on real estate tax and service fees only. in goods and movement of capital have been rapidly
One could have assumed that globalization strengthens liberalized in recent decades, there has been no
the already stronger higher levels of government, but comparable liberalization in migration, quite the
paradoxically, globalization has put more cities on the contrary. UNDPs report suggests that the policy
map in a bigger role than earlier, and challenges them response to migration can be inadequate. Many
in many ways. This chapter discusses some of these governments institute increasingly repressive entry
factors that have an impact on urban sustainability. regimes, turn a blind eye to health and safety violations
by employers, or fail to take a lead in educating The UNDP notes that it is vital to ensure that individual
the public on the benefits of immigration. migrants settle in well on arrival, but it is also vital
that the communities they join should not feel unfairly
Every year, more than 5 million people cross burdened by the additional demands they place on
international borders to go and live in a developed key services. Where this poses challenges to cities,
country. There are 214 million international migrants additional fiscal transfers may be needed. Ensuring
in the world today. Among people who have moved that migrant children have equal access to education
across national borders, just over a third moved from and support to catch up and integrate, can improve
a developing to a developed country fewer than their prospects and avoid a future underclass.
70 million people. Most of the worlds 200 million Language training for all family members is key.12
international migrants moved from one developing
country to another or between developed countries.9 From climate change awareness
to action in uncertainty
International migration is increasing, although it
slowed slightly in 2009 due to the global recession. Increased awareness of the risks of climate change
In the future, international migrants will become an to cities has led to a detailed analysis of the urban
increasingly essential part of populations also in sources of greenhouse gas emissions and search for
European and Mediterranean cities.10 Canada and the tools to reduce them. It is often assumed that saving
US continue to be shaped by immigration. To keep up energy is primarily a technological challenge. It is,
with the number of migrants arriving in Indian cities, however, highly dependent on human behaviour which
the country will need to build a city the size of Chicago can be influenced by solutions regarding infrastructure
every year. Chinese cities expect millions of rural and services safe routes for non-motorized transport
migrants a year in the coming decades. and comfortable and reliable public transport as
prime examples. Cities have been at the forefront
Most migrants do not go abroad at all, but instead of recognizing the extent of the climate challenge,
move within their own country. UNDP estimated in and some have set themselves ambitious targets for
2009 that there are about 740 million internal migrants reducing GHG emissions. There is a great variety
in the world, almost four times as many as those who of projects to promote energy savings and energy
have moved internationally. Asia and Africa are facing efficiency as well as to increase the share or renewable
a continuation of the rapid urbanization seen over the energy and local energy production.
past 20 years, and rural-urban migration persists.
It is common to expect that climate change adaptation
Migration becomes a sustainability challenge if the planning and action should be based on scientific
large demand for new housing and basic services evidence. Science, however, cannot provide absolute
cannot be met, and cities face a rapid growth of certainty about future. Simply postponing action until
segregated informal settlements. We have seen how there is perfect evidence will increase the risks facing
growing inequity and segregation have occasionally urban centres, their populations, industries, and those
led to violence, in both industrialized and poorer who depend on them. Adaptation planning therefore
countries, in cities with large income differences. requires managing also the uncertainty inherent in
Detroit has become a contemporary symbol of future projections. Cities at the forefront of climate
shrinking cities. In the 1950s, the former Motor City change adaptation have shown ways that scientific
had 1.85 million inhabitants. By 2010 the number had evidence can be used to support this process, but
decreased to 0.7 million, and the metropolitan area have also developed innovative means for dealing
is plagued by unemployment, racial segregation and with uncertainty.
violent crime.11

2 Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

Durban, South Africa, for example, has developed The mix of concepts used about buildings and

Amendments to the urban agenda since 1992

models of local impacts resulting from sea level rise, construction processes has been confusing: instead
changing temperature and rainfall. In Toronto, Canada, of green buildings it would have been more truthful
predictions of dangerously high summer temperatures to talk about a building with some features to reduce
have encouraged the expansion of cooling centres the energy needed to use it. Worldwide, there are
and the development of programs targeting building extremely few sustainable buildings, which would
retrofits that conserve heat in the winter and disperse fulfill the goals of a life-cycle approach, concerning
heat in the summer. Quito, Ecuador, has created an operation, maintenance and reuse in particular, and
inter-institutional committee for responding to climate social and societal factors such as workplace safety,
change that brings together a range of city officials, corruption and accessibility.
academic partners and citizens to identify the most
appropriate responses. 13 Even if a building would be built out of individual parts
that all have green certificates, it is no guarantee for
A quantum leap to renewable energy would also mean its sustainability. And if the most sustainable building
increased security. In the words of J. Rifkin, The shift would be located far away from public infrastructure
from elite fossil fuels and uranium based energies to and services, requiring long daily commutes, it
distributed renewable energies, takes the world out of would not be a truly sustainable building. There
the Geopolitics that characterized the 20 th century, is a growing consensus among experts about the
and into the Biosphere politics of the 21st century. need for systemic analysis and performance-based
Much of the geopolitical struggles of the last century and time-bound sustainability criteria, which go far
centered on gaining military and political access to beyond the walls of a single building. Buildings are
coal, oil, natural gas, and uranium deposits. Wars were sustainable only as elements of sustainable cities and
fought and countless lives lost, as nations vied with infrastructure.
each other in the pursuit of fossil fuels and uranium
security.14 From recentralization to decentralization
and metropolitanization
From buildings to systemic solutions
One of the reasons why cities matter for sustainability
Worldwide, roughly 40 per cent of all energy produced is the fact that they turn abstract visions and
is consumed in buildings, which translates to about targets into stone and mortar, translate policies into
30 per cent of all carbon dioxide emissions. The streets, housing and day-care centres. This calls
4th assessment report (2007) of the Intergovernmental for decentralization in particular from the national
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) compared the to the metropolitan and local levels, and financing
emission reduction potential of various sectors with mechanisms to support it.
the costs of implementing the measures. The compari
son made it clear that buildings are low-hanging Cities global umbrella organization United Cities and
fruits, where the huge emission-savings potential Local Governments (UCLG) argues for decentralization
is the cheapest to implement. The key fact is that, for two reasons. The first is that local governments
while the high level of emissions from the production are closer to the people than the central governments,
of construction materials and the resulting embodied and they have superior access to local information
energy must not be underestimated, the focus that allows them to better respond to the needs
has to be on the operational phase of buildings. of citizens. The second is that they face stronger
This information has understandably reoriented and incentives to perform well on local matters than
somewhat limited the discussion about sustainable the central government, so that they are in a better
buildings to energy issues. position to derive the most from public resources at

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector 3

their disposal and are more likely to seek innovative to public scrutiny than at the national level. Another
means of doing so.15 argument against decentralization is lack of capacity,
which can certainly slow down the delegation of powers
The huge variety in modes of decentralized until sufficient capacity has been built.
governance and roles assumed by cities versus
other levels of government reflects the history of The UCLG further notes that the global economic and
each country. In some countries villages and local financial crisis that emerged in 2008 has imposed
communities have traditionally taken care of common major constraints on local governments. At the same
issues and have internalized bottom-up subsidiarity time, central authorities in some countries have
principles, the Nordic countries as an example. responded to the crisis by taking recentralization
Subsidiarity is a more top-down discovery in highly measures to deal with their own fiscal problems and
centralized countries, France as an example. by increasing control over local governments.16 Also in
countries with strong local government with multiple
One of the counter-arguments to decentralization has responsibilities, there comes a moment when the local
been that the local level is corrupt and thus incapable of level is overstreched in its capacity to cater for new
taking care of public affairs. This is definitely a serious services, if it does not receive the matching financial
issue, and will be further discussed under Transparent resources from somewhere.
governance. It is, however, also fair to ask whether
corruption is more frequent in municipalities than at Nevertheless, decentralization has grown in popularity
higher levels of government. One could also argue that over the past couple of decades, and weaknesses
decisions at the local level are more easily accessible and strengths of the system have been identified. For

Table 1. Tasks for all levels of government

PUBLIC ENERGY /
ENERGY / MOBILITY / MOBILITY /
BUILDINGS / BUILDINGS; PRODUCTION;
LAND USE INFRASTRUC- INFRASTRUC- PUBLIC FINANCING
REGULATION leading by leading by
TURE TURE TRANSPORT
example example

National National land National land Parliament National and National National & Possibly Income &
government use priorities use & building building, supra-national policies, supra-national nationally business
act, guidelines, ministries, grid taxation networks, owned railways tax, VAT, etc.
specifications universities possibly and airlines Sovereign
hospitals, airports, bonds & loans
railroads from markets

Metropolitan / Regional Educational Fixed areas for Large scale Tram, BRT and Regional public
regional plan, land use facilities, wind farms energy metro lines, transport, Subsidies
government principles, e.g. regional production; pedestrian and pricing from national
densities utilities, areas for cycle routes, government,
hospitals, biomass roads Share of local
production income tax,
fees for service

Local Zoning & detail Local building City Hall, Local, publicly Tram, BRT & Municipal
government, plan, real estate ordinance, schools, fire owned energy metro lines, public Local income &
cities policies for city- building control stations, production walkways, transport, real estate tax;
owned land, daycare cycle routes, pricing fees, possibly
centres, roads, parking municipal
bonds & loans

Citizen, other Partici-patory Petitions for User feedback, (Local, Local, (Private roads) User feedback
stake-holders urban planning building preser- right to neighbor-hood cooperative Taxpayers,
vation and right comment scale infra for renewable partipatory
to comment project renewable energy budgeting
permits proposals energy) production

Source: Authors elaboration.

4 Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

example in Latin America, 15,800 local authorities are Metropolitanization does not make urban governance

Amendments to the urban agenda since 1992

now elected, compared with only 3,000 in 197317. any easier, quite the contrary, but it seems to be the
only way to deal with issues such as water, energy,
Urbanisation is not only city-based but also region- transport, segregation and housing. Metropolitan
based, and sustainability challenges dont respect regions require democratic governance and financing
any borders. This is why larger metropolitan regions of their own, designed to deal with the issues
and networked urban structures, poly-centric city which are best dealt with at the metropolitan scale.
regions, are becoming operational frameworks for Metropolitan regions are not solely urban but have also
development. In most metropolitan regions, one city rural areas within them, securing space for agriculture
is not regarded the only centre any more but several and local renewable energy production. Metropolitan
sub-centres together create a networked urban strategies are not limited to urban development issues
structure, with sub-centres assuming different roles. only, neither do they look at rural areas solely as nature
The central city may have a minor share in population reserves or as reserve land for urban development, but
and tax income but offers essential services and jobs try to grasp more complex aspects of the urban-rural
for the whole city region. interdependence.

Figure 1. Map of a metropolitan region X

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector 5

From administration of the neo-liberal state is to separate policy-making
to new public management from implementation, and to isolate the production and
provision of urban public services from public control.
New public management (NPM) emerged in the late
1970s as a governance paradigm, where the market This has profound consequences for the targets of
was seen as the supreme model for organizations. urban sustainability, as it distances political decision
The earlier doctrines of public administration had making from the substance of urban development. As
focused on the ethics and rationality of public will be discussed also in the following chapters, while
servants, and on the concept of public good. NPM NPM introduced competitive tendering, also the idea of
redefined the nature, tasks, goals and methods of a competition between cities emerged. However, the
public administration as production of services and criteria underlying this competition are geared primarily
its success criteria became the same as those of towards enabling the success of corporations.
private enterprises. Privatization, outsourcing as well
as the creation of artificial internal markets could be From globalization to city branding
used as strategies.
Figure 2. Global and local pre- and
NPM is based on the idea that public sector post-globalization
organizations can and should be managed just as if Pre-globalization, Pre-globalization,
they were private companies. This has also meant >1980s 1980s<
the introduction of the vocabulary and values of the GLOBAL
private sector, such as customer instead of citizen or GLOBAL
efficiency instead of impact. Governance replaced
administration. In the name of efficiency, compulsory REGIONAL
competitive tendering (CCT) was introduced. The
fundamental differences between public and private
NATIONAL
NATIONAL
organizations have seldom been analyzed, neither their
consequences for urban governance.

LOCAL LOCAL
The drivers of NPM were either financial distress, lack
of productivity, opacity or a general dissatisfaction Source: Authors elaboration.

with what is often referred to as red tape or stiff The new role of cities as creators of enabling
bureaucracy in delivering public services. In NPM, environments for private business to operate a role that
competition is seen as key to efficiency gains. One of used to belong to nation states alone has prompted
the main goals is the reduction of the public sector, cities to become active also at the global level.
which can be achieved through contracting out and
Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs), which were Most cities see securing their economic and financial
promoted worldwide by institutions like the World Bank viability as their primary task. Sustainability is not
(WB) and the Organization for Economic Co-operation regarded as an equally omnipresent and cross-cutting
and Development (OECD). issue. With the globalization of economy and opening
of financial markets, cities compete for international
As the language introduced by NPM suggests, the investments and financing. The goal of their strategies
city is increasingly cast in the role as an enabler and is to become the host city for regional offices of
decreasingly in the role as the supplier or regulator of multinational companies or headquarters of worldwide
public goods, such as land and housing, services and organizations, or even of short term events with global
infrastructure. Indeed, one of the basic characteristics media visibility.

