aa lale | yee OF Flight JAA ATPL Training a € a AIS Flight Training a s \JEPPESENTable of Contents CHAPTER 1 Laws and Definitions Introduction tt ‘SI Units. - 14 Derived Units... 14 Airspeads ... 45 Newton's Laws of Mtion... 15 CHAPTER 2 The Flight Environment Introduction . 24 The Atmosphere 24 ‘The Universal Gas Law. 24 ‘The Effect of Pressure 24 22 ‘The Effect of Altitude on Density. BD ‘The Effect of Humidity on Density 22 The International Standard Atmosphere. 22 CHAPTER 3 Aircraft Components and Terminology Wing Position Terminology a4 Wing Pantorm Terminology. 32 Wing Section Terminology... 36 Aerofoll Cross-sectional Shapes. “87 CHAPTER 4 Litt Introduction at Airflow... 4 Equation of Continuity. 43 Bernaull's Theorem nd Angle of Attack... 46 ‘Two-Dimensional Airflow about an Aerofcil ao 48 Effect of Angle of Attack on the Airflow about an Aerofoil Section 49 (Choréwise Pressure Distributions about an Aerofoil Section. att ‘The Contre of Pressure... 414 Aerodynamic Centre. 4-16 Lit Formula... . nea AT Variation of Coefficient of Lif with Angie of Attack. an cad? Three-Dimensional Airflow About an Aerofol.n.u. 418 Wing Shape and its Effect on Lift. At Principles OF Flight viiCities titties ith) en Table of Contents CHAPTER 5 Drag Introduction 54 Form Drag, 52 Boundary Layer 54 ‘Skin Friction Drag, 57 Factors Affecting Skin Friction Bra, . BT Interference Drag wn “ 58 Induced Drag... 59 Factors Affecting induced Drag... 510 Methods to Recioe Induced Dag. 514 Drag Formula 5-15 Drag Curves. 516 LifyDrag Ratio. 518 CHAPTER 6 Flying Controls, Introduction. 64 Elevators 62 The Stabiiator 62 ‘The Rudder. 63 Allerons. ea Adverse Alileron Yaw. 6-5 Combined Primary Control Surfaces. 66 Aerodynamic Balance... 69 Tabs... B12 Mass Balance... a 614 Powered Flying Controls. O14 Powered Flying Control System oe 16 Layout and Requirements, 6-16 Control input Systems. 616 The Power Control Unit (PCU). 617 Astificial Feel Systems, 819 “Trimming Control Systems. 622 Principle of a Trim Ta ww 6-22 Fimming of Powered Fiyng Contos 8-25 Spoilers 6-30 CHAPTER 7 Lift Augmentation Basic Lit Augmentation Systm, Trailing Edge FIaPS wu. Types of Trailing Edge Flaps Comparison of Different Types of Traling Edge Flap. ‘The Erect of Trailing Edge Flaps on the Stalling Angle The Effect of Trailing Edge Flaps on the Stall Speed Operation of Trailing Edge Flaps. Use of Trailing Edge Flaps for Tako-off ‘The Effects of Raising the Flaps in Flight ‘The Use of Trailing Edge Flaps During the Approach and ‘nang High Lift Devices on Transport Catagory Aircraft... Leading Edge High Lift Devices... ‘The Effect of Leading Edge Flaps on the Stalling Angle. : ‘The Operation of High Lift Devices on Transport Category Aircraft Protection of High Lift Devices on Transport Category Aircraft viii Principles Of FlightTable af Contents CHAPTER 8 Stalling Introduction... Bt Separated Airflow... teat teeta a4 The Stalling Angle of Attack... vo ae Definition of the JARIFAR Stalling Speed (VS)... = 85 The Relationship between Stalling Speed and Lif a seen 8S Recognition of the Stall at Low Airspeeds...... . ei a8 Stall Warning in Light Aircraft... . 88 Recovery from a Normal Stall... elec 7 ed 89 The Effect of Wing Section on the Stall... a 89 ‘The Effect of Wing Planform on the Sial i 8-10 ‘The Cause of Pitch-up on Sweplback Wings atthe Stall... oon 8-13 Devices to Alleviate Wing Tip Stalling, ine abled ele aateeA Stall Sensing in Transport Category Aircraft 8-16 The Stall Waming System on Transport Category Aircraft. nace sooantAT, The Stall Prevention System on Transport Category Aircraft. B17 Super Stall (Deep Stal) B48 Accelerated or Stall 819 Spinning... 819 Recovery from a Spin... 824 CHAPTER 9 Forces Acting On An Aeroplane Forces in Steady Level Flight on LifvWeight and ThrustDrag Couples Esa ——— 9.2 ‘The Contribution ofthe Tailplane. 9.5 ‘Straight Steady Climb 86 Forces in a Straight Steady Climb. 97 ‘Straight Steady Descent (Dive) 98 Steady Straight Gide. Forces in a Steady Straight Gide aati “The Effect of the LifDrag Ratio on Glide Pertormance ae ott ‘The Effect of a Steady Wind on Glide Performance... Sn 912 The Effect of Weight on Glide Performance. 