What is Triaxial Testing?

Part 3 of 3
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PART THREE: DYNAMIC TRIAXIAL TESTING

Prepared by Dr Sean Rees, Geotechnical Specialist at GDS Instruments

Overview: This three part series has been written to introduce one of the most versatile tests in the geotechnical laboratory – the triaxial
test. The papers provide a detailed introduction to the subject of triaxial testing, including the many variations available for assessing
soil response across a range of engineering applications. The series is split into the following topics:

1. Introduction to triaxial testing.

2. Advanced triaxial testing.
3. Dynamic triaxial testing.
INTRODUCTION requires sophisticated test systems, and while such systems
are available, dynamic cyclic loading records have historically
This paper presents the dynamic cyclic triaxial testing of soils in been approximated by uniform sinusoidal, square or triangular
the laboratory. It briefly discusses why dynamic tests are required, waveforms of a single frequency. With this in mind, Table 1
the soil parameters that may be obtained, the differences between presents typical test frequency ranges of uniform sinusoidal
static and dynamic triaxial systems, the general method for loadings used in a cyclic triaxial test to approximate a range of
conducting a dynamic cyclic test, and a new development relating dynamic loading situations. Note the division between static and
to dynamic cyclic triaxial apparatuses. dynamic frequencies is generally considered to be in the order of
0.05 - 0.1 Hz (Ishihara, 1996).
Why conduct a dynamic cyclic triaxial test?
Table 1 – Typical test frequency ranges for cyclic triaxial testing.
The soil deposits in many geotechnical engineering projects Loading type Typical test frequency
undergo dynamic cyclic loadings during their design lifetime. Wave action 0.1 Hz
These loadings may be due to environmental factors, such as
Wind action 0.1 - 1 Hz
seismic activity and ocean storms, or human activities, such as
passing traffic and vibrating machinery installed on a structure or Earthquake 1 Hz
site. Importantly, the soil response generated by these dynamic Rail transit > 1 Hz
cyclic loadings is typically more complex than that considered Vibrating machinery ≤ 20 Hz
when conducting static analyses, requiring engineers to investigate
the dynamic behaviour of soils in the laboratory, as well as in How does the dynamic cyclic response of soil differ from static
the field. As previously discussed in Part One and Part Two of response?
this series, the triaxial test provides a convenient and versatile
method for assessing soil behaviour in the laboratory, and can There are broadly two main aspects of dynamic cyclic loading that
be performed with static and dynamic loadings. Note Figure 1 differentiate the soil response from traditional static behaviour.
displays examples of soil failures due to strong earthquake motions These are:
and repeated subgrade loading from high-speed rail transit.
• The reversal of applied stress
• The rate-dependency of soil response

Note that other dynamic phenomena, such as resonance, may also

be important to consider when assessing the performance of a soil
deposit (O’Reilly & Brown, 1991), however such factors are not
Direction of soil discussed in detail in this paper.
movement

Figure 1 – Earthquake-induced lateral spreading (left); illustration (i) Reversal of applied stress
of progressive railway subgrade shear failure due to repeated load
cycles (right, reproduced from Mott MacDonald, 2011). Reversing the stress applied to a soil element refers to variation
in sign of the rate of stress increase. More simply for triaxial
What is the frequency of a dynamic cyclic load? testing, this typically means oscillating between increasing
and decreasing values of deviator stress q applied to a soil test
The nature of cyclic loading applied to a soil deposit is highly specimen. This definition therefore highlights that stress reversal
dependent on the loading source. This means the loading is not necessarily unique to dynamic loadings, but instead any
waveform may be relatively uniform and essentially consist of a situation in which the loading applied to a soil element is cyclic
single frequency (e.g. a vibrating machine), or somewhat random in nature.
and contain a range of frequencies (e.g. an earthquake). Applying
such complex waveforms to a soil specimen in the laboratory