6 Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

This has led to various different methods for raising the Figure 3. Quadrant illustrating changes

Amendments to the urban agenda since 1992

citys profile and increasing its efficiency. Paradoxically, in the public sphere
urban strategies are filled with similar fashionable

GLOBAL>
programmes everywhere: Smart cities, innovative
cities, creative cities, green cities, liveable cities,
design capitals, capitals of culture, global cities...
As major investment projects, prestige infrastructure
is prioritized: cultural institutions as showpieces, fast
trains to airports or Formula 1 tracks. Only a few cities
want to profile themselves as sustainable or resilient <PRIVATE/Consumer Citizen/PUBLIC>
cities, or cities fighting segregation or climate change,
and see that these goals will help them to gain a more
competitive position. Rotterdam18 is an example with

< LOCAL
its Sustainability Programme: A clean, green and
healthy city where sustainability contributes to a strong
economy.

Source: Authors elaboration.

All kinds of city ratings and awards have been
introduced: the most livable but also the most polluted providers of local public services. One track of this
city of the world as examples. Most rankings are development is called the public-private partnership
based on corporate-friendly criteria even if some (PPP). The trend is reinforced by the financialization
cities have understood that what is good for their own of shareholder markets. Cities lacking direct access
citizen is good for everyone else, also for the global to investment finance have increasingly looked
capital. However, good intentions and strategies for PPPs in the management of municipal utilities
alone dont make change happen: data, benchmarks, and provision of basic services. Freshwater and
sanitation, waste management, energy production and
measurable targets, timetables, political decisions,
distribution, public transport, also health care is being
strategies, visions and reporting systems are needed.
provided by multinational companies. The contractual
arrangements vary from outsourcing to privatization,
From (neo)liberalization to financialization,
which radically downsize the scope of public decision-
privatization and remunicipalisation
making concerning urban infrastructure or the
provision of services. The question can be posed as
Liberalization of world trade and financial markets
to whether the privatization of public service delivery
as well as financialization have had direct impacts
creates a democracy deficit in the cases where
on cities. Financialization refers to the increased
decision making processes are taken from the hands
importance of financial versus real capital in
of local stakeholders and City Councils to global
determining the rhythm and returns expected from
boardrooms of multinational companies and the
investments, and the increased subordination of
possible deficits are contracted to be borne by public
that investment to the demands of global financial
subsidies and guarantees. To de-politicize the decision
markets19. If a factory is closed down in one city and
making, a frequently used argument for privatization is
opened up in another one, the move is punished or
efficiency, not ideology.20
rewarded by the financial markets.

Since the 1980s economic globalization has led to an

Availability of investment capital as well as loan
incremental, continuous privatization of public assets
conditions set by international financing institutions
and services, not only at the national but also at the local
(IFIs) have helped multinational companies turn into
level all over the world. It seems that this privatization

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector 7

process follows a pattern, which has certain similarities These include environmental quality, health risks,
everywhere, regardless of what is being privatized. As artistic and cultural heritage, and natural resources
an outcome, the urban public sphere is disintegrating that are visited and used for recreational purposes.25
while it is being emptied of its public elements.21 Ecosystem services can provide some of the non-
market solutions.
Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs) were introduced at
a larger scale since the 1990s. Undoubtedly, there have The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA)
been deficiencies also in public management, which published in 2005 showed that quality of human
can learn from private sector best practices. However, life depends on the health of the ecosystem. From
the unconditional comparison between the public and cities point of view, key ecosystem services include
the private sectors has missed some basic differences regulating services such as water regulation, water
in their characters, which can make them unequal purification and waste treatment, erosion regulation,
partners. After two decades of learning by doing, climate regulation and natural hazard regulation. It is
many cities are now in a better position to judge which well known that many of the recent devastating floods
solutions are more sustainable. Paris is an example of have occurred because the natural watershed flows
a city that has taken the control of water services back have been hindered by reckless construction.
to its own hands in 2010. We want to offer a better
service, at a better price, the Mayor said.22 A famous example of water purification provided as
an ecosystem service is the City of New York. The city
Not only countries but many cities have been hard hit funds and implements a comprehensive Long-Term
by the recent financial crisis, not least because of its Watershed Protection Program which maintains and
impacts on real estate and their value as investment protects the high quality source of drinking water for
and collateral. Another local impact is the way how nine million water consumers representing nearly half
international real estate investments drive urban the states total population.26 Instead of building a
development. Buildings are measured in billions, not water purification plant, the city has purchased land
square meters. Investor appetite dictates what is worth upstate in the watershed area, and made agreements
building and where: good office space and shopping with land owners regarding land use against payment,
centres in prime locations with easy access, in key in order to secure that the water is not polluted by
cities in select countries with growing economies and industries or agriculture. The facilities required to
guaranteed rental income. As Saskia Sassen 23 has filter this water would have cost about USD 8 billion
described, speculative urban property markets have to build, and between USD 300-400 million annually
become prime engines of capital accumulation. to operate. Instead, USD 200 million a year is spent
on preserving ecosystems and managing land use in
From the investors perspective, the built environment ways that help keep the water supply clean naturally.27
has worth thanks to its rental income and resale value. At the same time, New Yorkers have been provided
Big investors prefer commercial and office space to with a riverfront area for recreation.
housing, and big developments to individual buildings.
In an extreme case, investors can consider the value The shift of emphasis from commercial and high-
of land negative, because managing it or rezoning it is tech solutions to those that are fundamentally
regarded as costly.24 outside of market logic and often based on traditional
technologies can be illustrated by an example from
From commercial to non-market solutions the construction sector. Some building certification
systems indirectly require the use of heavy, energy
Non-market valuation places a monetary value on consuming air conditioning systems, while they
goods that are not traded in regular marketplaces. do not acknowledge the performance of low-tech

8 Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

solutions based on traditional, more energy efficient exciting technological innovations which are apparently

Amendments to the urban agenda since 1992

technologies requiring less maintenance. However, lying ahead. While we are witnessing this information
there is a noticeable trend to use local materials and revolution, a more substantial analysis of the changes
mechanical systems in buildings that are not purpose- implied is not available, yet. Among the questions are,
built for the real estate investment market. for example, what has changed with regard to
the communication about the city and its political
Also, an increased awareness about the rebound and societal understanding? How has the appearance
effect supports the trend to avoid hi-tech solutions, of social media changed the way of planning and
which would in fact increase consumption, soon political perspectives on the city? What are the emerging
become obsolete and need to be replaced at frequent opportunities deriving from the information revolution for
intervals by the momentarily latest technology. addressing the most important urban problems?28

In the information and communication technology (ICT) At the regional level, the European Commission
sector Wikipedia and Linux have been examples of non- arranges web consultations, where every citizen of
commercial products, which are co-developed by users the European Union has the possibility to comment
and where the contents and products can be shared a policy proposal of the Commission on the internet.
by everyone for free. The most convincing model for The questionnaire includes a considerable amount of
an energy revolution, which will be discussed later, is information about the issue at the same time. For the
based on an adaptation of similar cooperative thinking: sake of transparency, an organization has to register,
every citizen can become a prosumer, producer and but a private individual only leaves her or his name but
consumer of renewable energy into an intelligent grid. can comment anonymously.29

From top-down to bottom-up and However, even where forums for active participation
e-governance exist, in urban planning issues for example, the
participants tend to be the most active people from
It is difficult to work for local government, the people their communities, not the marginalized ones most in
are never satisfied... This statement of a devoted need to get heard. Another concern is the digital divide
civil servant is certainly true, but it is proves that the which prevents many groups of citizen the access to
voices of citizen are being heard. The recommendation e-participation.
to promote public participation in various local
government decision making processes has been Also the private sector has understood that it is
included in the legislation of several countries. There is a more efficient to develop new products and services
common understanding that individuals and civil society together with the future users instead of only by
organizations are necessary as watchdogs to question engineers in closed laboratories. In the public sector,
the accountability of public and private decision this user-centricity or co-creation are other names
makers and as voices to express citizens concerns and approaches to public participation, which can
and priorities. However, the concept often remains an mean workshops, user panels and questionnaires
empty slogan for both most citizens and politicians. about the quality of basic services.
Independent, bottom-up public activism is often dealt
with more as a disturbance than public participation. From urban voids to public space and
public realm
The emergence of the new information and
communication technologies has an enormous impact Instead of looking only at the built elements of the
on urban life. The widespread mobile phone and urban environment, more weight is now given to
internet communication are just the spearhead of more the space in-between, the urban public space

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector 9

with a multiplicity of functional purposes and supported by the new social media, the Twitters and
symbolic meanings. Facebooks, but after all, people gather at streets and
squares to make their voice heard. Curfews witness of
Is the contemporary role and character of the urban the same.
public space primarily a marketplace and space for
logistics or does it continue to be the home base of From idolizing the new to valuing
civil society and democracy? If, according to a popular heritage and low-tech
notion, urban public space is the living room of the
citizens, are people understood as citizens or as The great hopes of the early industrial age created a
shareholders, as consumers or as representatives of spirit where everything new was regarded better than
civil society? Who else has the keys to this common anything old. The mass produced private automobile
living room? and the public infrastructure that was built to support
it led to a disintegration of the city. According to the
The concept of public space is easy to grasp principles of Functionalism, areas for housing, work
primarily as three-dimensional physical space. Instead, and leisure could be separated from each other
the terms public sphere and public realm emphasize and reconnected by traffic. Mass production also
the more societal and political dimensions of public completely changed the way most buildings have been
space. As David Harvey has noted, While it may well constructed since the mid-20 th century. We are now
prove impossible to sort out the relationship between learning the hard way that a lot of valuable indigenous
the physicality of urban public space and the politics technologies, local knowledge and built heritage has
of the public sphere with any exactitude, there are, been discarded and lost forever. This concerns as well
I think, some potent points of linkage between them. crafts, production patterns, systemic solutions, single
We do not, after all, experience the city blankly.30 buildings, neighbourhoods as entire cities. Not only
natural but also built environments need protection.
Green areas and parks are important to city dwellers
not only by adding to biodiversity and as tokens of Recently, however, many top experts have found ways
nature in the city, but also providing anyone a place to interpret traditional knowledge and local materials,
for a moment of rest. Cities like Rio in Brazil and and produce built environments that respond to
Sendai in Japan take pride on the trees that have contemporary needs at the same time as they use
been planted on sidewalks, giving shade to the old technologies for air conditioning, for example.
pedestrians and adjacent buildings. Batangas City The principles of old solutions which are based on
in the Philippines promotes roadside gardening and centuries of experience in a certain climate and basic
subsistence community gardens. The popularity of laws of gravity, temperature or humidity, are by default
urban agriculture is increasing all over the world. sustainable. This is one aspect of the growing interest
Beyond user values, urban public space helps create a in non-market solutions that was discussed earlier.
sense of community, and its quality reflects the degree
of respect towards any single citizen. If nothing else, the increasing role of tourism as
an export industry has made cities aware of both
From Bogota to New York, cities give more space to the monetary, social and cultural value of old
pedestrians and chase cars away from central squares neighbourhoods. The challenge is how to keep
and sidewalks. Legislation in India secures rights the buildings and neighbourhoods alive and avoid
to street vendors. The Arab Spring and Occupy gentrification that only preserves a shell.
Wall Street, two completely different processes,
are recent examples of the significance of the urban
public sphere. Citizen movements may be spurred and

10 Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

 Challenge
of socially
inclusive cities

Socially inclusive cities are places where equity is globe into manufacture, trade, services for export on
translated into three-dimensional physical reality. the one hand, and on the business opportunities for
Urban infrastructure can have fundamental equity infrastructure and real estate development, services
impacts, public transport solutions and design of and consumer goods for the growing middle class on
public spaces that are open for street vendors as the other. This vision has been neither inclusive, nor
examples. If not inclusive, local measures can be a vision of environmentally sustainable development.
powerful tools to reinforce exclusion, through creation However, the imperatives of inclusive growth and of
of gated communities or prioritization of the private car combating climate change are acknowledged and are
in transport planning, for example. gradually gaining importance in governmental policy.31