9.43 Steady Co-ordinated Turn. i nn A3, Forces Acting on an Aircraft During a Steady Co-orcinated Turn _ 9-14 Calculation of the Centripetal Force. ies 9-14 Turing an Aircraft a. acannon etd Factors Affecting an Aircrafts Radius of Turn 9-16 Balancing the Turn... as 9-19 Rate of Turn. 9-21 Load Factor. 9-21 ‘The Effect of Tuming on Stalling Speed 9-22 Aircraft Response During a Level Banked Tum rn. 9-24 Airoraft Response During Climbing and Descending Tums. 9-25 Principles Of Flight xTable of Contents CHAPTER 10 Stability Introduction to Stability Santee 10-4 Control. ..nnnnsnnn aes a 10-1 Static Stablity... ness 10-2 ‘The Degree of Siabilty 10-2 Dynamic Stability. 103 Static Longitudinal Stability . 10-3 Mathematical Representation of Static Longitudinal Siabiy 10-4 Factors Affecting Static Longitudinal Stability 108 Graphical Representation of Static Longitudinal Stability. 109 The Efecto Elevator Detection on Plihing Moments m0 Control Force Stability 10-12 Manoeuvting Stability atten Tailoring The Contral Forces. 10-15 Dynamic Longitudinal Stability 10-16 Pilot Induced Oscillations. 10-17 Directional Static Stabilty... “10-17 Graphical Representation of Siatic Directional Stability 10-18 ‘The Factors Affecting Static Directional Stability... 10-18 Lateral Static Stabilty 10-21 Graphical Representation of Static Lateral Stability 10-25 Factors Affecting Static Lateral Stability. 10-26 Interaction Between Leteral and Drecfonal State Sibi. 10-26 Dutch Roll 10-27 Yaw Damper Systems... coi hecenraeniaaan unas 10-28 Speed Stability... 10-30 CHAPTER 11 Ground Effect Introduction. 14 The Characteristics of Ground Effect... Mt The Influence of Ground Effect on Landing... 7 at 11-8 The Influence of Ground Effect on Take-Off 7 11-4 The Influence of Ground Effect on Tralling Edge Flaps. rcahaecteaa 1k CHAPTER 12 Propellers, Introduction sees cos 124 Propeller Terminology. a root Factors Affecting the Blade Angle of Attack 123 Factors Affecting the Blade Thrust Distribution on 126 Forces Acting on a Blade Section is ca 126 Centrifugal Turning Moment (TM)... 127 ‘Aerodynamic Turing Moment (ATM). - mm (2d Centrifugal Forces. oy 128 Thrust Bending Forces. 129 Torque Bonding Forces. ele b . accin 18, Propeller Efficiency... ie 129 Forces Acting on @ Windmiling Blade Section en Propeller Pitch. 7 12-12 Disadvantages of Fixed Pitch Propeliers. scares reeianamerns 1244 ‘The Variable and Constant Speed Propeller 12.45 Power Absorption... ni semen AG Propaller Solidi... ena 12-46 Propeller Effects on Take-off... st 12-46 Propeller Icing... 12-20 x Principles Of FlightTable of Contents CHAPTER 13, Asymmetric Flight Introduction .. 19-4 Single Engine Performance 134 Yawing Moments 133 Asymmetric Blade Effect. A36 The Effect of Bank 13-9 The Effect of Weight “13-10 Rolling Moments sea air OA Minimum Arspeeds Dung Asymmetric Figh 43-11 Turing Flight... oA312 Racognition of a Failed Engine 13-42 CHAPTER 14 High Speed Flight Introduction “ 7 ——— At “The Speed of Sound... 2 Medaioron ana ed Pressure Waves from a Moving Source. ae San 142 Nature of Compressibiity 14-8 Mach Number eater a Flight Speed Classifications ities 14-5 Comparison of Subsonic and Supersonic Flow Patterns ss 14.8 The Development of Shock Waves.. sam Sina TT Shock Stall not 40 “The Effect of Altitude on the Shock Stal 14-13 Buffet Onset Boundary Chart... 1414 Motnods of Reducing or Delaying the Transonic rag Rise. nanan 4AB Transonic Aroa Rule on. cnt? ‘Supercritical Wings .. 14418 Control Problems in Transonic Flight. 1418 Vortex Generators... 14-20 The Effect of Transonic Flight on Aircraft Tim and Sibi. 14.21 Mach Trim... 44-22 Supersonic Flight. 14-22 Oblique Shock Wave \.. 14-23 Mach Cone. 14-23 Expansion Wave teins nan 28 ‘Summary of Supersonic Wave Characteristics. 7 14-24 Principles OF Flight xiTable of Contents CHAPTER 15, Flight in Adverse Weather Conditions Introduction 184 Ice and Frost... ni Fame 154 The Effect of Ice, Frost, and Snow on the Aircrafts Performance. 7 154 The Effects of Contamination on Maximum Wing Lift Capability nore 152 ‘The Effects of Contamination on Flaps and Slats 7 : 154 ‘The Effect of Contamination on Take-off Performance... aa edition |) ‘The Eft of Contamination on Arete Landing Perormance 158 Tail Icing, 45-10 Windshear. 1541 Vertical Gusts, 1511 Horizontal Gusts. 1512 Downdraughts and Updraughts....0nnonnnnsnnon soon 1513 Indications of a Windshear Encounter... sagavementtimm 15-13 General Recovery from a Windshear Encounter. 