www.Vidyarthiplus.

com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

OBJECTIVES
1) To understand the principle behind fiber optic communication
2) To gain knowledge about the structure of optical fibers and the ways of
propagation of optical pulses through the fibers
3) To study the classification of optical fibers based on materials refractive index
and the number of modes propagated through it.
4) To study the different process methods of optical fiber.
5) To study the applications of optical fibers in all fields of science and
technology.

REAL – LIFE APPLICATION

1) Optical communications
2) Networking
3) Submarine cables
4) Endoscopy

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 1

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Introduction.
LASER stands for Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
Laser is a device which emits a powerful, monochromatic collimated beam of light. The emitted light
waves are coherent in nature.
Characteristics of Laser:
1. Directionality
Ordinary light spreads in all directions and its angular spread is 1m/m. But it is found that laser is
highly directional and is angular spread is 1mm/m. For example, the laser beam can be focused to
very long distance with a few divergence or angular spread.
r2 r1
Divergence or angular spread is given by
d2 d1
Where d1 , d2 are any two distances for the laser source emitted and r1, r2 are the radii of the beam
spots at a distance d1, and d2 respectively as shown
2. Intensity:
Since an ordinary light spreads in all directions, the intensity reaching the target is very less.
But in the case of laser, due to high directionality, the intensity of laser beam reaching the target is of
high intense beam. For example, 1 mill watt power of He-Ne laser appears to be brighter than the
sunlight.
3. Monochromatic:
Laser beam is highly monochromatic; the wavelength is single, whereas in ordinary
light like mercury vapour lamp, many wavelengths of light are emitted.
4 Coherence:
It is an important characteristic of laser beam. In lasers the wave trains of same
frequency are in phase, the radiation given out is in mutual agreement not only in phase but
also in the direction of emission and polarization. Thus it is a coherent beam. Due to high
coherence it results in an extremely high power.
2.1.3 Differences between ordinary light and Laser beam.
S.No Ordinary light Laser beams
1 In ordinary light the angular spread is more. In laser beam the angular spread is less.
2 They are not directional. They are highly directional.
3 It is less intense It is highly intense
4 It is not a coherent beam and is not in phase. It is a coherent beam and is in phase
5 The radiation are polychromatic The radiations are monochromatic
6 Example: Sun light, Mercury vapor lamp He- Ne Laser, Co2 laser

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 2

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

4 Principle of Spontaneous and Stimulated emission – Einstein’s Quantum theory of radiation

We know that, when light is absorbed by the atoms or molecules, then it goes from the lower
energy level (E1) to the higher energy level (E2) and during the transition from higher energy level
(E2) to lower energy level (E1) the light is emitted from the atoms or molecules.
Let us consider an atom exposed to light photons of energy E 2 E1 h , three distinct
processes take place.
a. Absorption
b. Spontaneous emission
c. Stimulated Emission
Absorption:
An atom in the lower energy level or ground state energy level E1 absorbs the incident photon
radiation of energy h and goes to the higher energy level or excited level E2 as shown in figure.

This process is called absorption

If there are many numbers of atoms in the ground state then each atom will absorb the energy
from the incident photon and goes to the excited state. then,
The rate of absorption (R12) is proportional to the following factors.

R12 = Energy density of incident radiation ( v )

= no of atoms in the ground state (N1)

R12 v N1

R12 B12 v N1
(1)
Where B12 is a constant which gives the probability of absorption of absorption transition per unit
time.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 3

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Normally, the atoms in the excited state will not stay there for a long period of time , rather it
comes to ground state by emitting a photon of energy E h . Such an emission takes place by one
of the following two methods.

Spontaneous emission:
The atom in the excited state returns to the ground state by emitting a photon of energy
E = (E2 – E1) = hÿ
Spontaneously without any external triggering as shown in the figure.

This process is known as spontaneous emission. Such an emission is random and is

independent of incident radiation. If N1 and N2 are the numbers of atoms in the ground state (E1) and
excited state (E2) respectively, then
The rate of spontaneous emission is R21 ( SP) N1
Or R21 ( SP) A21 N 2 (2)
Where A21 is a constant which gives the probability of spontaneous emission transitions per
unit time.
Stimulated Emission:
The atom in the excited state can also return to the ground state by external triggering or
inducement of photon thereby emitting a photon of energy equal to the energy of the incident photon,
known as stimulated emission. Thus results in two photons of same energy, phase difference and of
same directionality as shown.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 4

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Therefore, the rate of stimulated emission is given by

R21 ( St ) v N2

R21 ( St ) B21 v N2
(3)
Where B21 is a constant which gives the probability of stimulated emission transitions per unit
time.
Einstein’s theory
Einstein’s theory of absorption and emission of light by an atom is based on Planck’s theory
of radiation. Also under thermal equilibrium, the population of energy levels obeys the Boltzmann
distribution law
Under thermal equilibrium
The rate of absorption = the rate of emission

B12 v N1 A21 N 2 B21 v N2

v B12 N1 B21 N 2 A21 N 2

A21 N 2
v
B12 N 1 B21 N 2
A21
Or v
N
B12 1 B21
N2 (4)
We know from the Boltzmann distribution law
E1
K BT
N1 N 0e
E2
K BT
Similarly N2 N 0e

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 5

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Where KB is the Boltzmann Constant,

T is the absolute temperature and
N0 is the number of atoms at absolute zero.
At equilibrium, we can write the ratio of population levels as follows.
( E2 E1 )
N1 K BT
e
N2
Since (E2 – E1) = hÿ, we have

N1 h
K BT
e
N2 (5)
Substituting equation 5 in 4

A21
v h
K BT
B12e B21
A21 1
v . h
B21 B12 KB
T
e 1
B21
(6)
This equation has a very good agreement with Planck’s energy distribution radiation
law.
3
8 h 1
That is v . h
c3 e K BT
1 (7)
Therefore comparing equations (6) and (7) , we can write

A21 8 h 3

B12 = B21 = B and =

B21 c3 (8)