Competitive or affordable cities? While the Millennium Development Goals have been
advanced in terms of reducing the percentage of
The dominant vision of urban development has the urban population living in slums worldwide, the
been one of competitive cities being led by an absolute numbers continue to grow. Between 1990
economic development model whose engine is built and 2010, the proportion of urban dwellers living in
on attracting investment from investors across the slums decreased from 46% to 33%, but the total
urban slum population in developing regions grew by of cities to look for strategies of inclusion, such as
26%, from 656 million in 1990 to 827 million in 2010.32 involving the migrants or other marginalized groups
in the processes of inclusion and integration from the
Worldwide, almost 1 billion people live in so-called beginning, and securing easy access to basic services
informal cities, and it has been estimated that this including education, health care and transport.
number will increase by at least another half billion
over the next 15 years. Thinking about the future of Vibrancy of the small scale
cities means facing the challenge of those figures and
the related problems of inequality, education, health, The great potential of informal settlements and their
crime, governance, exclusion, and loneliness. The organizational structures are now being acknowledged
real challenge lies not in upgrading the favelas and and poor citizens and poverty are seen as an
slums with infrastructure such as sewage, water, and innovative resource, as was pointed out already in the
electricity, but also in finding sustainable solutions to 1980s by the Peruvian economist Hernando de Soto 33.
integrate these settlements into the formal urban In development cooperation discourse, the goal is not
structure and economy. It should not be forgotten that just the eradication of poverty any more, but reduction
some of the informal settlements of today are how of inequality. Experience has shown that the trickle-
great European cities used to be in medieval times. down theory does not work. Poverty is not primarily
rural any more, but increasingly urban. Robert
The assumption that large cities will need large McNamara 34, outlining new strategies for the World
technology upgrades and investments in infrastructure Bank in 1973, noted that the bulk of the poor are in the
applies principally to those aspects of city that are rural areas. That is why the focus was on agriculture.
dependent on global integration airports, mass It has often been suggested that the productivity
rapid transport between commercial hubs with their of small-scale holdings is inherently low. But that is
huge demand for electricity. However for the most simply not true. Not only do we have the overwhelming
part, even in large cities, there can be alternative forms evidence of Japan to disprove that proposition, but a
of dignified and healthy urban living compact with number recent studies on developing countries also
low carbon footprints that are affordable and do not demonstrate that, given the proper conditions, small
need huge financial infusions from the future. This is farms can be as productive as large farms.
a middle ground between organic laissez-faire form
of growth and the fashionable high tech the future The shift from preference of the large scale to seeing
today vision. the vibrancy of the small scale could maybe be
transferred from rural to urban conditions. Most of the
The concept of the affordable city in the context points McNamara suggested for a program to support
of developing countries should be of an urban small subsistence farms in 1973 could be valid for poor
system that does not depend on high capital urban areas: 1) Acceleration in the rate of land
intensive infrastructure becoming a pre-requisite for and tenancy reform. 2) Better access to credit.
development. The infrastructure should also not 3) Assured availability of water. 4) Expanded extension
become locked into systems that are dependent on facilities backed by intensified agricultural research.
maintaining complex and secure integration with high 5) Greater access to public services. 6) And most
per capita energy requirements. critical of all: new forms of (rural) urban institutions and
organizations give as much attention to promoting
There is the risk that cities with ethnically diverse the inherent potential and productivity of the poor
populations, where existing city structures represent as is generally given to protecting the power of
and reinforce a history of ethnic resentment, become the privileged.
volatile environments. Hence, it is in the interest

12 Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

The poor cities are cash poor, but they have a wealth By linking students in rural areas with teachers and the

Challenge of socially inclusive cities

of human and other resources, and successful wealth of knowledge available in cyberspace, we have
strategies would find ways of unlocking this wealth. witnessed transformation in the education sector.
Examples could be the allocation of Community And by enabling people to interface with public
Credits for civic duties; setting up local bartering institutions and services all of these things can be
systems; or encouraging recycling with public catalysts for human development. ICT plays a catalytic
transport tokens as was done in Curitiba. role in advancing human development by improving
access to information and service delivery, and enabling
Municipal services do not need to be provided by bulk broader democratic participation. It can transform the
infrastructure. Instead, decentralized solutions could way governments and development actors work, to
allow various alternatives. Assistance early on with the ensure that our policies and programmes are more
layout of informal settlements can allow for the gradual responsive to the needs and priorities of the poor and
development of a well-structured urban environment. marginalized.
Urban land policy has an important role. It can give
locational advantage for affordable homes in relation to For example, over 4,000 e-services centers are being
the social amenities and transportation infrastructure deployed around Bangladesh to bring public and
of the city, as well as proximity to opportunities of private services closer to local communities through
employment in the city. The processes of urbanization Digital Bangladesh, a national agenda to use ICTs to
can become the engine for distribution of wealth and help meet goals in education, health, employment, and
knowledge to meet the challenge of inclusiveness. poverty reduction.

Is ICT going to give a voice to the poor? However, like most technologies, the ICT is not only a
blessing. It is also a Big Brother constantly following
The information and communication technology (ICT) is our movements in public spaces. In recent years,
often heralded as an instrument that is going to provide many cities have invested more in videosurveillance
equal access to information and give a voice to the systems, most of them for the benefit of the private
poor. However, as UNDP Administrator Helen Clark has sector, than on ICT for e-participation, smart grids,
said, ICT alone will not automatically reduce disparities elderly care or other technologies that would enhance
or improve living conditions for all but it does create sustainability and democracy.
important platforms to improve human development.
By linking remote health clinics with specialist
diagnostic centers, we have seen improvements in
maternal and child health outcomes.

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector 13

 Towards more
sustainable cities

Worldwide, cities are at different stages in their of the great wave of industrialization. The principles
development. Some became industrial cities already were developed in the 1920s and 1930s by a group of
over a century ago, others are only now industrializing European historians and architects, of whom the most
or in their initial phase of becoming more service influential has been Le Corbusier with his writings and
oriented. Right now, many cities are cleaning up plans, among them The Contemporary City and The
the traces of pollution caused by obsolete industrial Radiant City. The plans meant a total paradigm shift
production processes and opening up former as compared to the earlier practices of city building.
industrial and harbor areas for housing and workplace They were fuelled by a social conscience, with the aim
development. Others are not at this stage of urban infill of providing healthy living environments with sunlight
or redeveloping brownfield sites, yet, but grow from and large green areas for people who had lived in
within, sprawling at their edges, or on greenfield sites. overcrowded dark backyard apartments in densely
built urban areas. The ideas of social reform were
The life and death of the functionalist city supported by the new technology which made possible
an industrial production of high-rise housing blocks. The
The ideology of functionalism was brought to mass-produced automobile would solve the problems
architecture as well as urban planning as a reflection of circulation, because the zones for housing, for work
and for leisure would be separated from each other. Towards the end of the 20 th century it had become

Towards more sustainable cities

After all, work also meant industrial production, which obvious that very similar social problems that initiated
continued to pollute the area in its vicinity, and had to the Functionalist paradigm shift now have to be
be buffered from the housing areas. solved in the mass produced, single-function housing
areas: segregation, changes in industrial production
The ideas of The Functional City were formulated processes, unsustainable use of resources, negative
in a document known as the Athens Charter (1943) impacts on human health and lack of sunlight. Urban
which was going to dominate urban development in planning has slowly returned to the city but urban
particular in the decades after World War II, and to policies lag behind while they have to deal with the
a great degree until today. Despite its great ideas of challenges that have been discussed above.
greening and social welfare, the concept of separate
zones has disintegrated cities. Our task today is to Green and other colors of the visions
put the pieces together, again. Because Functionalism for the future
believed in scientific data and heralded the new,
everything old had to be erased to give way to the Since the 1990s the introduction of sustainable
utopia. The new cities Brazilia and Chandigardh were practices into urban development seems to have
experiments where these ideas were implemented as progressed stepwise from light to deeper shades
fully as possible. of green and to more colours of the rainbow. The
variety of pilot cities and case studies ranges from
The mass produced, high rise housing block outside small utopian eco-villages with philosophical roots
of the city center seemed, of course, a perfect solution like Auroville in India to ambitious urban projects with
for the cities that had to deal with post World War II emphasis on energy and technology like Masdar in
destruction and urbanization. The automotive industry Abu Dhabi. At the other end are large scale real estate
found millions of clients in the new inhabitants of both developments being marketed as eco-cities with very
high-rise and low-rise suburbs. little proof of their sustainability performance.

Jane Jacobs book The Death and Life of Great The terminology is quite confusing since there are
American Cities (1961) was a wake-up call to save no universally agreed criteria for urban sustainability.
cities and urban life. She criticized the rationalism Solely for the purposes of this article, the title Triple-
of modernist urban planning that had rejected the Zero and Energy Cities refers to cities doing serious
city with its complexities, mixed uses, urban density work with focus on energy, and an emphasis on
and human scale. Functionalist urban renewal had technology, while Eco-cities have their roots in
meant that old neighbourhoods were torn down, and biodiversity, waste management and often poverty
the separation of uses had meant that the city centres alleviation. Green in quotation marks refers to
were dead after people had left the offices and driven cities that are not taking the challenge seriously,
home to suburbs. yet. Sustainable City remains a goal of an ongoing
transformational process.
Jane Jacobs has been extremely influential even if
somewhat misused when she is referred to as an Visions for the future are somewhat disconnected,
influence to the emergence of New Urbanism, post- depending on different professional world views.
modern look-alike versions of nostalgic Main Streets Planners and architects discuss urban design.
and low-rise housing. The model has been adopted Engineers may highlight technological solutions linked
by real estate developers for small-scale suburbs with energy or information technology. Those who
but does not contribute to the solution of real urban prioritize biodiversity, celebrate the cleanup or urban
challenges that have been discussed here. riverbeds, or roofs as places for urban agriculture.

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector 15

Policy makers search solutions for affordable housing, Jeb Brugmann 35 portrays three cities as pioneers:
mobility and finance. But more often than not, the Barcelona in Spain, Chicago in the U.S. and Curitiba
concept of a sustainable city continues to stand for in Brazil. According to Brugmann, these are the only
a green city, while social, societal, employment and cities where a culture of sustainability exists and
economical challenges seem harder to tackle than becomes visible, a full understanding of sustainability
the technological and ecological ones. as a cross-cutting strategy.

Many cities have started with literal greening by Green or Green cities?
planting trees and protecting sanctuaries for wildlife.
The next steps have included aspects of social For most cities, the first step when steering towards
sustainability in public services: providing access urban sustainability is visible greening: planting trees
to freshwater, constructing wastewater purification or saving wetlands for birds. Green beautification of
plants, creating public transport networks, or reducing the cityscape means projects that are also easy to
CO2 emissions through energy savings by retrofits. sell to the people. However, at the same time more
The further a city has developed, the more it has roads are being built for more cars instead of looking
tried to grasp the complexities of sustainability as at holistic mobility solutions. Housing and inclusion are
present in the interdependencies of financing, urban not on the urban agenda.
infrastructures and services. What is seen only rarely
is a full coherence of a long-term vision for the future Almost every city in the world is dealing with an influx
of a city, growing from the roots of its own traditions, of people from different ethnic backgrounds. Cultural
realistic strategies for the implementation of the festivals are promoted as measures to support
vision, and an ongoing dialogue with the citizens. minorities. Cultural heritage is increasingly understood

Table 2. Progressing in urban sustainability

ENERGY / MOBILITY / MOBILITY /

BUILDINGS / PUBLIC ENERGY / PUBLIC
LAND USE INFRASTRUC- INFRASTRUC- PUBLIC
REGULATION BUILDINGS PRODUCTION PROCUREMENT
TURE TURE TRANSPORT

FAKE GREEN Low-density Legislation A few certified A few stand- National REN Roads and Limited bus and Recycled
CITIES suburbs has some SD green alone solar policies, but highways, tree rail networks. paper,
Single marketed as elements but is buildings but panels for taxation and planting. otherwise the
measures w/o eco cities not enforced on no monitoring. show. subsidies do cheapest price
coherence by real estate ground. not support as criterion.
developers. implementation. Corrupt
practices.

ECO CITIES Environ-mental Access to Experi-mental Solar panels. Co-production Bicycle lanes CNG for Energy
Focus on protection handi-capped low-tech eco- of heat and are built and. vehicles. efficiency
environ-ment areas, as a norm. buildings. electricity. criteria used for
and poverty biodiversity. a few items.

ENERGY Integration Energy Energy Solar and Gradual shift More tram, BRT Energy efficient Energy
CITIES of land use efficiency refurbish- pv panels from fossil & metro lines vehicles, some efficiency
Focus on and mobility require-ments ment of public and wind to renewable are built. use renewable criteria used for
CO 2 emission planning. that are imple- buildings. farms. Smart energy Speed limits on energy. most products.
reductions, mented. metering. sources. roads.
technology

SUSTAINA- Focus on Participatory Sustainability Local grids and Increasing Traffic safety A multi- Also fair trade
BLE CITIES! metropolitan urban planning criteria used smart grids. share of de- as a priority, modal system & decent work
Striving areas and and design of also in public centralized public space as with dense criteria and
towards a prevention of public space. housing. energy a realm for the networks. LCA used for all
culture of segre-gation. production. pedestrians. products and
sustainability services.

Source: Authors elaboration.