1514 Recovery from a Windshear Encounter During the Take-off, Approach, and ‘Landing 1514 Microbursts.... 15-15 The Effect of a Microburst Encounter During the Approach. . 155 The Effect of a Microburst on Take-off Sasori 16-16 Airborne Windshear Detection Systems. id 1817 ‘The Effect of Heavy Rain on Aircraft Performance. 18-17 CHAPTER 16 Operating Limitations Introduction 5 16-4 The Flight Operating Envelope... 16-2 Manoeuvre and Gust Loads. no 164 ‘Aeroseate tron (Ateron Revers. 16.5 Emergency Descents 167 xii Principles Of FlightINTRODUCTION Before studying aerodynamics, it is essential to have a thorough grounding in basic mechanics and any related units of measurement. In aeronautics all measurements world-wide are based on the International System (SI) of units, but in practice some anomalies exist. For example, altitude is quoted in terms of feet (ft), and airspeed is quoted in nautical miles per hour (kt). SI UNITS ‘The fundamental SI units are those of: Mass ‘The amount of matter in a body; measured in kilograms (kg). Length ‘The distance between two points; measured in metres (m). Time ‘The duration of an event; measured in seconds (6). From these, other standard units are derived. DERIVED UNITS The following quantities and their related units of measurement are extensively used in ‘aerodynami Area ‘A measure of a surface; measured in square metres (m") Volume ‘A measure of the bulk or space occupied by a body; measured in cubic metres (m°). Velocity ‘A measure of motion in a specified direction; measured in metres per second (m/s) ‘Acceleration A measure of the change of velocity of a body; measured in metres per second per second (mis*) Momentum. ‘The product of the mass and the velocity of a body; measured in kilogram metres per second (kgm/s) Principles Of Flight aChapter t 12 Force Weight Work Power Energy Laws and Definitions ‘An external influence capable of altering the state of rest or motion of a body, proportional to the rate of change of momentum of a body Force = Mass x Acceleration ‘The unit of force is the Newton (N). One Newton is the force required to give 2 mass of one kilogram an acceleration of one metre per second per second. The gravitational force of attraction that the Earth exerts on a body of given mass; measured in kilograms (kg) Weight = Mass x Acceleration due to Gravity Unlike the mass of a body, which remains constant irrespective of its location, the weight of a body varies with distance between the body and the centre of the Earth, This is because acceleration due to gravity varies with geographical location and altitude, but under standard conditions, this term is assumed to be 9.81 mis’, ‘The effort needed when a force is applied to a body causing it to be lifted or moved a given distance in the same direction as the force. Work = Force x Distance The unit of work is the Joule (J). One Joule is the work done when a force of one Newton moves a body through a distance of one metre in the direction of the force. Work is also stated in terms of Newton metres (Nm), where 1 Joule = 1. Nm. ‘The rate of doing work; measured in units of work per unit time; measured in Watts (W), where 1 watt = 1 Jis or 1 Nims, Power = Force x Velocity ‘The capacity for doing work. In mechanics, energy exists in two basic forms: Potential energy - due to position. Kinetic energy - due to motion. The unit of energy is the Joule (J), where 1 Joule = 1Nm. Principles Of FlightLaws and Definitions Chapter 1 Pressure The force per unit area acting on a surface: This is measured in Newtons per square metre (Nim*) and is called the Pascal (Pa) In aviation, the bar, is more commonly used to measure pressure. 