Taking A21 =A
The constants A and B are called as Einstein Coefficients, which accounts for spontaneous
and stimulated emission probabilities.
Ratio of magnitudes of Stimulated to Spontaneous emission rates
From equations (2) and (3) we have
R21 ( St ) B21 v N 2
R21 ( Sp) A21 N 2

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 6

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

R21 ( St ) B21
v (9)
R21 ( Sp) A21
Rearranging equation (6) we have
B21 1
v h
A21 B12 KB
T
e 1
B21

Since B12 = B21 , we have

1 B21
h v (10)
KB
T A21
e 1

Comparing (9) and (10) we get

R 21 ( St ) 1 B21
h v
R 21 ( Sp ) KB
T A21
e 1

In a simpler way the ratio can be written as

B21
R v
A21
Generally Spontaneous emission is more predominant in the optical region (Ordinary
light). To increase the number of coherent photons stimulated emission should dominate over
spontaneous emission. To achieve this, an artificial condition called Population Inversion is
necessary.
Differences between Stimulated and spontaneous emission of radiation
S.no Stimulated Emission Spontaneous emission
1. An atom in the excited state is induced to The atom in the excited state returns to
return to the ground state , thereby the ground state thereby emitting a
resulting in two photons of same photon, without any external
frequency and energy is called Stimulated inducement is called Spontaneous
emission emission.
2. The emitted photons move in the same The emitted photons move in all
direction and is highly directional directions and are random
3. The radiation is highly intense , The radiation is less intense and is
monochromatic and coherent incoherent.
4. The photons are in phase, there is a The photons are not in phase (i.e.) there
constant phase difference. is no phase relationship between them.
5. The rate of transition is given by The rate of transition is given by
R21 ( St ) B21 v N2 R21 ( SP) A21 N 2

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 7

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Population Inversion:
Population Inversion creates a situation in which the number of atoms in
higher energy state is more than that in the lower energy state.
Usually at thermal equilibrium, the number of atoms N2 i.e., the population of
atoms at higher energy state is much lesser than the population of the atoms at lower energy
state N1 that is N1 > N2 .

The Phenomenon of making N2 > N1 is known as Population Inversion.

Conditions of Population inversion.

1. There must be at least two energy levels E2 > E1.
2. There must be a source to supply the energy to the medium.
3. The atoms must be continuously raised to the excited state.
Meta stable States
An atom can be excited to a higher level by supplying energy to it. Normally,
excited atoms have short life times and release their energy in a matter of nano
seconds (10-9) through spontaneous emission. It means atoms do not stay long to be
stimulated. As a result, they undergo spontaneous emission and rapidly return to the
ground level; thereby population inversion could not be established. In order to do so,
the excited atoms are required to ‘wait’ at the upper energy level till a large number of
atoms accumulate at that level. In other words, it is necessary that excited state have a
longer lifetime. A Meta stable state is such a state. Metastable can be readily obtained
in a crystal system containing impurity atoms. These levels lie in the forbidden gap of
the host crystal. There could be no population inversion and hence no laser action, if
metastable states don’t exist.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 8

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Principle of Laser action

Principle: Due to stimulated emission the photons multiply in each step-
giving rise to an intense beam of photons that are coherent and moving in the same
direction. Hence the light is amplified by Stimulated Emission of the Radiation.
Termed LASER.
ACTIVE MEDIUM:
A medium in which population inversion can be achieved is known as active
medium.
Active Center: The material in which the atoms are raised to the excited state
to achieve Population Inversion is called Active Center.
PUMPING ACTION:
The process to achieve the population inversion in the medium is called
Pumping action.
It is essential requirement for producing a laser beam.
Methods of pumping action:
The methods commonly used for pumping action are:
1. Optical pumping (Excitation by Photons)
2. Electrical discharge method(Excitation by electrons)
3. Direct conversion
4. In elastic atom – atom collision between atoms
a. Optical pumping:
When the atoms are exposed to light radiations energy h , atoms in the
lower energy state absorb these radiations and they go to the excited state. This
method is called Optical pumping. It is used in solid state lasers like ruby laser
and Nd-YAG laser. In ruby laser, xenon flash lamp is used as pumping source.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 9

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

b. Electrical discharge method (Excitation by electrons)

In this method, the electrons are produced in an electrical discharge tube.
These electrons are accelerated to high velocities by a strong electrical field. These
accelerated electrons collide with the gas atoms.
By the process, energy from the electrons is transferred to gas atoms. Some
atoms gain energy and they go to the excited state. This results in population inversion. This
method is called Electrical discharge method.

It is represented by the equation

A + e * = A* + e
Where A – gas atom in the ground state
A* = same gas atom in the excited state
e* = Electrons with higher Kinetic energy
e – Same electron with lesser energy.
This method of pumping is used in gas lasers like argon and CO2 Laser.
C. Direct Conversion
In this method, due to electrical energy applied in direct band gap
semiconductor like Ga As, recombination of electrons and holes takes place. During the
recombination process, the electrical energy is directly is converted into light energy.

d. In elastic atom – atom collision

In this method, a combination of two gases (Say A and B are used). The
excited states of A and B nearly coincides in energy.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 10

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

In the first step during the electrical discharge atoms of gas A are excited to
their higher energy state A* (metastable state) due to collision with the electrons .
A + e * = A* + e
Now A* atoms at higher energy state collide with b atoms in the lower state. Due to
inelastic atom - atom collision B atoms gain energy and they are excited to a higher state B* .
Hence, A atoms lose energy and return to lower state.
A* + B = A + B *
Optical resonator
An optical resonator consists of a pair of reflecting surfaces in which one is
fully reflecting (R1) and the other is partially reflecting (R2). The active material is placed in
between these two reflecting surfaces.
The photons generated due to transitions between the energy states of active
material are bounced back and forth between two reflecting surfaces.