16 Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

as a resource to be kept alive, not only for tourists but Steffen Lehmann36 uses the concept Green urbanism

Towards more sustainable cities

also to support peoples pride of place. for a model for zero-emission and zero-waste urban
design, which arose in the late 1990s, promoting
In the Green cities that try to fake sustainability, the compact energy-efficient urban development, seeking
grassroots heritage aspect disappears as events grow to transform and re-engineer existing city districts and
bigger and more commercial. Formula 1 Grand Prix, regenerate the post-industrial city centre. It promotes the
mega sporting events or Eurovision song contests development of socially and environmentally sustainable
require major investments, but do not necessarily add city districts, which are mixed-use and pedestrian
to the real quality of life after the television cameras focused. This means neighborhoods and districts that:
have left. However, they are marketed as branding respond well to their climate, location, orientation
efforts that are necessary in the global competition and context, optimizing natural assets such as
of cities. sunlight and wind flow,
are quiet, clean and effective, with a healthy
Historic preservation of a couple of landmark buildings microclimate,
and eco-labeling a few office buildings that are have reduced or have no CO2 emissions, as they
surrounded by large parking areas are mere window- are self-sufficient energy producers, powered by
dressing. Race for the cheapest green building renewable energy sources,
certificate continues in commercial development eliminate the concept of waste, as they are based
and has no real impact on the sustainability of on a closed-loop ecosystem with significant
construction. If most public services have been recycling, reusing, remanufacturing and
outsourced or privatized, the city may not have composting,
much to say regarding the production process of the have high water quality, practicing sensitive urban
services. Those decisions are taken in tax heavens. water management,
integrate landscape, gardens and green roofs to
Triple zero or energy cities maximize urban biodiversity and mitigate the urban
heat island effect,
Many cities have become aware of the inescapable take only their fair share of the earths resources,
links between global targets and local actions. using principles of urban ecology,
CO2 emission reduction measures are taken at the apply new technologies such as co-generation,
local level, share of renewable energy is increased in solar cooling and electric-mobility,
municipal utilities, and energy efficiency requirements provide easy accessibility and mobility, are well
are brought to local building codes and guidelines. inter-connected, and provide an efficient low-
impact public transport system,
Even if there is an increasing awareness of the fact that use regional and local materials and apply
a communitys sustainability is more than greening or prefabricated modular construction systems,
its carbon footprint, for the time being various visions create a vibrant sense of place and authentic cultural
for low- or no-carbon cities are presented. Carbon identity, where existing districts are densified and
emissions are easier to monitor and measure than make use of urban mixed-use infill projects,
many other sustainability indicators, and there are are generally more compact communities around
great expectations on solutions that technology would transport nodes (`green TODs), with a special
offer. The visions include zero-waste, mixed-use and concern for affordable housing and mixed-use
pedestrian focus. Cities plan to be water positive (harvest programs,
rainwater, reuse grey water, clean polluted waters), use deep green passive design strategies and
energy positive (buildings produce more renewable solar architecture concepts for all buildings, with
energy than they consume) and community positive. compact massing for reduced heat gain in summer,

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector 17

 are laid-out and oriented in a way that keeps the Eco-cities
buildings cool in summer, but which catches the
sun in winter, In cities that emphasize ecology, environmental
have a local food supply through community measures with social and economic benefits come
gardens and urban farming and which achieve high next after greening and energy. Health concerns
food security and reduced `food miles, and put primary emphasis on quality of water, provision of
use multi-disciplinary approach, best practice for sanitation and cleaner energy, if they are not available
urban governance and sustainable procurement for all, yet. Even poor cities may have the courage to
methods. say no to mining, if they understand that in the long
run, tourism is going to bring them more employment.
This list can be read as an architects wish list when Waste management is turned into business, sorting
he or she is dreaming of an ideal new community. produces material for handicrafts and bio-waste
It looks at urban development from the perspective becomes a source for bio-energy. Clogged sewers
behind an urban planners desk in the absence lead to a ban on plastic bags. Subsistence gardening
of direct political and economic pressures, social is also promoted as part of improved land policies.
segregation and poverty. While trying to be concrete, First lessons about ecosystem services are learned,
listings like this can, however, be helpful in informing when rivers are cleaned and watersheds managed to
those professionals and decision-makers who claim prevent flooding.
that the concept of urban sustainability is too vague
or means everything and thus nothing. These cities broaden the focus to cover the social
dimension and governance of sustainable development,
At the local government level the theory translates too. City Halls realize that civil servants and council
typically to an ambitious declaration like the one members cannot do it alone but the process has
in Barangaroo37, an urban development project to be democratized. Open access to information,
in Sydney, which wants to be a world leader in e-governance, public hearings, popular votes,
sustainability:Barangaroos goal is to be the first polls, co-development of services and participatory
precinct of its size in the world and certainly the first budgeting are becoming daily routine. Refurbishment
CBD precinct in Australia to be climate positive. We of existing buildings becomes a big project, public
plan to generate more renewable energy than we use transport systems are improved and sustainable public
at Barangaroo, recycle and export more water than procurement practices are introduced.
we use and reuse, reduce and recycle more waste
from the city than we generate. We will be carbon A European research programme 38 explored how
neutral, water positive, generate zero waste and to combine eco-efficiency with attractive, user-
enhance the wellbeing of the community. We will oriented urban environments with a high quality of life.
provide affordable housing for key workers as well as European cities, with their cultural and architectural
green skilling and local employment opportunities. qualities, should remain also in the future places where
Just over 50 percent of Barangaroo will be dedicated people want to live, work and travel. The study pointed
public space, including a 2.2 kilometre foreshore out four main issues: integrated urban management
walk and the vibrant, naturalisticHeadland Park. and city leadership; sustainable land-use in poly-
To achieve these goals, Barangaroo infrastructure centric city regions; climate change in the urban
will be developed and implemented by the Authority context; and health, quality of life and public spaces.
and the sites developers across the whole district.
An impressive list of planned actions follows the A more theoretical ecological approach looks for
declaration. conceptual models in nature rather than in technology
and mechanics. Among a group of African academics,

18 Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

there is currently a shift towards seeing cities as for collaborative design and decision-making calls for

Towards more sustainable cities

social-ecological systems in which human social coordination between stakeholders. The collaboration
systems and artifacts such as technology and the has to extend to three tiers: corporate operations,
biophysical systems provided by nature are closely meaning putting own house in order, municipal
coupled. This shift encourages the use of ecological services, and as regional systems. The third principle
concepts such as metabolic flows, adaptive capacity, is A one system approach which can be read as
response diversity, ecosystem resilience and patch another term for integrated planning. An investment
dynamics to find novel solutions to the structure framework that values sustainability and resiliency has
and functioning of the city, while concepts such as the following core elements:
ecological engineering and biomimicry guide the Incorporation of life-cycle costing in all financial
development of form and technological solutions. decision making,
For example, Ecological Performance Standards for Equal attention to protecting and enhancing all
human settlements are developed. Coupled to this is capital assets: manufactured capital, natural
the notion of development that aims to regenerate the capital, social capital, and human capital,
functioning of the social-ecological system in such a Proactive attention to managing all kinds of risk:
way that development has a net positive impact.39 financial risk, sudden disruptions to systems, and
rapid socioeconomic environmental change.
Towards sustainable cities
A sustainable city is never complete or finished, it is
Cities steering towards sustainability take it as a cross- in a continuous process towards sustainability goals.
cutting challenge. As rapidly growing migrant cities As with buildings, single measures alone are not the
try to combat segregation and the negative impacts solution but strategies that target the performance
of extralegal economy and settlements, inclusion and of the city as a whole. According to Jeb Brugmann,
inequity have become the main topics of urban social Progressive transformation is values-driven. People
sustainability. Until recently, economic sustainability and institutions only align their private strategies and
was mainly sold as being able to deliver win-wins instrumental uses of the city to a common strategy
through long-term savings, when and if resource because the ends create a more compelling value
wastage or environmental hazards are going to be for them. Achieving strategic alignment in the urban
prevented, or as additional employment opportunities free-for-all is nearly impossible if local practices of
through energy efficiency refurbishment projects, urbanism do not offer a value proposition that relates
or development of environmental technologies with to the underlying culture of a good part of the city.
global markets. Now, voices are emerging that call for This cultural dimension of cities is perhaps to most
life-cycle thinking into all investment and sustainability subtle aspect of urban strategy.41 Trying to understand
criteria in all movements of money. the transformational capacity of a city requires an
ongoing, careful analysis of local values and history.
According to the vision of the World Bank initiative, an
Eco 2 City40 builds on the synergy and interdependence Are we learning from pilot projects
of ecological and economic sustainability, and their and eco-cities?
fundamental ability to reinforce each other in the urban
context. Cities can improve the quality of life of their Serious sustainability experimentation is a critical part
citizens, enhance their economic competitiveness and of innovation. But scaling it up is a challenge, because
resilience, strengthen their fiscal capacity, and create many of the initiatives are site- and population-specific.
an enduring culture of sustainability. The first of the four However, it is possible to take broad principles and
principles of the initiative is A city based approach apply them elsewhere with the inspiration that comes
underlining the local context. An expanded platform from seeing a whole system work in one place. One of

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector 19

the questions regarding the relevance of pilot projects absence of horizontal integration. The environment
and best practices is whether the learning through department may have a perfect vision, which gets
experience helps us move forward faster. approved, but is never checked against the land
use plan, the transport plan or the housing strategy.
Are we really learning from experience, good and Energy production, water management and provision
bad? In fact, we might learn more from the bad of public transport may not be in the reach of local
experiences which, understandably so, are not broadly political decision making at all. Financial frameworks
disseminated. From the good ones, reliable and overrule. Incentives are split not only along supply
comparable data are not always available, and the chains but also among the decision making silos.
platforms for information sharing are too few. It is often Contradicting decisions, regulations and measures
difficult to make the distinction between greenwash at different levels support unwanted developments.
and real progress. Many experts may be well informed If the use of private car for daily commute is subsidized
about development alternatives but that is not enough, more or taxed lower than using public transport, the
political decision makers should learn, too. result is predictable. In cases like this, cities cannot
counteract negative impacts of national legislation.
In conference presentations extremely few courageous
speakers show the real challenges. Instead, nice Sustainability is about synergy, combined effort
pictures of the city are carefully zoomed so that no one being greater than parts. The imperative of synergy
sees the shady parts of the city. Festivals and one- brings about an increased focus on the regional scale,
off events are good photo opportunities, but to what larger than that of buildings, neighborhoods or even
extend do they add to the real quality of life? entire cities. Integrated urban planning means layering
multiple maps on top of each other and looking
There is also the risk that pilot projects represent for solutions that take into account both natural
lifestyles that are inherently dependant on high levels resources, agricultural reserves and the impact of
of consumption. These solutions respond to the man-made structures.
requirement of protecting the present high standard
of living in the developed world at lower environmental Most urban sustainability challenges do not respect
cost. This approach necessarily calls for high cost borderlines drawn on maps. Infrastructure for public
technological solutions. The need of the developing transport, BRT networks or trains dont have to stop at
world is diametrically opposite. What is called for is the city border. Housing and related basic services are
a progressive upgrading of the present standard of linked with mobility solutions. While most people do
living with modest increase in environmental cost not live and work in the same area any more, planning
and to evolve toward a lifestyle of sufficiency, security and decision-making have to grasp the bigger picture.
and dignity. It is also the task of national governments to support
and be involved in vertical integration, cooperation
This is not to say that best practices are not needed between levels of governance, which includes
or that conferences are not useful but that information appropriate decentralization of decision making
needs to become more facts-based and more powers.
systematic. Methods for information sharing also have
to reach the right people in time. Sustainable urban infrastructure

Integrated policies for sustainable cities Urban infrastructure can be understood in a broad
sense, not only as pipes for freshwater and
A governance system made out of sectoral silos with wastewater, communication, electricity and heating,
poor coordination and coherence leads to lack or roads and rails, networks for waste management,

20 Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

or public transport networks. Urban infrastructure There are great hopes that Information and