1 bar = 10° Pa, or 1 mb = 1 hPa. In aerodynamics three types of pressure exist: Static Pressure (Ps) When air is stationary it exerts pressure equally in all directions. For example, a mass of stationary air in a container exerts a certain amount of static pressure on the surrounding walls (Fig. 1.1). FIG. 1.1 Dynamic Pressure (Pp) This occurs when moving air is brought to rest on the surface of @ body (i.e. when relative movement exists between the surface and the airflow) (Fig.1.2). DYNAMIC. PRESSURE @ FIG. 1.2 Dynamic Pressure is expressed as: Q= 4Rhov? Rho (p) is the air density, which decreases with altitude, and V is the speed of the body relative to the airflow. Principles Of Flight 13Chapter 1 Density Temperature (T) Viscosity Wing Loading Laws and Definitions Total Pressure (P;) The sum of both the static and dynamic pressures; This is a very important term in aerodynamic formulae, as it Is used in the calculation of lift, drag, and indicated airspeeds. (These terms are explained later.) Total Pressure = Static Pressure + Dynamic Pressure In aerodynamics, this is also referred to as Pitot Pressure. ‘The mass of material per unit volume; measured in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m*). The density of air is an important property in the study of aerodynamics and varies with changes in pressure, temperature, and humidity. Such changes have a significant effect on aircraft performance. ‘A measure of the heat of a body; expressed in Degrees Celsius (°C). The unit of thermodynamic temperature is the Kelvin (K), which is the unit normally used in scientific calculations. To convert from Celsius to Kelvin, add 273 to the temperature in °C, e.g. 15% = 15+273 = 288K ‘A measure of the resistance to motion. In aerodynamics, viscosity refers to the resistance to movement of one layer of, air over another. In the case of fluids, it relates to how liquids flow over a surface. For example, cold engine oil has high viscosity and hot engine oil has low viscosity. The total aircraft weight supported per unit area of the wing; measured in Newtons per square metre (N/m’). ‘Wing Loading = AUWiwing area Principles Of FlightLaws and Definitions Chapter 1 AIRSPEEDS Indicated Airspeed (IAS) Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) Equivalent Airspeed (EAS) True Airspeed (TAS) Mach No. ‘The indicated airspeed of an aircraft as shown on its pitot- static airspeed indicator (ASI). This provides vital airspeed information, e.g. stalling and structural limitation airspeeds, to the flight-crew. It is calibrated to reflect standard atmospheric adiabatic compressible flow at sea level and is uncorrected for airspeed system errors. The indicated airspeed of an aircraft corrected for position and instrument errors. CAS is equal to True Airspeed (TAS) in standard atmosphere at sea level only. ‘The calibrated airspeed of an aircraft corrected for compressibility error at a particular altitude. EAS is equal to CAS at airspeeds less than 300 kt and is equal to TAS in standard atmosphere at sea level only, ‘The actual speed of an aircraft through the air relative to the air that is uninfluenced by the aircraft. TAS is important for navigation purposes only. The relationship between EAS and TAS is as follows: TAS = EAS ( po! p )'? density at sea level p = density at altitude ‘The ratio of the TAS of an aircraft to the speed of sound in the surrounding atmosphere (e. the local speed of sound (LSS). Mach No = TAS/LSS NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION Newton's 1st Law. Newton's 2nd Law. Newton's 3rd Law. Principles OF Flight States that a body will continue in a state of rest, or in uniform motion in a straight ine, unless acted on by an external force (ie. ithas inertia). States that @ body at rest or in uniform motion will, when acted on by an external force, accelerate in the direction of the force. The magnitude of the acceleration for any given mass is directly proportional to the size of the force applied (ie, when a force of 1 N is applied to a mass of 1 kg, it will accelerate at 1 mis’), Force = Mass x Acceleration States that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.Ciel The Flight Zu vironment INTRODUCTION In order to study the principles of flight it is first necessary to understand the medium in which flight takes place. THE ATMOSPHERE ‘The atmosphere is a region of air surrounding the Earth up to a height of approximately 500 miles (900 km). Air is a mixture of gases, primarily oxygen (21% by volume) and nitrogen (78% by volume). Up to @ height of 6 miles (11 km), water vapour also occurs in varying quantities. The actual amount of water vapour in a given mass of air depends on the temperature and whether the air has recently passed over a large area of water. Generally, the higher the temperature, the greater the amount of water vapour a given mass of ait can hold. Air has weight