This will induce more and more stimulated transition leading to laser action.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 11

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Flow Chart of Laser action

Pumping action

Pumping

Active
medium

Population
inversion

Stimulated
Emission

Amplification

Optical
resonator

Intense
output

LASER

2.1.10 Types of Laser

Based on the type of active medium, Laser systems are broadly classified into
the following categories.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 12

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

S.NO TYPE OF LASER EXAMPLES

1. Solid State laser Ruby Laser Nd:YAG laser
2. Gas laser He-Ne Laser, CO2 Laser, Argon – ion laser
3. Liquid Laser SeOCL2 Laser, Europium Chelate Laser
4. Dye laser Rhodamine 6G laser, Coumarin dye laser
5. Semiconductor Laser GaAs laser, GaAsP laser

2.1.11 Nd: YAG laser

Nd: YAG laser is a neodymium based laser. Nd stands for Neodymium (rare
earth element) and YAG stands for Yttrium Aluminum Garnet ( Y3Al5 O12) . It is a
four level solid state laser.
Principle:
The active medium Nd: YAG rod is optically pumped by Krypton
flash tubes. The Neodymium ions (Nd3+) are raised to excited levels. During the
transition from meta stable state to ground state, a laser beam of wavelength 1.064μm
is emitted.

Construction:
The construction of Nd: YAG laser is as shown in the figure 2.17. A
small amount of Yttrium ions (Y3+) is replaced by Neodymium (Nd3+) in the active
element of Nd: YAG crystal.
This active element is cut into a cylindrical rod. The ends of the
cylindrical rod are highly polished and they are made optically flat and parallel. This

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 13

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

cylindrical rod (laser rod) and a pumping source (flash tube) are placed inside a highly
(reflecting) elliptical reflector cavity.
The optical resonator is formed by using two external reflecting
mirrors. One mirror (M1) is 100% reflecting while the other mirror (M2) is partially
reflecting.
Working:
Figure 2.18 shows the energy level diagram for Nd: YAG laser. These
energy levels are those of Neodymium (Nd3+) ions.

1. When the krypton flash lamp is switched on, by the absorption of light
radiation of wavelength 0.73μm and 0.8μm, the Neodymium(Nd3+)
atoms are raised from ground level E0 to upper levels E3 and E4 (Pump
bands).
2. The Neodymium ions atoms make a transition from these energy levels
E2 by non-radiative transition. E2 is a metastable state.
3. The Neodymium ions are collected in the level E2 and the population
inversion is achieved between E2 and E1.
4. An ion makes a spontaneous transition from E2 to E1, emitting a
photon of energy hγ. This emitted photon will trigger a chain of
stimulated photons between E2 and E1.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 14

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

5. The photons thus generated travel back and forth between two mirrors
and grow in strength. After some time, the photon number multiplies
more rapidly.
6. After enough strength is attained (condition for laser being satisfied),
an intense laser light of wavelength 1.06μm is emitted through the
partial reflector. It corresponds to the transition from E2 to E1.
Characteristics:
1. Type: It is a four level solid state laser.
2. Active medium: The active medium is Nd: YAG laser.
3. Pumping method: Optical pumping is employed for pumping action.
4. Pumping source: Xenon or Krypton flash tube is used as pumping
source.
5. Optical resonator: Two ends of Nd: YAG rod is polished with silver
(one end is fully silvered and the other is partially silvered) are used as
optical resonator.
6. Power output: The power output is approximately 70 watt.
7. Nature of output: The nature of output is pulsed or continuous beam
of light.
8. Wavelength of the output: The wavelength of the output beam is
1.06μm(infra-red)
Advantages:
1. It has high energy output.
2. It has very high repetition rate operation
3. It is much easy to achieve population inversion.

Disadvantages:
The electron energy level structure of Nd3+ in YAG is complicated.

Applications:
1. It finds many applications in range finders and illuminators.
2. It is widely used in engineering applications such as resistor, trimming
scribing, micro machining operations as well as welding, drilling etc.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 15

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

3. It finds many medical applications such as endoscopy, urology,

neurosurgery, ENT, gynecology, dermatology, dental surgery and
general surgery.
Molecular Gas laser
In a molecular gas laser, laser action is achieved by transitions between vibrational and
rotational levels of molecules. Its construction is simple and the output of this laser is continuous.
In CO2 molecular gas laser, transition takes place between the vibrational states of Carbon
dioxide molecules.
2.1.13 CO2 Molecular gas laser
It was the first molecular gas laser developed by Indian born American scientist
Prof.C.K.N.Pillai.
It is a four level laser and it operates at 10.6 μm in the far IR region. It is a very efficient laser.
Energy states of CO2 molecules.
A carbon dioxide molecule has a carbon atom at the center with two oxygen atoms attached,
one at both sides. Such a molecule exhibits three independent modes of vibrations. They are
a) Symmetric stretching mode.
b) Bending mode
c) Asymmetric stretching mode.

a. Symmetric stretching mode

In this mode of vibration, carbon atoms are at rest and both oxygen atoms vibrate
simultaneously along the axis of the molecule departing or approaching the fixed carbon
atoms.

b. Bending mode:
In this mode of vibration, oxygen atoms and carbon atoms vibrate perpendicular to
molecular axis.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 16

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

c. Asymmetric stretching mode:

In this mode of vibration, oxygen atoms and carbon atoms vibrate asymmetrically,
i.e., oxygen atoms move in one direction while carbon atoms in the other direction.
Principle:
The active medium is a gas mixture of CO2, N2 and He. The laser transition takes
place between the vibrational states of CO2 molecules.

Construction:
It consists of a quartz tube 5 m long and 2.5 cm in the diameter. This discharge tube
is filled with gaseous mixture of CO2 (active medium), helium and nitrogen with suitable
partial pressures.
The terminals of the discharge tubes are connected to a D.C power supply. The ends
of the discharge tube are fitted with NaCl Brewster windows so that the laser light generated
will be polarized.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 17

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Two concave mirrors one fully reflecting and the other partially form an optical
resonator.
Working:
Figure shows energy levels of nitrogen and carbon dioxide molecules.