Towards more sustainable cities

covers all the hardware and utilities that are needed Communication Technologies (ICT) are going to
to produce and deliver the public services that the help de-materialize a whole range of components
city is responsible for: basic healthcare, education, in the delivery of public services. ICT and smart
social services, elderly care and maintenance of public grids will, eventually, be able to eliminate some of
streets and buildings for example. Even governance the urban mobility needs, through services such as
needs infrastructure. teleconferencing, telecommuting and distant work,
virtual shopping and digitalization of products like
The task of sustainable urban infrastructure is to books and music. ICT can certainly be helpful in
secure universal access to basic services, which making urban governance more transparent, as well
is the prerequisite of inclusive and equitable cities. as in opening access to information and to many
Pricing and cross-subsidies can distribute the burden services. ICT and smart grids may revolutionize
of cost-sharing. Cities have to consider carefully how energy, which will be discussed later.
far, to secure the sustainability of service delivery, it
is imperative to keep the decision making concerning Transport and urban density
basic infrastructure in their own hands, and where
it makes more sense to outsource parts of the According to Alain Bertaud 42 a city structure is
production chain. defined by:
the average density (consumption of land
From the perspective of resource consumption, per person)
sustainable infrastructure has the task to save finite the spatial distribution of densities and population
resources, or, as far as they have to be used, to the pattern of daily trips.
consume them more efficiently, and to increase
the share of renewable resources, recycling and A city structure is deficient when commuting distances
reuse of materials. One of the goals is to prevent for a significant part of the population are too long to
urban sprawl and to minimize mobility needs. The be travelled within a reasonable travel time or/and at
infrastructures themselves are utilized more efficiently, a reasonable cost. The structure is also deficient if the
when the networks serve more people at shorter spatial distribution of population and the pattern of
distances. Because resources are used in production, trips are incompatible with the main mode of transport
consumption and wastage, the cycle can be impacted affordable to the poor. The population density of a
from all sides: supply and demand, and reduction of city is an indicator of land consumption. The lower the
waste at every step. density, the larger is the city built-up area, the longer
is the commuting distance. There are no optimum
Regarding infrastructure, cities are at different densities, but low densities are incompatible with
crossroads: older cities with their existing structures transit, and high densities are incompatible with private
are in need of refurbishment and incremental or radical cars as a main mean of transport.
improvements, while urban areas to be newly built
have to make the choice between either business- Post World War II North America is an example of
as-usual solutions or systemic changes. Quantum how the development of extensive highway systems
leaps will require, for example, a full shift to renewable had an enormous impact on suburban development.
energy sources and distributed energy production, Cars were popular and affordable, land was
or mobility solutions that are not based on the private cheap on the periphery of cities, and government
automobile. policies including cheap mortgages promoted home
ownership. The US 1956 National Interstate and
Defense Highway Act poured vast amounts of money

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector 21

into highway systems that made suburban living and Throughout urban history, cities would grow
commutes to work and shopping feasible. Zoning around harbours. At regional and country level, the
regulations originally developed to address the importance of logistics networks and infrastructure
overcrowded and unsanitary cities of the 19 th century keeps gaining weight. The growing volumes and speed
resulted in a separation of uses that reinforced car of international trade require bigger and more efficient
dependency.43 airports, harbours, feeder rails and roads.

Figure 4. 3D representation of the spatial distribution of population in 7 metropolis represented at

the same scale

Source: Bertaud, Alain, power point presentation made in Pretoria.

22 Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

At present, transport solutions are linked with three of mobility in urban centres may be under 10 percent.

Towards more sustainable cities

primary concerns: urban sprawl, climate change and This is a dead-end approach.
equal access to services and workplace. A major
share of CO2 emissions is caused by transport, and Non-motorized traffic is being discussed in every
to reduce them, solutions range from technological, city, not least because walking is in many cities the
behavioural and fiscal to infrastructural. The IEA only choice for the poorest citizen. However, also
projects 44 that all of the net increase in oil demand walking and cycling need a proper infrastructure
(2010-2035) will come from the transport sector in to be safe. Sometimes people crossing streets are
emerging economies, as economic growth pushes considered the cause for traffic accidents, instead
up demand for personal mobility and freight. The total of the drivers. Cities dont have Departments for
number of passenger cars would double to almost Pedestrians and Cyclists, yet. Zero-emission modes
1.7 billion in 2035. of transport have no market value, and they cannot be
financed through land development or loans.
Urban sprawl is mostly accredited to reliance on the
private car as the prime mode of transport. Location 1.4 million people are killed on the worlds roads each
of parking at home and at destinations is decisive for year, and 50 million people are injured, many disabled
the consumers choice: if the car is close to you, you as a result. 90 percent of these casualties occur in
use it. However, also train networks can force people developing countries, where road crashes kill more
to move out of city centres. This hits the poorest people than malaria. The economic cost to developing
the hardest, because the more moderately priced countries is at least US$100 billion a year, because
housing is located far away along the railroad line. As a injuries place immense burdens on hospitals and
countermeasure, some cities make an effort to provide health systems.
space for low-income and even informal housing near
central areas, within walking distance to employment Sustainable buildings and construction
opportunities for people with lower skills.45
In cities, we live in a built environment that should
Cities have always been places that offer better be in balance with the natural environment. In terms
access to services than rural communities, but some of resource use, buildings take up a lions share.
cities are now losing this advantage. Urban sprawl is 25 to 40 percent of produced energy is consumed
a challenge not only because of the increased fossil in the construction and operation of buildings. This
energy consumption, air pollution and CO2 emissions. results into approximately 30 to 40 percent of all
Travelling greater distances takes more time, the street CO2 emissions. Of solid waste, 30 to 40 percent
networks take up more valuable urban land and all comes from construction. In terms of economy,
other urban infrastructures are not used efficiently. As buildings represent a massive share of public and
a societal loss, human scale structures and activities private property. As we have learned from recent
disappear from the urban landscape, be they street collapses in different parts of the world, the stability
vendors, cafes or any other human encounters. of financial markets is linked with the long-term value
of real estate as collateral. In terms of employment,
Congestion is frequently identified by people as the construction sector generates 5 to 10 percent
the main problem of urban transport. This leads to a of jobs 46. The construction industry is possibly
diagnosis, which starts by looking at cars. Research the second largest source of employment after
tends to focus on existing structures, which impact agriculture.47 Furthermore, buildings and the real
peoples behaviour. As a result, research provides data estate business provide also service sector jobs in
on cars, leads to requests for more structures for cars, management and maintenance.
and traffic planning focuses on cars even if their share

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector 23

The estimated rate of urbanization means that in In countries with a large stock of existing buildings, its
2030 about 1,400 million more people will live in cities renovation is crucial. Experience in northern Europe
than in 2010. About 1,300 million of the new city indicates that low-income housing can be successfully
dwellers are going to be in developing countries.48 retrofitted for profit. The Million Homes programme in
Theyll all need homes, services and places to work Sweden is a good example of this. Homes built to tight
new buildings. In the coming years, there will be budgets in the 1970s are now being renovated to a
more construction on the globe than ever before. The high standard with a heavy focus on energy efficiency
impacts of those buildings are long term. that can take them right down to passive performance
levels. Savings from reduced energy costs can be an
The urgency of climate change mitigation has meant important element of economic justification for such
that energy consumption and CO2 emissions from projects.50
buildings and construction have in recent years been
discussed more than other ecological aspects. The In terms of legal and regulatory changes, the rate
complete picture is bigger. Economic sustainability of change needs to accelerate. Legislation and
counts both the initial investment in land, design regulation should be based on best practice rather
and construction, and the cost of maintaining and than compromise. When a particular solution is proven
operating the building and its value as collateral. to be commercially viable, it should become the
Social and societal sustainability cover issues benchmark. The gap between cycles of legislation and
such as availability of appropriate housing for all, regulation needs to be tighter. If business is to take a
fair trade of construction materials, transparency in greater role in solving the challenges of today, greater
tendering for contracts, and protection of cultural consistency and longevity of signals in the markets
heritage. Sustainable construction also means decent are essential. Too many examples exist of regulatory,
jobs, for example in maintenance and renovation of legislative and price signals being pushed into markets
buildings and infrastructure.49 by governments only for them to be changed before
the end of term for reasons of political expediency.
Sustainable construction does not have to be high- Policies probably work best within a national context.
tech, quite the contrary. Passive design principles Supra-national policies such as EU Directives may or
mean low-energy, zero-emission designs, which may not help.
dramatically reduce building energy use. Buildings can
take advantage of cooling breezes and natural cross- The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
ventilation, storing solar heat or shading and night- (IPCC) 51 highlighted the European Union Directive on
flush cooling, depending on the season, maximizing the energy performance of buildings (2002) as one of
day-lighting and similar basic principles. the most comprehensive pieces of regulation targeted
at the improvement of energy efficiency in buildings.
Not sufficiently recognized is the need for conversion The more recent directives require that as of 2021 all
of existing technologies into simpler affordable new buildings will have to consume nearly zero energy,
forms, and for innovations to address the needs of and the energy consumed will have to originate to a
the present developmental stage as well as local large extent from renewable sources tapped by the
specificities of climate and of building methods. There building or in its vicinity. All buildings undergoing major
is a critical need for research and development of renovation (25% of the surface) will need to improve
innovative affordable solutions for operational energy their energy performance. The legislation required
requirements for thermal comfort in buildings, member states to list incentives, from technical
and for low embodied energy construction materials assistance and subsidies to low-interest loans, for the
and techniques. transition to near-zero-energy buildings.52

24 Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

However, without strong control from the centre and the impact remains insignificant or even negative. Green

Towards more sustainable cities

even stronger oversight of implementation, no policy Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA),
is going to be effective. That is why zero tolerance on the national rating system of India, is an encouraging
corruption is fundamental also in construction. example of a region-specific tool. For the time being,
it is being promoted throughout the country and a
For the assessment of building performance, more number of ministries and states have already adopted
than 600 rating systems are available worldwide. it. Government of Karnataka recently announced
They span from simple energy consumption evaluation mandatory compliance with GRIHA, adopting the rating
to life cycle analysis with ecological focus to total system for all future construction.57
quality assessments.53 The systems have different
tasks, depending on which questions they are Experts are concerned that, first of all, ratings and
supposed to answer. Some assess the predicted certificates do not push development forward fast
performance at the design stage, others the actual enough but actually stall it. Secondly, the impact of
performance of the existing building. To what is the a single building is hardly ever relevant unless it is
performance of the building being compared is part of a community and served by infrastructure that
it compared to set standards or to other similar are sustainable. Another way to say this is to call for
buildings? A rating can give a result only relative to integrated planning, systemic thinking and holistic
a norm or benchmark. viewpoints also when buildings, construction and
renovation are concerned.
Before selecting a tool, some questions should
be asked: For what purpose is the performance A building does not become sustainable simply by
assessment needed e.g., for evaluating returns adding up green construction materials and elements.
on real estate investments or for measuring national The long supply chain that involves several actors is
contributions to climate change mitigation? The most largely dysfunctional. It has typically been designed to
simple certificates that are marketed worldwide, are transfer risk from one party to another, and each party
popular among the real estate development and in the supply chain is has been accountable for just
investment industry that uses them for branding their own piece 58. However, from the point of view of
as tokens of reliability.54 A system with a number of sustainability, only the performance of the entire
different level indicators is tempting for users that building during its lifetime matters. This is why
are more interested in easy credits than ambitious policies are moving away from prescribing fool proof
development.55 It allows for cherry-picking, while solutions, like telling how thick the thermal insulation
some credits are much easier to fulfill than others; of a roof should be, to asking for a minimum energy
for example arranging space for bicycles or providing performance of the building, for example.
office spaces with windows as compared with
reducing total annual CO2 emissions from the building There are strong expectations that certificates or hi-
by 30%. technology solutions could solve the challenge. That is
not going to happen. Innovations at the low-tech end
The increased exportation and importation of the major have much bigger impact, because their volumes are
assessment methods worldwide is also an exportation radically bigger. For example the global trend towards
and importation of their cultural underpinnings and thinner exterior walls has meant that the facades have
has potentially adverse long-term consequences for no thermal mass and the need for air-conditioning
promoting regionally-specific practices.56 The selection (AC) has exploded. The solution is not more green
of right performance levels and weighting criteria needs AC equipment but buildings that perform better, with
good understanding of local conditions. If this is missing thicker walls, maybe.
and the chosen criteria are too easy,