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Examples of two cyclic loading patterns that may be used during Figure 3 additionally highlights the tendency for the plastic strain
a cyclic triaxial test are displayed in Figure 2 - here one-way increment to reduce as an increasing number of loading cycles
loading refers to cases in which the applied stress does not change are applied to a soil. At some point during loading this increment
sign (e.g. remains positive at all times), while two-way loading becomes insignificant when compared with the recoverable strain
corresponds to cases in which the applied stress does change observed during a single cycle, at which point the soil response
sign (i.e. alternates between positive and negative values). Note can be termed ‘resilient.’
the time taken for loading to complete one cycle is given by the
loading period, T, while the magnitude of loading is described by Excess pore water pressure generation refers to the change in pore
the amplitude, A. The frequency of loading, f, is the inverse of the pressure that occurs within a saturated soil as a load is applied.
period (1/T). During cyclic loading this feature is dependent upon the drainage
conditions of the soil and the loading rate; if a high permeability
soil is loaded and/or the loading rate is relatively slow, then the
pore water will have sufficient time to drain and the pressure
to dissipate. Such a situation results in no generation of excess
pore pressure, and is modelled during a triaxial test by keeping
the drainage lines to the test specimen open (i.e. by maintaining
fully drained conditions). On the other hand, if a soil has a low
permeability, or the loading rate is sufficiently fast, excess pore
pressure may be produced. This is modelled during a triaxial
Figure 2 – One-way and two-way cyclic loading patterns. Note T = test by closing the drainage lines to the test specimen (i.e. by
loading period and A = loading amplitude. maintaining undrained conditions).

Two principal features of soil response when undergoing stress In practice a build up of excess pore pressure reduces the
reversal are: (1) the accumulation of plastic shear strain; (2) effective stress applied to a soil deposit, which in some cases
generation of excess pore water pressure. Importantly, these may trigger complete failure of the soil. A well-known example
features only occur once the soil behaviour becomes elasto- of this is the liquefaction of sand deposits - here the rapid cyclic
plastic, which approximately corresponds to applied shear strains loading produced by an earthquake causes the pore pressure to
in the order of 0.01 % or larger (Ishihara, 1996). At shear strains rise more quickly than it can be dissipated, even though sand is
below 0.01 % most soil behaviour tends to be purely elastic. a relatively permeable material. Once the effective stress of the
sand approaches zero the ability of the soil to resist shear loading
Plastic shear strain is the increment of soil deformation that is is lost, resulting in significant soil deformations.
permanent or irrecoverable. For a single load cycle it can be
quantified by comparing the shear strain at the beginning of the To quantify pore pressure build-up during a triaxial test, the
cycle with that at the end of the load cycle. While this increment excess pore pressure ratio ru is often used. This is defined by the
of plastic strain produced during a single cycle may be relatively ratio of pore pressure change during loading to the effective stress
small, the cumulative effect from numerous loading cycles can be applied at the beginning of loading. Therefore when ru = 0 the
potentially significant. To demonstrate this feature, the deviator pore pressure is equal to the applied back pressure, while when
stress-shear strain response of a triaxial sand specimen undergoing ru = 1 the pore pressure is equal to the confining pressure and the
cyclic loading is displayed in Figure 3. Here the increment of effective stress has reduced to zero. Such response is displayed
plastic shear strain observed during the first load cycle is in the in Figure 4, which details the generation of excess pore pressure
order of 0.2 %, yet after 50 load cycles the accumulated shear during an undrained cyclic test on a sand specimen. Note the ratio
strain applied to the soil exceeds 4 %. may also be expressed as a percentage.

Figure 3 – Accumulation of plastic shear strain during an undrained Figure 4 – Generation of excess pore water pressure during an
cyclic loading test on a sand specimen. undrained cyclic loading test on a sand specimen.

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(ii) Rate-dependency of soil response commonly-used test standards are:

The rate at which loading is applied has been shown to significantly • ASTM D3999-11 (Determination of the Modulus and
affect the response of a soil. In general, faster loading rates result Damping Properties of Soils Using the Cyclic Triaxial
in stiffer and stronger response for cohesive soils, an observation Apparatus)
that has been made when testing specimens under monotonic • ASTM D5311-11 (Load Controlled Cyclic Triaxial
(loading in one direction only) and cyclic conditions. Note again Strength of Soil)
the effect of loading rate is typically only noticeable once the
shear strain of a soil enters the elasto-plastic range. ASTM D3999-11 is primarily used to determine the degradation
in secant Young’s modulus E, and increase in damping coefficient
Interestingly the rate-dependency of soil response is due to two D, of a soil specimen as the applied axial strain εa is increased.
factors. The first is the effect of inter-particle viscosity, and Note estimates for the shear modulus G and applied shear strain
the second is the effect the loading rate has on a soil’s ability γ may also be obtained through use of Poisson’s ratio μ, which is
to dissipate excess pore pressure. As inter-particle viscosity is equal to 0.5 for undrained conditions.
not a characteristic of granular soils (e.g. sands and gravels),
only the generation of excess pore pressure is a factor for such ASTM D5311-11 is used to determine the cyclic strength of a soil
materials. This means the response of granular soils is relatively specimen by loading the soil under undrained conditions until a
independent of the loading rate when testing in laboratory given failure criterion is reached. Typically failure is defined by
systems, assuming the drainage conditions that would occur in the excess pore pressure ratio ru reaching 1.0, or some limiting
the field are maintained (e.g. the test specimen is left undrained if value of double amplitude (DA) axial strain εa being exceeded
modelling rapid cyclic loadings). (20 % is specified in the test standard, although 5 % is often used
for liquefaction studies). If multiple specimens are tested with
To highlight the effect the loading rate has on the response of different cyclic stress ratios applied, then cyclic strength curves
cohesive soils, cyclic strength curves for laboratory-prepared like those shown in Figure 5 may be generated.
Kaolin clay specimens are presented in Figure 5. Here all test
specimens were isotropically consolidated to a mean effective Each of the above test standards importantly specifies that cyclic
stress of 98 kPa, and then cyclically loaded under undrained loading must be applied dynamically to the test specimens. Here
conditions using varying amplitudes of deviator stress until a ASTM D3999-11 states loading must be carried out at frequencies
failure criterion of 10 % double amplitude (peak-to-peak) axial between 0.5 Hz to 1 Hz, while ASTM D5311-11 allows for
strain was reached. Note the cyclic stress ratio (CSR) is defined as loading frequencies between 0.1 Hz to 2 Hz (with 1 Hz preferred).
half the applied deviator stress amplitude divided by the applied This means traditional static triaxial apparatuses are generally not
initial mean effective stress. suitable for performing cyclic loadings as per the test standards,
and a dynamic cyclic triaxial apparatus is instead required.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN STATIC AND DYNAMIC

CYCLIC TRIAXIAL APPARATUSES

The primary differences between a static triaxial apparatus and a

dynamic cyclic triaxial apparatus are: (i) the load frame; (ii) the
control and data acquisition hardware; (iii) the control software.
These differences are briefly reviewed in the following text.

(i) Load frame

Figure 5 – Cyclic strength curves of Kaolin specimens for loading
frequencies equal to 0.1 Hz and 0.01 Hz (data from Özaydin and
A clear difference between a static and dynamic cyclic triaxial test
Erguvanli, 1980).
on a soil specimen is the rate of loading. A dynamic cyclic triaxial
Figure 5 clearly shows the Kaolin test specimens require increased load frame must contain an actuator that is capable of applying
loading amplitudes to reach failure in the same number of cycles cyclic axial loads at dynamic frequencies (e.g. up to at least 2 Hz),
for faster rates of loading. This observed strength gain is typically but also capable of applying large axial strains to test specimens
in the order of 9 % for each log cycle increase in the loading (e.g. 20 % DA εa) at these dynamic frequencies. Given the power
frequency (Boulanger and Idriss, 2006). required to move a loading actuator is proportional to the loading
frequency squared, dynamic cyclic triaxial load frames tend to be
PARAMETERS OBTAINED FROM DYNAMIC CYCLIC larger and more advanced than those required for static triaxial
TRIAXIAL TESTS testing.