and is also compressible. Its pressure, density, and temperature all decrease with increasing altitude. An aircraft performs work on the air to sustain fight, and any change in pressure, density, and temperature will affect the amount of energy that the aircraft can extract from the air. THE UNIVERSAL GAS LAW The relationship between pressure, density, and temperature is: Bee Fir = constant Where; P = Pressure (Nim) Absolute Temperature (K) Jensity or Mass per unit volume (kg/m*) ‘This equation only applies to a perfect gas when a given mass occupies a given volume, but from this equation itis possible to establish the effect of pressure and temperature on density THE EFFECT OF PRESSURE ON DENSITY Air is a gas and can be easily compressed or expanded. When air is compressed, the number of molecules, or mass, in a given volume increases and the density rises. Conversely, as air ‘expands, the original volume contains fewer molecules and the density decreases. Density is therefore directly proportional to pressure (ie. if the pressure doubles, the density also doubles). This statement is only true if the temperature remains constant. Density a Pressure Principles Of Flight 21Chapter 2 The Flight Environment THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON DENSITY AAs air is heated, the molecules tend to speed up and the spacing increases between them. Thus, a given volume contains fewer molecules and the air density decreases. Conversely, as air cools, the degree of molecular movement decreases and a given volume contains a greater number of molecules, so the density increases. Air density is inversely proportional to temperature (.. if the temperature doubles the density halves). This statement is only true if the pressure remains constant. Density @ "hence THE EFFECT OF ALTITUDE ON DENSITY ‘With increasing altitude, pressure and temperature both decrease. As stated previously, the drop in temperature causes an increase in density whilst the drop in pressure causes a decrease in density. These factors act in opposition to each other, but pressure has @ dominating influence over density. Consequently, pressure, temperature, and density all decrease with increasing altitude, THE EFFECT OF HUMIDITY ON DENSITY The preceding paragraphs assume that air is perfectly dry. In fact, there is always a certain ‘amount of water vapour in the atmosphere, which varies from place to place and day to day. When air contains water vapour, the density of the air is reduced because water vapour is less dense than dry air. The density of water vapour under standard sea level conditions is 0.760 kgim*, whereas the density of dry air is 1.225 kg/m’. Water vapour therefore weighs 5/8 as much as dry air. This means thet, for a given volume, air is least dense when it contains a maximum amount of water vapour and most dense when it is perfectly dry. Humidity will therefore affect aircraft performance. THE INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE In order to compare aircraft performance and calibrate aircraft instruments, itis necessary to have an intemationally agreed Standard Atmosphere covering temperature, pressure, and density for varying attitudes. ‘The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO) determines the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), part of which is shown below. 34,000 12,000 0,000WING POSITION TERMINOLOGY Wings are attached to an aircraft's fuselage in either a low, high, or mid position (Fig. 3.1) The following design parameters determine actual wing position: > Engine Positioning/Propeller Blade Length >» Undercarriage Positioning > Short Take-Off and Landing Capability Principles Of Flight 3Chapter 3 Aircraft Components and Terminology ‘The wings may be inclined above or below the horizontal. Dihedral is the term for wing inclination above the horizontal, and anhedral is the term for inclination below the horizontal (Fig. 3.2). WING PLANFORM TERMINOLOGY The following terminology is associated with wing planform: > Gross Wing Area (S) — The plan view area of the wing including the portion of the ‘wing normally cut out to accommodate the fuselage (Fig. 3.3). ‘GROSS WING AREA(S) FIG.3.3 32 Principles Of FlightAircraft Components and Terminology Chapter 3 > Net Wing Area — The area of the wing