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector 25

Sustainable buildings continue to be regarded as a level for status quo on fossil fuels and nuclear energy
marginal share of new construction, the icing on the are no secret. Cities are quite powerless unless they
cake. The lack of understanding of the potential of have a firm grip on municipally owned or otherwise
sustainable construction and its co-benefits for the local energy production that is based on local
poor is a bigger barrier to mainstreaming sustainable renewable sources.
construction than lack of technology. At the same
time, lack of consumer demand fails to stimulate IEAs message about infrastructure is particularly
competition on the market, supported by lack of alarming: Four-fifths of the total energy-related
incentives and split incentives along the supply chain CO2 emissions permissible by 2035 in a 450 ppm
of the sustainable building process. Municipal building scenario are already locked-in by our existing
controls dont use their muscle but reinforce the capital stock (power plants, buildings, factories, etc.).
implementation gap. Legislation, rules and bylaws If stringent new action is not forthcoming by 2017, the
may exist nationally, but their implementation is not energy-related infrastructure then in place will generate
enforced locally. all the CO2 emissions allowed in the 450 scenario up
to 2035, leaving no room for additional power plants,
Energy systems for decentralized prosumption factories and other infrastructure unless they are
zero-carbon, which would be extremely costly. But
The most recent World Energy Outlook 59 by the delaying action is a false economy: for every $1 of
International Energy Agency (IEA) presents a gloomy investment avoided in the power sector before 2020
picture: There are few signs that the urgently needed an additional $4.3 would need to be spent after 2020
change in direction in global energy trends is to compensate for the increased emissions.
underway. Global primary energy demand has pushed
CO2 emissions to a new high in 2010. Subsidies that Energy production and distribution tend to be the
encourage wasteful consumption of fossil fuels jumped sector where the greatest expectations are put on
to over $400 billion. The number of people without much lauded new technologies, while energy savings
access to electricity remained at 1.3 billion, around a behavioural challenge and energy efficiency of
20% of the worlds population, and 2.7 billion people products and service delivery are not promoted with
still rely on the traditional use of biomass for cooking. the same enthusiasm. However, it would be highly
Despite the priority in many countries to increase uneconomical to produce renewable energy with
energy efficiency, global energy intensity worsened expensive technologies only to be wasted in inefficient
for the second straight year. The IEA notes that products, buildings or infrastructure.
non-OECD countries account for 90% of population
growth, 70% of the increase in economic output and Existing technologies can increase the efficiency of
90% of energy demand growth over the period from resource use, for example co-generation (CHP) and tri-
2010 to 2035. generation of electricity, heating and cooling. Efficiency
of infrastructure is increased by district heating and
After the accident at a nuclear power plant in cooling systems. However, as long as coal or other
Fukushima, Japan, people in many countries have fossil energy resource is used, the technologies
expressed strong views against increasing the reduce the CO2 emissions only marginally. A small
production of nuclear energy. Germany made a number of frontrunners, such as Masdar in Abu Dhabi
renewed decision to close down its nuclear power and San Jos in California have set the ambitious
plants. According to the IEA, however, while creating goal of being carbon neutral or having zero emissions
opportunities for renewables, a low-nuclear future within a certain time span.
would boost demand for fossil fuels. At the same time,
the strong vested interests at national and international

26 Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

The City of Vxj in Sweden is famous for using are already testing smart grids at city scale. Evora

Towards more sustainable cities

biomass as fuel for heating. The biomass consists in Portugal is among the pioneers. The intelligent
of woodchips, which are a side product of the forest technological platform aims to equip the electricity
industry in the region. The discussion about the grid with information and devices to automate
possible serious conflicts between food security and grid management, improve service quality, reduce
non-local production of biomass continues. However, operating costs, promote energy efficiency, and
also ecologically viable suggestions are presented, increase the penetration of renewable energies and
such as reforestation of wastelands to produce palm oil, electric vehicles. It will be possible to control and
using the ground and topsoil for small-scale farming. manage the state of the entire electricity distribution
grid at any given instant.62 The City of Rotterdam in the
Some of the most promising technologies are in Netherlands is implementing a project for smart grids
building-integrated PV, urban wind turbines, micro in homes and a project in which homeowners invest
CHP and solar cooling. It is possible to have on- in a collective solar energy generation system (self-
site electrical generation and energy storage in supply). This is going to be a sizeable practical trial
combination with a smart grid, which integrates local with smart grids and a trial with the self-generation of
solar and wind generation, utilizing energy-efficiency solar-energy.63
in all its forms. Solar hot water systems are already
compulsory in some cities. Jeremy Rifkin has spoken 64 about democratizing
energy through the post-carbon Third Industrial
Smart grid solutions integrate technologies and Revolution and a new distributed social vision. This
services in the fields of IT, data communication, is not an off-the-shelf implementation plan but offers
energy automation, and rail electrification. They food for thought while it suggests linking existing
pave the way for efficient grids, intelligent power Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
distribution and consumption as well as electromobility solutions with local renewable energy sources.
and smart buildings. Created synergies mean that The vision is founded on his analysis of how major
electricity prices can be flexibly adapted to supply changes in human consciousness have occurred
and demand, and markets can better react to price throughout history. They take place when two things
fluctuations. The integration of distributed generators happen simultaneously; new forms or resources of
and consumer management through microgrids energy are discovered, and communication methods
and demand response becomes possible. In the are revolutionized, which leads to different ways of
field of rail electrification, for example, modern organizing communities. According to Rifkin, the
converters connect public grids and railway networks contemporary change is based on a new biosphere
transparently, and railway systems can be used consciousness and the ICT revolution, which has
as energy storage facilities. Energy users become introduced also the concept of open source and
prosumers with smart grids: they can be both power flat hierarchies. While old energies require massive
consumers and producers and control their power infusions of investment and military power to secure
consumption in a cost-optimized and environmentally them, the third industrial revolution is going to
responsible manner.60 distribute the energies found on every square feet
of the earth. Every creature on this planet has a
In Smart City visions intelligence and remote fundamental right to their fair share of the energy,
sensors are built into the very fabric of the city and he claims. Rifkin opposes heavy new infrastructure,
its buildings and use computing power to monitor such as the European Supergrid plan, but promotes
and constantly adjust for optimal efficiency.61 Even if energy cooperatives and an intergrid similar to the
high-tech is not the only answer to more sustainable internet.[] the same design principles and smart
systemic energy solutions, some municipalities technologies that made possible the internet, and vast

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector 27

distributed global communication networks, are just different forms in over 50 countries worldwide. An FIT
beginning to be used to reconfigure the worlds power provides three key provisions to renewable electricity
grids so that people can produce renewable energy generators: a guaranteed grid connection, a long term
and share it peer-to-peer, just like they now produce contract, and a fixed price sufficient for a reasonable
and share information, creating a new, decentralized return on investment.66 The FIT is not an uncontroversial
form of energy use. We need to envision a future in solution. The technological solutions and new jobs dont
which millions of individuals can collect and produce always support the local economy, as anticipated. The
locally generated renewable energy in their homes, policy has also been criticized for being too expensive.
offices, factories, and vehicles, store that energy in the We continue to be long ways from transparent and fair
form of hydrogen, and share their power generation pricing of energy to guide the choices.
with each other across a continent-wide intelligent
intergrid. (Hydrogen is a universal storage medium Cities as agents of behavioural change
for intermittent renewable energies; just as digital is
a universal storage mechanism for text, audio, video, Researchers 67 point out that urbanization as such
data and other forms of media.) 65 does not cause increased resource use per person.
For the same level of income, material and energy use
Even if this futuristic vision may seem remote to per capita is usually lower in cities than in the rural
the majority of existing cities today, it is most relevant context. The reason for higher consumption in cities is
for those being refurbished or built now. After the the rising level of household income. This creates the
prevalence of large centralized solutions the new sustainability challenge of the upwards mobile urban
aim is to have a distributed energy supply through lifestyle.
a decentralized system, utilizing local renewable
energy sources. This would transform buildings and Theoretically, there is only one way to sustainable
city districts into local power stations, which would use consumption: the absence of unsustainable
solar photovoltaic (PV), solar thermal, wind (on- and alternatives! As long as the sustainable product or
off-shore), biomass, geothermal power, mini-hydro service is only one choice among several, it is difficult
energy and other renewable fuels and technologies. to blame the citizen for choosing wrong. But cities are
Also residual heat, waste and methane from biowaste not powerless, quite the contrary.
can be used as local energy resources, biogas in
particular as a fuel for vehicles. If public transport is not available, reliable and
comfortable to use, everyone who has the choice,
All of these visions put a heavy burden on cities is going to take their own car. If the pedestrian
in helping builders make every house an energy environment is not safe and pleasant, the car is
producer. This requires information centers, preferred even for short distances, which would be a
campaigns and fair subsidy systems as well as nice walk away. Measures that may seem marginal and
creating demand to get banks interested in lending for dont need huge investments can be decisive: giving
small operators. Some cities or metropolitan regions priority to pedestrians, not forcing them to climb steep
have decided to establish an energy information office. stairs through either dark tunnels or high overpasses
The German Federal State of Nord-Rhein-Westphalia to avoid traffic, painting stripes for pedestrian
has also an Energy consulting bus driving from place crossings, installing traffic lights, providing broad
to place to meet people who need advice. sidewalks and planting trees to shade public spaces
from excessive sun. To make parking available at a
As a successful policy tool to push a shift to renewable low or no cost in city centres is an invitation, while the
energy, the German Feed-in-Tariff (FIT) is often quoted. opposite makes public transport an easier alternative
It was introduced in 2000 and has been applied in that saves time and money.

28 Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

Whatever is built or refurbished by the public sector,

Towards more sustainable cities

either for its own use or with public subsidies, should
go far beyond the minimum legal requirements in
energy and water efficiency and waste management.
When making a decision about energy production, the
city decides on behalf of its citizens, whether they can
shift to renewable energy or not.

Sustainable public procurement68 can ensure that all

products and services that are purchased with public
money, fulfil the criteria of sustainable production not
only the envelopes and a few cars but everything;
laundry and cleaning services, the fire trucks and
public transit buses, catering in hospitals, schools
and cafeterias, everything! The citizen may have a
hard time finding organically produced food from the
region in supermarkets, but the city, for example, can
offer public space for free for local farmers to sell their
sustainable products.

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector 29

 Governance
for more
sustainable cities

Looking with sharp eyesight, cities can be read as cities to implement the plans decided above. This
political text; haphazard high-rise developments mindset is slowly changing, even if ministries often
with glass facades next to informal housing without tend to think that they know better than the municipal
basic services and coherent public space witness of civil servants. This means a continuous balancing
missing political will, corruption and lack of holistic act regarding the right degrees of decentralization
visions. Cities and buildings always reflect the values and centralization that is, defining the mandate and
of their decision makers at the time. Most countries power space of cities.
have excellent planning laws in place, but they dont
get implemented, or they are bypassed. Sustainability Ten years ago, water resource management was
targets are left hostage of poor governance and the common priority issue for municipalities in all
exclusion of citizen. world regions, regardless of their economic situation.
Similarly, all cities listed lack of both financial support
The power space of cities and national government political commitment as
key obstacles to greater success.69 In this regard,
The old centralized message to cities used to be that not much has changed, but new items have been
national governments need to have cooperation from brought to the urban agendas, as has been discussed
above. This has meant greater challenges to urban Finding a financing model for cities and metropolitan

Governance for more sustainable cities

governance and cities ability to involve different levels areas is a balancing act between local and national
of government, citizen and other stakeholders. governments. If local governments move toward
budgetary independence, significant tax assignment
Urban sustainability requires appropriate structures is implied. The property tax and user charges alone
and open processes, which continue to be missing in will not carry the expenditure load. Local residence-
many cities. Even if decentralization, or subsidiarity, based earnings tax or a share of commerce/industry
as the Europeans call it, and public participation are tax can lead to unhealthy tax competition within the
broadly accepted as worthy goals, at all levels there area, while the other solution is heavy reliance on
is an inherent reluctance to delegate power. But the intergovernmental transfers to finance local services.
sustainable city cannot be managed from above and
outside, it requires a democratic city government and There is room for metropolitan (area-wide)
leadership, chosen by the people and accountable to governments to contribute more to the financing
them. An electoral system alone does not implement all of services in the metropolitan area. A residence-
contemporary requirements of democratic governance, based income tax, with an appropriate commuter
it requires ongoing discussion and platforms for the charge, is an alternative. Taxation could support an
debate. A local government must have the right powers, intra-metropolitan equalization fund and revenue
finances and human resources to enable it to develop sharing. Some other taxes that are appropriate for a
high quality public policies, and to work with other levels metropolitan taxing district are the property tax, or
of government and with other municipalities. at least the commercial/industrial portion of it, and
taxes on motor vehicle licenses. User charges would
It is always going to be a political decision to define continue to play a major role in financing the regional
the power space of cities, how broad or how narrow district, but grants from higher level governments
it could and should be. What can cities influence, what would not.70 A too heavy dependence on national
not? Delegation of powers, of course, requires that funding would work against the ideal of subsidiarity
the corresponding capacity and financial and human and independence. Also, the principles of national
resources follow. Table 3 attempts to raise some of funding to change depending on the priorities of the
these questions. government in power, but the metropolitan area has to
be able to work with longer-term visions than national
Sustainable financing for cities electoral periods.

Polluter pays is the well known principle that can be However, as essential as the source of financing are
adopted in cities, as well. Real estate tax related to the criteria that are used for investments and service
energy efficiency, cross-subsidies (parking to public provision. This is the area where sustainability criteria
transport etc), fees dependent on consumption (the are urgently needed, for all decisions that concern the
more you use water, the more you pay per litre), or use of public money.
subsidies with sustainability criteria are just a few
examples of how the principle can be implemented to
get financial resources for the local government. Many
cities are not in the position to issue municipal bonds,
but depend on national governments for access to
financial and capital markets. The initial lure of public-
private partnerships (PPPs) as an easy source of
finance may have weakened after cities have faced the
challenges linked with them.

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector 31

Table 3. Do cities have the mandate and resources to drive sustainability?