When an electric discharge occurs in the gas, the electrons collide with nitrogen
molecules and they are raised to excited states. This process is represented by the equation
N2 + e* = N2* + e
N2 = Nitrogen molecule in ground state
e* = electron with kinetic energy
N2* = nitrogen molecule in excited state
e= same electron with lesser energy
Now N2 molecules in the excited state collide with CO2 atoms in ground state and
excite to higher electronic, vibrational and rotational levels.
This process is represented by the equation
N2* + CO2 = CO2* + N2
N2* = Nitrogen molecule in excited state.
CO2 = Carbon dioxide atoms in ground state
CO2* = Carbon dioxide atoms in excited state
N2 = Nitrogen molecule in ground state.
Since the excited level of nitrogen is very close to the E5 level of CO2 atom,
population in E5 level increases.
As soon as population inversion is reached, any of the spontaneously emitted photon
will trigger laser action in the tube. There are two types of laser transition possible.
I. Transition E5 to E4 :
This will produce a laser beam of wavelength 10.6μm
II. Transition E5 to E3

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 18

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

This transition will produce a laser beam of wavelength 9.6μm. Normally 10.6μm
transition is more intense than 9.6μm transition. The power output from this laser is
10kW.
Characteristics:
1. Type: It is a molecular gas laser.
2. Active medium: A mixture of CO2 , N2 and helium or water vapour is used as
active medium
3. Pumping method: Electrical discharge method is used for Pumping action
4. Optical resonator: Two concave mirrors form a resonant cavity
5. Power output: The power output from this laser is about 10kW.
6. Nature of output: The nature of output may be continuous wave or pulsed
wave.
7. Wavelength of output: The wavelength of output is 0.6μm and 10.6μm.
Advantages:
1. The construction of CO2 laser is simple
2. The output of this laser is continuous.
3. It has high efficiency
4. It has very high output power.
5. The output power can be increased by extending the length of the gas tube.
Disadvantages:
1. The contamination of oxygen by carbon monoxide will have some effect on laser
action
2. The operating temperature plays an important role in determining the output power of
laser.
3. The corrosion may occur at the reflecting plates.
4. Accidental exposure may damage our eyes, since it is invisible (infra red region) to
our eyes.
Applications:
1. High power CO2 laser finds applications in material processing, welding, drilling,
cutting soldering etc.
2. The low atmospheric attenuation (10.6μm makes CO2 laser suitable for open air
communication.
3. It is used for remote sensing
4. It is used for treatment of liver and lung diseases.
5. It is mostly used in neuro surgery and general surgery.
6. It is used to perform microsurgery and bloodless operations.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 19

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Solid State diode lasers.

Laser action can also be produced semiconductors. The most compact of all
the lasers in semiconductor diode laser. It is also called injection laser.
Types of Semiconductor diode laser
There are two types of semiconductor diode lasers
i. Homo junction laser
ii. Hetero- Junction laser.
Homo – Junction laser:
If a p-n junction is formed in a single crystalline material, then it is called as homo-
junction laser.
Example: single crystal of gallium Arsenide (Ga-As)

Hetero- Junction laser:

If p-n junction is formed with different semiconducting materials, then it is known as
Hetero- Junction laser. It is also called modern laser diode.
Example: Hetero- Junction laser can be formed between Ga-As and Ga-Al-As.

Direct band gap Semiconductor:

In this type, during the recombination of hole and electron, a photon of light is
released.
Example: Ga-As
In direct band gap Semiconductor:
In this type, heat energy is produced during the recombination of hole and electron.
Example: Germanium and silicon

2.1.14 Semiconductor Diode laser:

Definition:
It is specifically fabricated p-n junction diode. This diode emits laser light when it is
forward biased.

Principle:
When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, the electrons from n – region and the
holes from the p- region cross the junction and recombine with each other.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 20

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

During the recombination process, the light radiation (photons) is released from a
certain specified direct band gap semiconductors like Ga-As. This light radiation is known as
recombination radiation.
The photon emitted during recombination stimulates other electrons and holes to recombine.
As a result, stimulated emission takes place which produces laser.

Construction:
Figure shows the basic construction of semiconductor laser. The active medium is a p-n
junction diode made from the single crystal of gallium arsenide. This crystal is cut in the form of a
platter having thickness of 0.5μmm.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 21

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

The platelet consists of two parts having an electron conductivity (n-type) and hole
conductivity (p-type).
The photon emission is stimulated in a very thin layer of PN junction (in order of few
microns). The electrical voltage is applied to the crystal through the electrode fixed on the upper
surface.
The end faces of the junction diode are well polished and parallel to each other. They act as
an optical resonator through which the emitted light comes out.
Working:

Figure shows the energy level diagram of semiconductor laser.

When the PN junction is forward biased with large applied voltage, the electrons and holes
are injected into junction region in considerable concentration
The region around the junction contains a large amount of electrons in the conduction band
and a large amount of holes in the valence band.
If the population density is high, a condition of population inversion is achieved. The
electrons and holes recombine with each other and this recombination’s produce radiation in the form
of light.
When the forward – biased voltage is increased, more and more light photons are emitted and
the light production instantly becomes stronger. These photons will trigger a chain of stimulated
recombination resulting in the release of photons in phase.
The photons moving at the plane of the junction travels back and forth by reflection between
two sides placed parallel and opposite to each other and grow in strength.
0
After gaining enough strength, it gives out the laser beam of wavelength 8400 A .
The wavelength of laser light is given by

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 22

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

c
Eg h h

hc
Eg
Where Eg is the band gap energy in joule.
Characteristics:
1. Type: It is a solid state semiconductor laser.
2. Active medium: A PN junction diode made from single crystal of gallium arsenide is
used as an active medium.
3. Pumping method: The direct conversion method is used for pumping action
4. Power output: The power output from this laser is 1mW.
5. Nature of output: The nature of output is continuous wave or pulsed output.
6. Wavelength of Output: gallium arsenide laser gives infrared radiation in the
0
wavelength 8300 to 8500 A .
Advantages:
1. It is very small in dimension. The arrangement is simple and compact.
2. It exhibits high efficiency.
3. The laser output can be easily increased by controlling the junction current
4. It is operated with lesser power than ruby and CO2 laser.
5. It requires very little auxiliary equipment
6. It can have a continuous wave output or pulsed output.
Disadvantages:
1. It is difficult to control the mode pattern and mode structure of laser.
2. The output is usually from 5 degree to 15 degree i.e., laser beam has large divergence.
3. The purity and monochromacity are power than other types of laser
4. Threshold current density is very large (400A/mm2).
5. It has poor coherence and poor stability.
Application:
1. It is widely used in fiber optic communication
2. It is used to heal the wounds by infrared radiation
3. It is also used as a pain killer
4. It is used in laser printers and CD writing and reading.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 23