Although dynamic cyclic triaxial tests may be used to investigate

many aspects of the dynamic cyclic response of soils, two

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(ii) Control and data acquisition hardware connections are not always used during static triaxial tests,
so should be considered when preparing an apparatus for
As the loading rate is faster during a dynamic cyclic triaxial test, cyclic testing. Note all GDS triaxial systems are supplied
the hardware used to control the load frame and acquire data from with an extension top-cap and vylastic sleeve, as displayed
the apparatus transducers must be capable of running at dynamic in Figure 7, which enable this connection to be made before
speeds. Specifically, the control system must enable a uniform or after isotropic consolidation has been completed.
sinusoidal loading waveform to be applied to the soil specimen, Vent valve to atmosphere
Cell top
while at least 40 points of data should be acquired per loading
cycle (this is equivalent to a data logging frequency of 80 Hz
when loading at a rate of 2 Hz).
Load cell to
(iii) Control software extension top-cap Extension top-cap
Load cell
adapter screw connector to
The control software used to perform a dynamic cyclic triaxial atmosphere
Extension top-cap
test must be capable of allowing the user to specify the required
Vylastic sleeve
cyclic loading parameters (e.g. frequency, load amplitude), and
also select the failure criterion for loading to be halted, such as a Back pressure
Specimen top-cap
specific limiting axial strain. Note some dynamic cyclic triaxial connector
apparatuses, such as the GDS dynamic triaxial system displayed Figure 7 – GDS extension top-cap configuration.
in Figure 6, have additional functionality for advanced research
purposes that enable non-standard loading waveforms to be • Select the appropriate control parameter - most dynamic
applied to test specimens (e.g. time histories from earthquake cyclic triaxial apparatuses allow testing to be performed
acceleration records). under load control or displacement control. In some
instances, such as the cyclic strength tests specified in
Dynamic control & ASTM D5311-11, loading will need to be applied using
data acquisition unit
Triaxial cell load control (i.e. a specific amplitude of load must be
targeted). In other cases, such as when defining the
degradation of E as per ASTM D3999-11, there exists a
choice as to which control parameter is used (i.e. a load
amplitude or a displacement amplitude may be targeted).
In the case of defining the degradation of E, it may be more
GDSLAB control &
acquisition software appropriate to conduct loading using displacement control,
as this allows specific applied axial strains to be targeted.
The benefit obtained here is the degradation of E may be
systematically defined, without prematurely over-straining
Cell & Back pressure / Dynamic load frame
volume controllers
the test specimen.

Figure 6 – GDS Dynamic Triaxial Testing System (DYNTTS) • Ensure accuracy and resolution of deformation
components. measurements - as discussed Part Two of this series,
unavoidable system compliance adversely affects the
PERFORMING A DYNAMIC CYCLIC TRIAXIAL TEST measurement of soil deformation in the small strain range.
For some dynamic cyclic testing this is not an important
A dynamic cyclic triaxial test essentially requires the same consideration, particularly when interest lies in the large
processes that are used when conducting traditional static triaxial strain soil response (e.g. cyclic strength tests) where the
tests, with significant differences only arising at the shearing magnitude of system compliance is insignificant compared
stage and during analysis of the soil response. This means the with the applied strain. However when the small strain
descriptions of specimen preparation, saturation and consolidation response is important, such as during definition of the
given in Part One of this series are still valid for dynamic cyclic degradation of E and increase in D, it may be necessary to
tests, although a selection of additional suggestions that may be consider the use of local strain transducers placed directly on
useful when preparing for a series of dynamic cyclic tests are to the test specimen. Such additions significantly improve
listed in the following: the accuracy and resolution of deformation measurements,
which in turn provide a better estimation of E and D (along
• Prepare for extension loading - if a two-way loading pattern with G and γ) in the small strain range.
is to be applied to a test specimen, the soil will be placed
in a state of extension (i.e. radial stress σr > axial stress σa). • Consider the effect of loading frequency - although a
In this case the specimen top-cap will need to be locked to loading frequency of 1 Hz is preferred when conducting
the load ram to enable application of extension forces. Such cyclic strength tests (ASTM D5311-11), pore pressure