PUBLIC ENERGY /
ENERGY / MOBILITY / MOBILITY /
BUILDINGS / BUILDINGS; PRODUCTION;
LAND USE INFRASTUC- INFRASTUC- PUBLIC FINANCING
REGULATION leading by leading by
TURE TURE TRANSPORT
example example

Local Approval of Approval of Complete Depends Varies; some Decision on Almost Major
autonomy land use and city-specific (as far as on financial have own utility, construction complete investments
zoning plans guidelines, fulfils national resources. others rely on and autonomy to (e.g. metro)
full powers in minimum multinational maintenance plan the service need national
building permits standard) providers of streets, and cross- funding
walkways, bike subsidize
routes

Dependence If national Minimum Is national High due to High; strong Is national Does national Depends on
on higher government standards set funding even supra- lobbies, (supra) funding legislation the need for
levels of changes the by (supra-) required and national grids national needed? guide taxation subsidies from
govmnt or plans, are national conditional? directives Has the and subsidies? national gov.
private sector the criteria legislation infrastucture
transparent? national roles?

Cities Urban plans Building Selected High if own High; access to High; pricing High; use
possibility influence control can solutions can production; public transport and quality of of cross-
to influence density and guide builders impact user pricing as and safe walk- public transport subsidization
choices and mobility and monitor behavior and incentive, ways, price of services as stick and
behavior of patterns, time implement. experiment supply of parking carrot
individuals spent renewable
energy

Main Corruption, Corruption, lax Poor Lack of Lack of Path Lack or poor Lack of
bottlenecks limited land follow-up maintenance neighbor- Feed-in-Tariffs dependence quality of public financial
ownership of hood scale and similar on existing transport resources and
the city infrastucture incentives, lack road networks, limited access
for renewable of appropriate designed for to credit
energy technologies cars only

Source: Authors elaboration.

Transparent governance estimated at 20% and for the non-OECD countries at

14.50% of GDP. Across Europe public procurement
Transparency International (TI) is a global civil society makes up around 17% of GDP, but at the local/regional
organization that publishes annually a corruption level public procurement can easily reach the double
perceptions index, which measures the perceived of that in terms of percentage of public expenditure.
levels of public sector corruption in 183 countries and For example, public procurement accounts for 40% of
territories. The index uses data from 17 surveys that the city budget in Helsinki and 30% in Stockholm.72
look at factors such as enforcement of anti-corruption
laws, access to information and conflicts of interest. The bigger the deal, for example large infrastructure
TI states that corruption continues to plague too many projects, the more tempting it is for bribery. The
countries around the world. Some governments fail to purpose of corruption is to avoid meeting agreed
protect citizens from corruption, be it abuse of public targets or to deviate from rules of equity. It often starts
resources, bribery or secretive decision-making.71 when powerful interest groups lobby against the
introduction of sustainability policies, or a landowner
The public sector is a big client for the private sector. does not want to adhere to a land use plan, or an
For the OECD countries as a whole, in 2002 the share industry tries to cover up pollution. The real estate and
of total procurement (consumption and investment construction sectors are infamous for shady deals,
expenditure) of GDP for all levels of government was and local authorities are often unwilling to curtail

32 Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

the operations of polluting industries that provide involvement of citizen. On the one hand, user

Governance for more sustainable cities

significant local employment, fiscal revenues and experience is necessary when public services are
economic growth. Incentives for lax enforcement of developed. In this regard, cities are looking for models
environmental and labor policies are even stronger from the industry that applies methods such as focus
when local authorities or individuals within them groups, customer surveys and user tests when new
directly own stakes in these polluting industries or are products are developed, before they are brought to
improperly influenced by them. the market. On the other hand, inclusion of all groups
established and marginalized, women and men,
Transparency of sustainable governance means both young and old, migrants and natives means that the
zero tolerance on corruption and open access to challenge of equity is taken seriously.
public information. India, for example, has a Right to
information -act and as a practical measure, the City of It is important to acknowledge that governments act
Bangalore has installed e-kiosks, where citizen can get differently in different places. Similarly, it is crucial to
in touch with the municipal administration. see the enormous potential of informal cities and to
develop tools and processes for co-development.
Inclusive and participatory governance While levels of participation in some form of collective
action have increased, even if the forms may not
The Local Agenda 21 (LA21) movement was rooted always be recognizable as a coherent social or
in the Agenda 21 of Rio. National governments political force, they are opportunities for participants to
encouraged local authorities to implement the Agenda rehearse various practices of negotiation, collaborative
21 locally, as recommended in Chapter 28 of the exchange, and strategic planning.
document. The simple idea was to bring the goals of
sustainable development to the local level, the level of Many more formal methods of public participation have
governance closest to the people, and the level where already been widely tested and practiced, different
decisions hit the ground in a most concrete way. In forms of e-governance and participative budgeting
cities and villages, decisions turn from declarations as prime examples. Hardly anything else can express
and papers to brick and concrete, water and energy, more clearly the local governments confidence in the
primary education and healthcare, to housing, roads citizens ability to decide about their own future than
and parks or dont. Local Agenda 21 was designed handing them the purse strings, allowing a direct
to be a participatory process, through which citizens, involvement with some of the investments or services
together with civil servants and local politicians, would in their city.
create a common agenda for development. Since
1992, thousands of city councils have approved a Interactive internet and the so called new social media
Local Agenda 21. In 2012, the need for inclusion and are exciting tools but they cannot be the only platform
participation is more urgent than ever and well have to for participatory governance. However, expanding
find new platforms and processes for that, not only to ICT use can enable people to play an active role in
follow encouragement from outside but to implement policy design and decision-making processes, by
local self-government from within and democratize providing the tools and networks through which to
sustainable development. make their voice and needs heard. The two-way
communication between citizens and government
City Councils and Mayors elected by popular vote officials, enabled through ICT and especially through
are regarded as symbols of local democracy. mobile technologies and social networks, is critical
Representative democracy is essential, but cities for democratic processes for and ensuring that
in all parts of the world have learned that it has to people in underserved areas have equal voice. Helen
be complemented by an active and well-informed Clark, UNDP Administrator, spoke at a conference

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector 33

on Cyberspace about the transformative power The local government and communities agreed on
that voices from the grassroots can have.Where a division of the city into sixteen different regions for
governments are not responsive these channels investment allocation. The process involves a series
also take on a life of their own as in the Arab States of regional popular assemblies (rodadas or rounds)
region this year, where we saw the demands of people which review the previous years public investments,
increasingly communicated through social media local taxation and next years budget. Each region
channels, such as Facebook, Twitter, blogs, and text elects two representatives (volunteers from the
messages, rather than being controlled through or communities) to the Participative Budget Council
blocked by traditional media and elected politicians. (COP), which is responsible for preparing the city
I am told of one demonstrator who said that they budget proposal and establishing the criteria for next
used Facebook to mobilise, Twitter to live report, and years investment allocation as well as controlling its
YouTube to broadcast their stories.73 implementation. The Participative Budget institutions,
such as the COP, are autonomous and not legally
Learning from Porto Alegre and institutionalised. This characteristic provides
participative budgeting74 independence and flexibility and allows a continuous
improvement of the process.
The learning from Porto Alegre goes far beyond the
use of tax money. Since 1989, the city has supported From 1994 on, next to the regional assemblies, five
community participation. Every year, more than twenty thematic plenaries were created to debate and
thousand people discuss how to use around 17% of elaborate city-wide issues: transport, economic
the citys budget. Organised communities negotiate, development and taxation, city organisation and
establish criteria for resource allocation, present their urban development, health and social assistance,
priorities and control government expenditures. and education, culture and leisure. Each thematic
plenary also elects two representatives to the COP.
The process of participative budgeting required a The participation mechanism is all-inclusive: every
transformation of existing governance structures. citizen may attend the plenaries, which are announced
The beginning was fraught with difficulties and was through the neighbourhood associations and the media.
met with scepticism by a public already tired of empty
promises. Neither the administration nor the people The primary aim of the Participative Budget was to
had a clear idea of what they were creating. At first, as address the political rights of those marginalised from
expected, the population insisted in having the works decision-making. It sought to democratize public
that had not been executed so far. And this was a very structures and procedures and it is claimed to have
tall order. also resulted in an effective allocation of resources.
The process has meant a total reversal of priorities in
A first step was to improve municipal financial capacity local government interventions and has given birth to a
to be able to face the repressed demands that now strong social agenda to prioritize the needs of the poor.
found their way. In 1989, 98% of the municipal budget
was already committed to pay civil servants. More than The strengthening of civil society organisations has
15 bills concerning taxes were sent to the City Council, also allowed for more citizen control over government
all of them following the principle who owns more action in a variety of areas beyond investments
pays more. 14 were approved, with strong support from public servant contracting to the quality and
from the population. Garbage collection service and level of service provision. A non-governmental public
other fees were updated. sphere has been created through a political contract
between community organisations, in particular, and
the local government. In cities implementing LA21

34 Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

without public involvement in budget decisions, individual citizens, the management of delivery

Governance for more sustainable cities

Participative Budget could be a radical way of moving systems through entrepreneurial organizations and
it forward. practices, and the liberalization of regulation as applied
to market transactions, far from dampening the
Governing African urban futures75 expectations and demands of lower-income groups,
has only intensified them. Levels of participation in
Even if the urban sustainability challenges are some form of collective action have increased. While
surprisingly similar all over the world, every city, the particular forms of collectivity may not always be
country and continent has its own history that has recognizable as a coherent social or political force,
a strong impact on the culture of governance and they are opportunities for participants to rehearse
the relationship between individuals, families and various practices of negotiation, collaborative
the society. That is why only some principles can be exchange, and strategic planning.
transferred from place to place, but theyll have to be
adapted carefully to the local context. In order to be Likewise, just because governments are designated
able to do that, the characteristics of the place have to as such, with specific legal authority and status as
be analyzed and understood profoundly. Otherwise all sovereign powers, does not mean that they have
the ideal models of transparent government and active similar ways of operating across different contexts.
public participation are useless. Nor are those differences simply differences in
development stages or sequences that can be
Professor AbdouMaliq Simone has studied and written captured by auditing and accountability. Governments
a lot about African society and cities. (Editors note: act differently in different places because they are
This is an exceptionally long quote from a number of situated in other relationships. Sometimes ties of
articles by him. Ive not been able or wanted to common ethnicity will straddle national borders;
summarize his rich message and wonderful language.) sometimes governments will attempt to involve
According to him, they are today sites of intense themselves across a wide variety of national localities
contestation. Various forms of political turmoil and civil or communities; at other times, government will only
conflict are long familiar. But there is also contestation pay attention to specific groups or places. These
among different social groupings, ethnicities, elites relationships shape and curtail what they are able to
and political formations that does not produce marked do regardless of the prevailing juridical and political
ruptures but instead a kind of continuous volatility. frameworks that recognize them as governments.
There is contestation in terms of the fundamental
rights and obligations embedded in relationships As such, the greater visibility of demands for justice,
between children and parents, between extended democracy, efficiency, and morality that is taking place
family members, between men and women, patrons across African cities is a fruitful place to support a
and clients, citizens and government officials. Basic process where political contestation can be waged
questions as to the place of self-initiative, individual in terms of those who have been previously kept out
decision-making and the conditions of belonging to of the process. But what the poor actually win in
family and other social groups are intensely debated. such a process largely depends on the existence of
People are working out many different kinds of political parties and institutionalized policies that back-
accommodation between the needs of autonomous up claims for right. Here, the problem is that more
individual action and the security of life that largely powerful political forces can define the categories and
remains rooted in long-term forms of social belonging. identities through which these claims can be made.
The growth of religious movements, both Christian and
During the past decades notions of governance Muslim are having an important impact in reasserting
based on the self-initiative and responsibility of practices of economic advancement outside of

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector 35

patronage and communal systems. They also express
commitments to the value of hard work, education and
solidarity across ethnic and regional groupings. How
far such religious movements can go in giving rise to
a new generation of entrepreneurship is contingent
upon the extent to which the elite succeed in capturing
these movements for their own economic and political
objectives and how much pastors and imams use
these movements to become a new elite.

There are no clear cut ways out of these dilemmas.

The effectiveness, for example, of local governments
can depend upon the interactions of a wide variety
of factors. Here, the residues of more authoritarian
decision-making arrangements may remain important
ingredients. Complete dependence upon various forms
of local democracy sometimes can actually make
decision-making, participation, and service provision
more problematic. Sometimes granting institutional
autonomy to health clinics, schools, and other
service providers to constitute locally specific staff
and operational procedures will effectively harmonize
relationships between providers and clients.