excluding the fuselage portion (Fig. 3.4). i NET WING AREA FIG. 34 > Wing Span (B) — The straightline distance between wing tips (Fig. 3.5). FIG. 35 > Average Chord (Cay) —The Mean chord (Fig. 3.5). The product of the span and average chord gives the gross wing area (i.e. B x Cay = S). Principles Of Flight 33Chapter 3 Airerafi Components and Terminology > Aspect Ratio (AR) — The ratio of wing span to average chord, Long narrow wings have a high aspect ratio, whilst short stubby wings have a low aspect ratio (Fig. 3.6). a Wing Span_| Gross Wing Area _(Wing Span}? Aspect Ratlo= erage Chord (average Ghord)?”” Gross Wing Area » Taper Ratio (TR) — The ratio of tip chord (Ct) to root chord (Cr) (Fig. 3.7), Fuselage Root Chord Tip Chord FIG3.7 34 Principles OF FlightAirerafi Components and Terminology Chapter 3 > The Angle of Sweepback — The angle between the line of 25% chord and a perpendicular to the root chord (Fig. 3.8) Fuselage Angle of a Sweepback 25% of Root Chord 247 25% of Tip Chord FIG. 38 > Mean Aerodynamic Chord (MAC) — The chord drawn through the centroid (centre of area) of the halfspan area. Note that the MAC and Cay are not the same (Fig. 3.9). MAC = Mean Aerodynamic Chord FIG. 3.9 Aspect ratio, taper ratio, and sweepback are some of the main factors that determine the aerodynamic characteristics of a wing, Principles Of Flight 35Chaprer 3 Aireraft Components and Terminology WING SECTION TERMINOLOGY For an aircraft to have acceptable aerodynamic characteristics, various wing or aerofoil sections are used. Reference Fig. 3.10. The terminology associated with aerofoil sections is as follows: maxi THICKNESS TONER SURFACE ‘TRANG FIG. 3.10 The Chord line AA straight line joining the leading and trailing edges of wing The Chord The length of the chord line that is used as a reference for all other dimensions relating to a wing. The Mean Camber Line The line drawn equidistant between the upper and | lower surfaces of an aerofoil. Maximum Camber The maximum distance between the mean camber line and the chord line. This is one of the variables determining the aerodynamic characteristics of a wing, Maximum Thickness. The maximum distance between the upper and lower surfaces, The ratio of maximum thickness to chord expressed as a percentage. For subsonic wings the ratio is normally 12 = 14%, Maximum Thickness Chord Rati 36 Principles Of FlightAircraft Components and Terminology Chapter 3 AEROFOIL CROSS-SECTIONAL SHAPES A thick, well-cambered wing produces high lift at slow speeds, whereas a thin wing with the same ‘camber produces good high-speed characteristics (Fig. 3.11). HIGH LIFT AT SLOW SPEEDS ‘TYPICAL HIGH SPEED AEROFOIL FIG. 3.11 The above are both examples of asymmetrical aerofoils. When the mean camber line coincides ‘with the chord line, the wing camber is reduced to zero and the aerofoil is symmetrical. (Fig. 3.12). Fig. 3.12 Principles Of Flight 37INTRODUCTION As air flows around an aerofoil the pressure differential set up over the upper and lower surfaces produces a force. This force acts perpendicular to the relative airflow and is known as lift. In steady level fight, lift exactly balances the aircraft's weight. For a given airspeed, a lower weight requires less lift. AIRFLOW To understand fully how the aerodynamic forces of lft and drag act on an aircraft it is necessary to study the effect of airflow. In principle it does not matter whether an aircraft is moving through the air, or whether air is flowing over a stationary aircraft, since the result is the same. Airflow can be either streamline or turbulent in nature. ‘Streamline flow exists when succeeding molecules follow a steady path, with the molecules flowing in an orderly pattern along streamlines around an object (Fig. 4.1). FIG. 44 At any given point in the streamline, the molecules experience the same velocities and pressures as the preceding molecules, but the values may alter from point to point along the streamline. Widely spaced streamlines indicate a reduction in velocity, whereas a narrow spacing between the streamlines indicates an increase in velocity. ifthe streamlines flow without mixing, the flow is known as laminar. Laminar flow is desirable in most phases of flight, and produces the ideal flow pattern around an aircraft. (Fig. 4.2). Principles Of Flight 4