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measurements taken at the specimen ends have been shown Testing performed in a GDS DYNTTS has shown the new control
to be unreliable when testing cohesive specimens at this method to provide a significant improvement over the traditional
frequency magnitude. This is due to non-uniform pressure PID method, particularly as changes in specimen stiffness occur.
distributions being generated within the test specimen, which Dynamic undrained two-way cyclic tests performed on saturated
suggests pore pressure data obtained from high frequency medium density sand specimens at 0.1 Hz have shown the adaptive
cohesive soil tests should be treated with care. Note local control method maintaining a load amplitude of approximately 87
pore pressure measurements may be taken at the specimen % of target following the onset of liquefaction, even as the double
mid-height (see Part Two of this series for further details), amplitude axial strain surpasses 20 %. This compares favourably
however non-uniform pressure distributions still lead to with the performance of the traditional PID method, which
such measurements being potentially unrepresentative of enabled approximately 7 % double amplitude axial strain to be
the total specimen response (Zergoun & Vaid, 1994). applied post-liquefaction, with the maintained load amplitude
reducing below 10 % of the target.
NEW DEVELOPMENT FOR A DYNAMIC CYCLIC
TRIAXIAL APPARATUS The adaptive control method is now a standard inclusion with the
GDS DYNTTS. Note the traditional PID feedback method may
As already discussed in this paper, dynamic cyclic triaxial also be selected by the user if desired.
apparatuses generally allow testing to be performed under load
control or displacement control. The performance of a given REFERENCES & FURTHER READING
apparatus under each type of control is typically governed by the
system used to apply the loading; the most common systems use ASTM Standard D3999, “Standard Tests Methods for the
electro-mechanical, hydraulic or pneumatic actuators. Determination of the Modulus and Damping Properties
of Soils Using the Cyclic Triaxial Apparatus,” ASTM
GDS dynamic cyclic triaxial apparatuses predominantly use an International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2013, DOI: 10.1520/
electro-mechanical system, as this system allows precise control D3999-11.
when targeting values of axial displacement and velocity. This
is achieved by using motors within the load frames that have ASTM Standard D5311, “Standard Tests Methods for Load
high resolution shaft encoders, combined with a fixed gearing Controlled Cyclic Triaxial Strength of Soil,” ASTM
for the actuation system. To perform load controlled tests, International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2013, DOI: 10.1520/
actuator velocity targets are constantly updated and set by the D5311-11.
system firmware, requiring use of closed-loop feedback from the
apparatus load cell to successfully maintain a target load amplitude. Boulanger, R. W. & Idriss, I. M. 2006. Liquefaction
Traditionally, as for the other loading systems mentioned above Susceptibility Criteria for Silts and Clays. Journal of
(i.e. hydraulic and pneumatic actuators), this control method has Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 132,
employed proportional-integral-derivative (PID) feedback, which No. 11, p 1413-1426.
inherently has the following limitations:
Ishihara, K. 1996. Soil Behaviour in Earthquake Geotechnics,
• Requirement for the user to specify an estimate of the test Oxford, Clarendon Press.
specimen stiffness
• Decrease in apparatus responsiveness if significant changes Mott MacDonald. 2011. RSSB 1386 (Revised) The effects of
in the specimen stiffness occur railway traffic on embankment stability. Final Report,
Croydon, Mott MacDonald.
To improve the functionality and response of dynamic cyclic
triaxial apparatuses, development has been carried out within O’Reilly, M. P. & Brown, S. F. 1991. Cyclic Loading of
GDS to implement an adaptive control method. While this Soils: from theory to design, Glasgow and London, Blackie.
new control method still employs PID feedback, it additionally
contains ‘Feedforward’ (FF) and system ‘Observer’ terms that Özaydin, K. & Erguvanli, Â. 1980. The generation of pore
assist in adjusting the actuator velocity target u in real-time, thus pressures in clayey soils during earthquakes. Proc., 7th
maintaining a more consistent load amplitude, particularly when World Conf. on Earthquake Engineering, Vol. 3, p 326-330.
the specimen stiffness is rapidly changing. Figure 8 shows a
high-level component block diagram of this new adaptive control Zergoun, M. & Vaid, Y. P. 1994. Effective stress
method. response of clay to undrained cyclic loading. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, Vol. 31, p 714-727.

Figure 8 – New adaptive control method for GDS Dynamic Triaxial

Testing System (DYNTTS).

GDS Dynamic Triaxial Testing: Part 3 5