36 Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

 Recommendations:
Ten steps on
the way forward

It would be misleading to categorize conclusions loans on international money markets. That is where
or recommendations according to region or level of their attitude to traditional versus high technology or
development. Cities in the North keep learning from commercial versus non-market solutions becomes
cities in the South Curitiba and Porto Alegre as significant: are cities able to come up with innovative
prime examples. In most major cities, the developed solutions that do not depend on the most expensive
and the developing world coexist in some form, technology and maintenance requirements? The
creating the tensions of segregation and the challenge development of the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) model
of inclusion. Inclusion is not a separate issue but in Curitiba, instead of a traditional subway system
an approach that has to be taken when decisions requiring heavy investments, is a prime example.
about governance, participation, public transport and
urban infrastructure are prepared and made. One of 1. Inclusive and locally rooted visions
the most decisive factors that puts cities in different of 21st century cities for all
categories is their ability to access financing, be it by
collecting taxes and fees for service, getting a share There is no one top-down solution to urban
of tax income from their national governments, or by sustainability but a wealth of bottom-up approaches
being able to issue municipal bonds or get low-interest instead. One of the strengths of cities in both poor and
wealthier countries is the initiative and inventiveness Cities all over the world need inclusive pro-poor
of their citizens. Seizing this opportunity requires strategies and guidelines enabling innovative
critical rethinking, application of innovative non-market local solutions. If the city is good for its weakest
solutions and the active involvement of all those citizen a child, an aged person, a new immigrant,
concerned. a handicapped person, it is going to be good for
everyone else, too. Integration and inclusion have to be
One-way information does not fulfil the contemporary on top of the urban sustainability agenda.
requirement for the quality standards of citizen
involvement. People have to be given the possibility Sustainable development has to be democratized
to become the key resource of cities. Citizen need a at the local level in every country.
supporting infrastructure: places for people to meet Existing methods of citizen participation, such as
and get organized, an attentive media to communicate participative budgeting, should be used in every
their concerns, and tools, processes and channels city, selecting the locally most appropriate tools
to create initiatives and communicate. Some cities and most urgent issues.
are fortunate to have visionary leaders for one or New methods of inclusion should be developed
two electoral periods, while most cities cannot wait and disseminated among cities.
for enlightened leadership but have to establish
permanent solutions of public participation. 2. Integrated planning of sustainable
urban infrastructures
Methods and processes exist already, very similar in
developing and developed countries, and are ready An integrated approach is the only way to avoid
to be applied: participatory budgeting, stakeholder decisions being prepared under wrong assumptions:
forums, popular votes on urban issues, user co- the prevailing preference of an economic view has
creation of basic services, e-participation, or kiosks to be replaced by a sustainable one, which includes
for basic services, information and internet access ecological and social considerations and mid- and
for example. The right to participate is not linked long-term thinking. Only if potential impacts of
to the home address only, does not concern only decisions are broadly assessed, will the development
geographical communities but also communities of of cities become sustainable step by step. To achieve
old or young people, pedestrians or bus drivers, street this, both the administration and political decision
vendors and restaurant owners. making have to work across sectors. Free access to
public data is an essential prerequisite for integrated
The Rio+20 Urban Agenda will have to democratize planning, and not just data and access, but the
sustainable development further. This can only happen possibility to look for specific information and trends.
at the local level. After the success of Local Agenda
21, at some point the sustainability agenda has been In an ideal world urban planning starts at the regional
hijacked by civil servants as if it was only a matter of and metropolitan scale and proceeds from larger scale
finding the most appropriate technical solutions, and down to neighborhood scale. No development, no
cornered to the cities environmental departments. construction, in particular no infrastructure investment
The Next Urban Agenda has to be more inclusive, should be permitted without adherence to approved
both in terms of participants and issues. Social and larger scale plans. For the approval of planning
budgetary agendas have to be integral parts of it. documents, there has to be a transparent process,
Economic questions must not be left to economists where the roles of different institutions, stakeholders,
only but the financial decisions have to fulfill experts and decision makers are clearly defined.
sustainability criteria, too.

38 Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

 The use of instruments for integrated Monitoring tools are necessary to measure building

Recommendations: Ten steps on the way forward

urban planning and sustainability impact performance and progress. Criteria are also needed as
assessments (SIA) should be mandatory at assessment tools in all procurement, investment and
national and local levels. subsidy decisions. Some of the indicators can be used
worldwide, but when the rating system is developed
3. Decent urban mobility for everyone. within a specific region, it can contain assumptions
about appropriate performance benchmarks and the
Land use and mobility planning have to be so closely relative importance of issues such as selection of site,
integrated that they become one. Awareness has to water and energy resources, risk of earthquakes or
increase about the environmental and health impacts flooding, local climate, solar hours, cultural aspects,
of emissions, noise and the space requirement for availability of materials, and so on.
cars. Positive impacts of public transport, biking and
walking must be brought to the public and decision All buildings should produce their own energy.
makers. Local and national governments will have
to lead in setting the benchmarks for new
It should be mandatory for all municipalities to construction, maintenance and renovation of
offer public transport, biking lanes and safe their own buildings.
pedestrian sidewalks to their citizens. Maintenance and renovation of existing
Urban development projects should be charged buildings should become a key business sector,
a transport levy which can finance restricted where innovative solutions are incentivized.
parking facilities and public transport. National research institutes should be
Road safety must become the priority for city commissioned to develop local building
leaders. sustainability assessment systems in
cooperation with local sector stakeholders. The
4. Sustainable construction processes, criteria should cover e.g. environmental impacts,
buildings and maintenance decent work and fair trade requirements, and anti-
corruption measures.
It is important to renew the city with energy-efficient
and more flexible buildings of long-term value and 5. Energy security and empowerment
longevity. Functional flexibility leads to a longer through distributed renewable
life for buildings, because they can be adapted to energy systems
changing needs. Technical systems and services
that have a shorter life-cycle than the structure of the Using less energy through savings, i.e. decreasing
building have to be installed so that it is easy to renew consumption, by increasing energy efficiency
them. This means applying technical aids sparingly, with more sustainable procurement, buildings,
maintaining them and making the most of all passive infrastructure and service provision, and shifting
means. Buildings should generate more energy than energy production to renewable fuels are self-evident
they consume, and collect and purify their own water. targets that a city has the possibilities to implement.
The localized energy revolution requires also new
Many cities have started with retrofitting their own patterns of distributed production and distribution.
public buildings with enormous success to serve as
good examples within the city and outside. Experience Energy can be democratized. In the new era,
in northern European markets indicates that low- businesses, municipalities and homeowners become
income housing stock can be successfully retrofitted the producers as well as the consumers of their
for profit, as well. own energy We began to envision a world where

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector 39

hundreds of millions of people are empowered, both collection and platforms to share it need to become
literally and figuratively, with far reaching implications stronger.
for social and political life In the 21st century,
individual access to energy also becomes a social and National and international research institutes and
human right. Every human being should have the right their networks have to be commissioned to create
and the opportunity to create their own energy locally databases, benchmarks, a set of core criteria
and share it with others across regional, national and and targets, as well as to monitor and report
continental intergrids.76 about progress to national platforms of urban
information sharing that should be established in
Energy production should be increasingly every country.
decentralized and based on renewable energy
sources. 8. Appropriate mandates and financing
National governments should enact legislation at all levels of government
that provides fair subsidies to support the shift to
renewable energy sources. Governance for an urban culture of sustainability is not
Cities and metropolitan regions should establish possible without local power to decide and financing
energy information offices to give locally to support it. Cities and metropolitan regions are two
appropriate advice to both municipal departments, among all levels of government. Decentralization has
private companies and citizen. to delegate appropriate mandates and secure financial
resources to the relevant levels. About issues that
6. Valuing local skills and non-market cross city borders in an area, networked cities have to
based solutions recentralize the decision making power to institutions
of metropolitan governance.
Many technological innovations and modern solutions
tend to be short-lived, difficult to maintain and repair, The local level is the level closest to people,
and costly. Cities and the built environment need their needs and their knowledge. It is the level of
solutions that have been adapted to local climate, implementation of sustainable development policies
materials and handicraft skills, maintenance capacities in the form of urban infrastructure, basic services
and culture. Heavy infrastructure and the latest and land use and mobility planning. Taxation, cross-
technology is not necessarily the best solution. subsidies and user fees at local, metropolitan and
national level can support sustainable development
National and local standards for buildings and and curb unsustainable consumption, if they are
infrastructure should encourage and incentivize the designed with these goals in mind.
development of contemporary technological
solutions that are based on traditional National governments should engage in a dialogue
principles and local skills and materials. with local and regional government and agree on
mandates and financing that are appropriate
7. Measuring success and sharing data from the point of view of urban sustainability.
and knowledge
9. Cities proactive in a globalized world
Everybody in the long chain from research and
expertise to political decision-making, implementation Globalization and financialization have direct impacts
and maintenance needs capacity building in ones at the local level. Changes in our urban landscape
own language. Only reliable, comparable facts-based may be shaped more by global political and economic
information is useful. Institutions and tools for data decisions than by the seemingly more visible results

40 Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

of local urban planners. Among other things, cities Worldwide networks of cities should be enabled to

Recommendations: Ten steps on the way forward

will need a renewed portfolio of municipal foreign involve all those cities that have no sustainability
affairs, because the global level that sets the rules strategies, yet, in particular those with biggest
for everyone has until now been unduly inaccessible estimated growth.
to local governments. Cities will also have to analyse
more carefully, what are the characteristics and roles 10. Towards a culture of sustainability
of the private and the public sector, and what are the
conditions for cooperation and partnerships on an The cities that come up with interesting pilot projects
equal basis. dont do it by chance. In many cases they have a
long history of trial and error behind them think of
Cities join their forces both in order to get their voice Barcelona that has worked consistently since the
heard, but also to disseminate best practices. City 1970s. The profile of a city cannot be upheld with
networks play an important role for peer learning, individual projects any more but every decision should
as information and good and bad experiences can be be weighed on the scale of sustainability.
exchanged, and everyone does not have to re-invent
the wheel. Joint preparation of projects or procedures Cities should be patient in developing a culture of
is possible and even very small city departments can sustainability and transformation, which is based
profit from the organizational, human resources and on a continuous analysis of their local identity and
financial strength of bigger ones. Common action history.
can be taken e.g. to achieve better results in climate
protection, reduction of waste, sustainable procurement
or new transport strategies, or to push necessary
regional, national or international legislation.77

International organizations should take

ambassadors of local governments to the
negotiation tables as equal partners with national
governments and private sector representatives.
The global competition of cities, to the extent there
needs to be one, should focus on competing in
sustainability.

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector 41

A postscript
Urban issues have risen high on many agendas Yes, sustainability criteria may be used at the City

A postscript
that deal with global questions. Most of the worlds Hall when envelopes are purchased but what is
resources are consumed in cities, where the majority the point if every other product and service is the
of people live. It has become obvious that the value outcome of an unsustainable process? Yes, there is
of a single green building or eco-labeled product is a Dow Sustainability Index but what use is it if not
marginal if it is not supported by sustainable urban all companies, investments and financing support
infrastructure and a culture of sustainability. sustainability? Yes, there may be a solar panel here
and there, but zero emissions mean nothing less than
Cities compete with each other globally trying to please 100% renewable energy. Yes, there may be tree-lined
investors. There is hardly any municipality that does not roads but as long as the pedestrian is not the king of
in its official strategy claim that sustainability is one of its the street, the city is not sustainable!
key targets. However, it is a totally different story if one
asks, into what actions this declaration translates. The process towards sustainable cities starts with
profound analyses of the past and present culture
In all fairness, cities are at different stages in their of the city. It builds on an inclusive and holistic
development, and many of them in the global South vision, applies integrated planning and transparent
have to struggle with enormous growth rates and governance, and monitors implementation rigorously.
immigration. Some urban areas in the North have Even a huge amount of excellent but disconnected
opposite challenges of negative growth after old pieces does not make a well functioning whole.
industries have died out or left to the South. Inequity Because money is not going to stop talking, its
and segregation seem to be common challenges to language will have to become sustainability. A locally
cities all over the world. rooted, democratized culture of sustainability has to be
the foundation of urban development.
Urban inequity and segregation are also an indication
of global inequity. While more and more cities want
to focus on services and hi-tech, the dirty work of the
world remains to be done in the poorest cities with
the most meager resources to develop.

Challenges and way forward in the urban sector 43

Endnotes
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2 ICLEI (2002) Local Agenda 21 survey prepared for the 18 rotterdamclimateinitiative.nl/en/english_2011_design/
WSSD in Johannesburg. http://www.johannesburgsummit. programme_sustainability_and_climate_change_2.
org/html/documents/backgrounddocs/icleisurvey2.pdf. 19 Rossman, Peter and Gerard Greenfield (2006)
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American Cities (1961) and Cities and the Wealth of trade unions. Labour Education, the quarterly review of
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6 UCLG, Policy paper on urban strategic planning: Local 22 Remunicipalisation water services in Paris
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16 UCLG (2010) GOLD 2010 report. 36 Communication with Steffen Lehmann.

44 Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

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56 Blaviesciunaite Aiste, Raymond J. Cole (2011) The Cultural
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58 Communication with Noel Morrin.
42 Bertaud Alain (2008) International Comparisons: Spatial
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Challenges and way forward in the urban sector 45

75 AbdouMaliq Simone, Governing African Urban Futures: the
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packet/Global.pdf.
77 Communication with Beate Weber.

46 Challenges and way forward in the urban sector

Photos credit: United Nations
Design: services-concept.ch