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

2.1.15 HETERO JUNCTION LASER

A pn junction made up of the different materials in two regions ie., n type and p type is
known ad hetrojunction.
Principle:
When a PN junction diode is forward biased, the electrons from the n region and
holes from the p region recombine with each other at the junction. During recombination process,
light is released from certain specified direct band gap semiconductors.
Construction:
This laser consists of five layers as shown in the figure.

A layer of Ga-As p – type (3rd layer) will act as the active region. This layer is sand
witched between two layers having wider band gap viz GaAlAs-p – type (2nd layer) and GaAlAs-n-
type (4th layer).
The end faces of the junctions of 3rd and 4th layer are well polished and parallel to
each other. They act as an optical resonator.

Working:
When the PN junction is forward biased, the electrons and holes are injected into the junction
region. The region around the junction contains large amount of electrons in the conduction band and
holes in the valence band.
Thus the population inversion is achieved. At this stage, some of the injected charge carriers
recombines and produce radiation in the form of light.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 24

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

When the forward biased voltage is increased, more and more light photons are emitted and
the light intensity is more. These photons can trigger a chain of stimulated recombination’s resulting
in the release of photons in phase.
The photons moving at the plane of the junction travels back and forth by reflection between
0
two sides and grow its strength. A coherent beam of laser having wavelength nearly 8000 A emerge
out from the junction region.
Characteristics:
S.No TITLE Description
1. Type : It is a heterojunction semiconductor laser
2. Active medium : PN junctions made from different layers.
3. Pumping method : Direct conversion method
4. Power output : The power output of laser beam is 1 mW
5. Nature of the Output : Continuous wave form
6. Wavelength of the output : 0
Nearly 8000 A

Advantages:
1. It produces continuous wave output.
2. The power output is very high.

Disadvantages:
1. It is very difficult to grow different layers of PN junction.
2. The cost is very high.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 25

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Applications:
1. This type of laser is mostly used in optical applications
2. It is widely used in computers, especially on CD-ROMs.
2.1.16 Comparison Chart of different types of Lasers
S.N Characteristics Nd-YAG laser He-Ne laser CO2Laser Semiconductor
o laser
1. Type Solid state laser Gas laser Molecular laser Semiconductor
laser
2 Active medium Yttrium Mixture of He Mixture of PN junction
Aluminum garnet and Ne in the CO2 ,N2 and He
( Y3 Al5 O12) ratio of 10:1 gases
3 Pumping Optical Pumping Electrical Electrical Direct
method pumping Discharge conversion
method
4 Optical Ends of the Pair of concave Metallic mirror End faces of the
resonator polished rods in mirrors of gold or junction diode
silver silicon coated
with aluminum
5 Power output 2 × 104 watt 0.5- 50 mW 10kW 1 mW
6 Nature of power Pulsed Continuous Continuous or Pulsed or
output waveform pulsed continuous
wave form
7 Wavelength 1.06μm 0 9.6μm and 0
6328 A 8300- 8500 A
10.6μm

3.1.1 Introduction: FIBER OPTICS

The development of lasers and optical fiber has brought about a revolution in the field of
communication systems. Experiments on the propagation of information – carrying light waves
through an open atmosphere were conducted. The atmospheric conditions like rain, fog etc affected
the efficiency of communication through light waves.
To have efficient communication systems, the information carried by light waves should need
a guiding medium through which it can be transmitted safely.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 26

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

This guiding mechanism is optical fiber. The communication through optical fiber is known
as light wave communication or optical communication.
A light beam acting as a carrier wave is capable of carrying more information than that of
radio waves and microwaves due to its larger bandwidth.
Currently in most part of the world, fiber optics is used to transmit voice, video and digital
data signals using light waves from one place to other place.

3.1.2 Optical fiber:

The optical fiber is a wave guide.
It is made up of transparent dielectrics (SiO2), (glass or plastics).
3.2.1Fiber Construction:
It consists of an inner cylinder made of glass or plastic called core. The core has high
refractive index n1.
This core is surrounded by cylindrical shell of glass or plastic called cladding.
The cladding has low refractive index n2. This cladding is covered by a jacket which
is made of polyurethane. It protects the layer from moisture and abrasion.
The light is transmitted through this fiber by total internal reflection. The fiber guides light
waves to travel over longer distance without much loss of energy.

Core diameters range from 5 to 600μm while cladding diameters vary from 125 to
750μm.
Core transmits the light waves. The cladding keeps the light waves within the core by
total internal reflection.
Refractive index:
The refractive index or index of refraction of a substance is a measure of the speed
of light in that substance. It is expressed as a ratio of the speed of light in vacuum relative to
that in the considered medium.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 27

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

3.2.2 Principle of propagation of light in an optical fiber

The light launched inside the core at one end of the fiber propagates to the other end
due to total internal reflection at the core and cladding interface.

Total internal reflection at the fiber wall can occur only if two conditions are
Satisfied.
1. The refractive index of the core material n1 must be higher than that of the cladding n2
surrounding it.
2. At the core – cladding interface, the angle of incidence ( between the ray and normal
to the interface) must be greater than the critical angle defined as

n2
Sin c
n1

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 28

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Let the light ray travel from core of refractive index n1 to cladding of
refractive index n2 n1 > n2.

a) When i c , it is refracted into rarer medium

b) When i c , it traverses along the interface so that angle of refraction is 90 0 .

c) When i c , it is totally reflected back into the denser medium itself.

When i c , then by Snell’s law,

n1 sin c n 2 sin 90 0

n2
sin c
n1

3.2.3 Propagation of light through fiber

Consider an optical fiber through which the light is being sent. The end at which light
enters is called launching end. Let the refractive indices of the core and cladding be n1 and n2
respectively; n1> n2. Let the refractive index of the medium from which the light is launched
be n0.
Let the light ray enter at an angle I to the axis of the fiber

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 29

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

The ray refracts at an angle r.

The ray strikes the core – cladding interface at an angle θ. If θ is greater than the
critical angle θc, the ray undergoes total internal reflection at the interface.
Let us now find out up to what maximum value of i at A total internal reflection at B
is possible.
In triangle ABC, r 90 (1)
sin i n1
From Snell’s law (2)
sin r n0

n1 n n1
sin i sin r = 1 sin r (90 )= cos
n0 n0 n0

If θ is less than the critical angle θc, the ray will be lost by refraction. Therefore, limiting
value for containing the beam inside the core by total internal reflection is θc. Let im me the maximum
possible angle of incidence at the fiber end face A for which θ = θc.
n1
sin i m cos c (3)
n0
n2
But sin c
n1

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 30

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

2 n22 n12 n22

cos c 1 sin c = 1 =
n12 n1

n12 n22
sin i m
n0

1 n12 n22
Or i m sin (4)
n0

This angle im is called the acceptance angle of the fiber.

Definition: Acceptance angle is defined as the maximum angle that a light ray can
have relative to the axis of the fiber and propagate down the fiber.
Or the maximum angle at or below which the light can suffer Total Internal Reflection is
called acceptance angle.
Acceptance cone:
An optical fiber accepts only those rays which are incident within a cone
having a semi angle im.

The light rays contained within the cone having a full angle 2im are accepted
and transmitted along the fiber. Therefore, the cone is called the acceptance cone.
Light incident at an angle beyond im refracts through the cladding and the
corresponding optical energy is lost. It is obvious that the larger the diameter of the core, the
larger the acceptance angle.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 31

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Numerical Aperture:
Definition:
The numerical aperture (NA) is defined as the sine of the acceptance angle.
NA sin im

n12 n22
NA
n0

Numerical aperture determines the light gathering ability of the fiber. It is a

measure of amount of light that can be accepted by a fiber. NA depends only on the refractive
indices of the core and cladding materials. A large NA implies that a fiber will accept large
amount of light from the source.
Fractional Index change:
It is the ratio of refractive index difference in core and cladding to the refractive index
of the core.
n1 n2
n1

Relation between NA and

n1 n1 n2
We know NA n12 n22

NA = n1 n2 n1 n2
Substituting the value of n1 – n2 we have

NA n1 n2 n1

If n1 = n2, then NA 2n12

NA n1 2

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 32

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBERS

Optical fibers are classified into three major categories
i. The type of material used
ii. The number of modes
iii. The refractive index profile

Based on the type of the material used, they are classified into two types
1. Glass fiber:
Example:
Core: SiO2 Cladding: SiO2
Core: GeO2- SiO2 Cladding: SiO2
2. Plastic fiber:
Example:
Core: polymethyl methacrylate : Cladding: Co- Polymer
Core: Polystyrene : Cladding: Methyl methacrylate
Based on the number of modes, they are classified as
1. Single mode fiber
2. Multimode fiber
Based on the refractive index profile, they are classified as
1. Step- index fiber
2. Graded index fiber

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 33

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

MODES OF PROPAGATION:
Light propagates as electromagnetic waves through an optical fiber. All waves,
having ray directions above the critical angle will be trapped within the fiber due to total
internal reflection. However, all such waves do not propagate through the fiber. Only certain
ray directions are allowed to propagate. The allowed directions correspond to the modes of
the fiber.
In simple terms, modes can be visualized as the possible number of paths of light in
an optical fiber. The paths are all zigzag paths excepting the axial direction. Accordingly,
light rays travelling through a fiber are classified as axial rays or zigzag rays. As a ray gets
repeatedly reflected at the walls of the fiber, phase shift occurs. Waves travelling along the
certain zigzag paths will be in phase and intensified. Waves travelling along certain other
paths will be out of phase and diminish due to destructive interference. The light rays path
along which the waves are in phase inside the fiber are called modes. The number of modes
that a fiber will support depends upon the ratio of d/λ where d is the diameter of the core and
λ is the wavelength of the wave being transmitted.
Modes are designated by an ‘order’ number ‘m’. In a fiber of fixed thickness, the
higher order modes propagate at smaller angles than the lower order modes.
Axial ray that travels along the axis of the fiber is called zero order rays.
SINGLE MODE FIBERS.
In general, the single mode fibers are step – index fibers. These types of fibers are
made from doped silica. It has a very small core diameter so that it can allow only one mode
of propagation and hence called single mode fibers.
The cladding diameter must be very large compared to the core diameter. Thus in the
case of single mode fiber, the optical loss is very much reduced. The structure of a single
mode fiber as shown.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 34

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Structure:
Core diameter : 5-10μm
Cladding diameter : Generally around 125μm
Protective layer : 250 to 1000μm
Numerical aperture : 0.08 to 0.10
Band width : More than 50MHz km.
Application:
Because of high bandwidth, they are used in long haul communication systems.
MULTI- MODE FIBERS
The multi mode fibers are useful in manufacturing both for step – index and graded
index fibers. The multi-mode fibers are made by multi-component glass compounds such as
Glass – Clad Glass, Silica – Clad – Silica, doped silica etc. Here the core diameter is very
large compared to single mode fibers, so that it can allow many modes to propagate through
it and hence called as Multi mode fibers. The cladding diameter is also larger than the
diameter of the single mode fibers. The structure of the multimode fiber is as shown in the
figure.

Structure:
Core diameter : 50-350μm
Cladding diameter : 125μm - 500μm
Protective layer : 250 to 1100μm
Numerical aperture : 0.12 to 0.5
Band width : Less than 50MHz km.
The total number of modes possible for such an electromagnetic wave guide is
2
d NA
N 4.9

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 35

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Here d= core diameter

NA = numerical aperture
λ= Optical wavelength.
Application:
Because of its less band width it is very useful in short haul communication systems.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SINGLE AND MULTIMODE FIBER

S.NO SINGLE MODE FIBER MULTIMODE FIBER

1. In single mode fiber only one mode can In multimode it allows a large number of
propagate through the fiber paths or modes for the light rays travelling
through it.
2. It has smaller core diameter and the It has larger core diameter and refractive
difference between the refractive index of index difference is larger than the single
the core and cladding is very small. mode fiber.
Advantages: Disadvantages:
3. No dispersion(i.e. there is no degradation Dispersion is more due to degradation of
of signal during propagation) signal owing to multimode.

4. Since the information transmission Information can be carried to shorter

capacity is inversely proportional to distances only.
1
dispersion T the fiber can carry
D
information to longer distances.
Disadvantages: Advantages:
5. Launching of light and connecting of two Launching of light and also connecting of
fibers difficult. two fibers is easy.

6. Installation (fabrication) is difficult as it is Fabrication is easy and the installation cost

more costly is low.

3.1.5 SINGLE MODE STEP INDEX FIBER

A single mode step index fiber consists of a very thin core of uniform refractive index
surrounded by a cladding of refractive index lower than that of core. The refractive index
abruptly changes at the core cladding boundary. Light travels along a side path, i.e., along the
axis only. So zero order modes is supported by Single Mode Fiber.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 36

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

3.1.6 MULTIMODE STEP INDEX FIBER

A multimode step index fiber consists of a core of uniform refractive index
surrounded by cladding of refractive index lower than that of the core. The refractive index
abruptly changes at the core cladding boundary. The core is of large diameter. Light follows
zigzag paths inside the fiber. Many such zigzag paths of propagation are permitted in Multi
Mode Fiber. The Numerical Aperture of a Multi mode fiber is larger as the core diameter of
the fiber is larger.

3.1.7 GRADED INDEX FIBER

GRIN fiber is one in which refractive index varies radially, decreasing continuously
in a parabolic manner from the maximum value of n1, at the center of the core to a constant
value of n2 at the core cladding interface.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 37

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

In graded index fiber, light rays travel at different speeds in different parts of the fiber
because the refractive index varies through out the fiber. Near the outer edge, the refractive
index is lower. As a result, rays near the outer edge travel faster than the rays at the center of
the core. Because of this, rays arrive at the end of the fiber at approximately the same time. In
effect light rays arrive at the end of the fiber are continuously refocused as they travel down
the fiber. All rays take the same amount of time in traversing the fiber. This leads to small
pulse dispersion.
n2 L 2
The pulse dispersion is given by max min
2c
n1 n2
Here
n2
For a parabolic index fiber, the pulse dispersion is reduced by a factor of about 200 in
comparison to step index fiber. It is because of this reason that first and second generation
optical communication systems used near parabolic index fibers.
3.7.1 PROPAGATION OF LIGHT IN GRIN FIBER
Let na, nb,nc,nd etc be the refractive index of different layers in graded index fiber with
na > nb> nc> nd etc. then the propagation of light through the graded index fiber is as shown in
the figure.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 38

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Here, since na > nb the ray gets refracted. Similarly since nb> nc, the ray gets refracted
and so on. In a similar manner, due to decrease in refractive index the ray gets gradually
curved towards the upward direction and at one place , where in it satisfies the condition for
total internal reflection,( c ) it is totally internally reflected .
The reflected rays travels back towards the core axis and without crossing the fiber
axis, it is refracted towards downwards direction and again gets totally internally reflected
and passes towards upward direction. In this manner the ray propagates inside the fiber in a
helical or spiral manner

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 39

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

3.8 Difference between Step Index fiber and Graded Index fiber
S. STEP INDEX FIBER GRADED INDEX FIBER
NO
1. The refractive index of the core is uniform The refractive index of the core is made to vary
throughout and undergoes on abrupt change gradually such that it is maximum at the center of
at the core cladding boundary the core.
2. The diameter of the core is about 50-200μm The diameter of the core is about 50μm in the
in the case of multimode fiber and 10μm in case of multimode fiber
the case of single mode fiber
3. The path of light propagation is zig- zag in The path of light is helical in manner
manner
3. Attenuation is more for multimode step Attenuation is less.
index fiber but for single mode it is very less. Explanation:
Explanation: Here the light rays travel with different velocity
When a ray travels through the longer inn different paths because of their variation in
distances there will be some difference in their refractive indices. At the outer edge it
reflected angles. Hence high angle rays travels faster than near the center. But almost all
arrive later than low angle rays causing the rays reach the exit at the same time due to
dispersion resulting in distorted output. helical path. Thus, there is no dispersion.
4. This fiber has lower bandwidth This fiber has higher bandwidth
5. The light ray propagation is in the form of The light propagation is in the form of skew rays
meridional rays and it passes through the and it will not cross fiber axis.
fiber axis.
6. No of modes of Propagation: No of modes of Propagation:
2 2 2
d NA V d NA
N step 4.9 4.9
2 v2
N Graded
Where d= diameter of the fiber core 2 4
λ= wavelength N step
NA = Numerical Aperture Or N graded
2
V- V-number is less than or equal to
2.405 for single mode fibers and greater
than 2.405 for multimode fibers.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 40

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

3.1.9 OPTICAL FIBER AS AN OPTICAL WAVEGUIDE

Optical fibers are used as dielectric waveguides for electromagnetic signals of optical
frequencies. Figure shows the block diagram of transmission of sound along the optical fiber
and conversion again to sound at the other end.

i. Sound is first converted into electrical signal by a microphone.

ii. The electrical signals modulate the intensity of light from laser.
iii. Then the information is carried along the fiber in a digital form.
Boosters or repeaters are placed at a distance of about 50km of cable to make
up the signal loses occurring due to scattering and absorption.
iv. At the receiving place, a photodiode converts the digital light pulses into
corresponding electrical signals.
v. The electrical signals are then converted into sound by an earphone ( receiver)
Time division multiplexing system is used to transmit many thousands of
telephone cells through a single optical fiber with the use of digital pulses.
3.1.10 THE FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Figure shows the schematic diagram of a fiber optic communication system. The
major components of an optical fiber communication system are
i. The optical transmitter
ii. The optical fiber
iii. The optical receiver

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 41

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

PRINCIPLE:
Basically, a fiber optic system converts an electrical signal to an infrared light signal.
This signal is transmitted through an optical fiber. At the end of the optical fiber, it is
reconverted into an electric signal

Working:
1. Encoder encodes the information in the binary sequence zeros and ones.

a. Encoder is an electric circuit where in the information is encoded into binary

sequences of zeros and one. In the light wave transmitter each ‘one’
corresponds to an electrical pulse and ‘zero’ corresponds to an absence of a
pulse. These electrical pulses are used to turn a light source on and off very
rapidly. The driver converts the incoming electrical signal into a form that will
operate with the light source.

2. These electrical pulses are used to turn a light source on and off rapidly.

3. The optical fiber acts as a wave guide and transmits the optical pulses towards the
receiver, by the principle of total internal reflection.

4. The light detector receives the optical pulses and converts them into electrical pulses.
These signals are amplified by the amplifier.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 42

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

5. The amplified signals are decoded by the decoder.

ADVANTAGES:

1. Extremely wide bandwidth.

a. Optical frequencies are very large (1015 Hz) as compared to radio frequencies
(106Hz) and microwave frequencies (1010 Hz). The rate at which information
can be transmitted is directly related to signal frequency. Therefore, a
transmission system that operates at the frequency of light can theoretically
transmit information at a higher rate than systems that operate at radio
frequencies or microwave frequencies.

2. Lack of cross talk between parallel fibers.

a. There is virtually no signal leakage from fibers. Hence, cross-talks between

neighboring fibers are almost absent. This is quite frequent in conventional
metallic system

3. Immunity to inductive interference

a. Since optical fibers are not metallic, they do not pick up electromagnetic
waves. The result is noise free transmission i.e., fiber optic cables are immune
to interference caused by lighting or other electromagnetic equipment

4. Smaller diameter and light weight cable

a. Optical fibers, because of their light weight and flexibility, can be handled
more easily than copper cables.

5. Signal security

a. The transmitted signal through the fibers does not radiate. Further the signal
cannot be tapped from a fiber in an easy manner. Therefore, optical fiber communication
provides a hundred percent signal security hence this system is highly suited to secure
communications in defence communication networks.

6. Economical & Low loss per unit length.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 43

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

3.1.11 Double Crucible Method

A method of fabricating an Optical Wave guide by melting the core and clad glasses
in two suitably joined concentric crucibles and then drawing a fiber from the combined
melted glass.

1. Highly purified glass powders of various refractive indices are fed into the
inner crucible for the core in the outer crucible for cladding.
2. The electric furnace is switched on and the materials are heated to very high
temperature.
3. The material goes to molten state and the material starts squeezing through the
orifice of the crucible.
4. Now the core material will start diffusing into cladding material to form an
optical fiber.
5. The fiber is drawn through the bottom surface of the crucible and dopant such
as thallium with high rate of diffusion in silica is used to maintain the
difference in refractive index.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 44

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

3.1.12 FIBER OPTIC SENSORS

Optical sensor is a transducer which converts any form of signal into optical signal in
the measurable form. Here optical fibers are used as a guiding media and hence called as
wave guides. The block diagram of a sensor system is as follows.

The optical sources used here are LED/Laser. The optical signal produced by the
optical source and is transmitted through the transmitting fiber in the modulation zone.
The optical signals are modulated based on any one of these properties, viz., Optical
intensity, phase, polarization, Wavelength and spectral distribution. These modulated signals
with any one of these properties are received by the receiving / fiber and is sent to the optical
detector.
3.12.1. TYPES OF SENSORS
There are two types of sensors, viz.
i. Intrinsic sensors or Active sensors
ii. Extrinsic sensors or Passive sensors
3.12.2 INTRINSIC SENSORS OR ACTIVE SENSORS
In intrinsic sensors or active sensors the physical parameter to be sensed directly acts
on the fiber itself to produce the changes in the transmission characteristics.
Example:
i. Temperature /Pressure Sensor( Phase and polarization sensor) and
ii. Liquid level sensor.
3.12.3 EXTRINSIC SENSORS
In extrinsic sensors or passive sensors, separate sensing element will be used and the
fiber will act as a guiding media to the sensors.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 45

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Examples:
i. Displacement sensor
ii. Laser Doppler velocimeter sensor

TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Principle:
It is based on the principle of interference between the beams emerging out
from the reference fiber and the fiber kept in the measuring environment.

Description:
It consists of a Laser source to emit light. A beam splitter, made of glass plate
is inclined at an angle 450 with respect to the direction of the laser beam.

Two fibers viz,

i. Reference fiber which is isolated from the environment
ii. Test fiber kept in the environment to be sensed, are placed as shown in the
figure. Separate lens systems are provided to split and to collect the beam.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 46

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Working:
1. A monochromatic source of light is emitted from the laser source.
2. The beam splitter kept at an angle 450 inclination divides the beam
emerging from the laser source into two beams (i) main beam and (ii)
splitted beam, exactly at right angles to each other.
3. The main beam passes through the lens L1 and is focused onto the
reference fiber which is isolated from the environment to be sensed.
4. The beam after passing through the reference fiber then falls on the
Lens L2.
5. The splitted beam passes through the Lens L3 and is focused onto the
test fiber kept in the environment to be sensed.
6. The splitted beam after passing through the test fiber is made to fall on
lens L2.
7. The two beams after passing through the fibers, produces a path
difference due to change in parameters such as pressure, temperature
etc in the environment.
8. Therefore a path difference is produced between two beams causing
the interference pattern as shown in the figure.
9. Thus the change in pressure or temperature can be accurately measured
with the help of the interference pattern obtained.
DISPLACEMENT SENSOR (EXTRINSIC SENSOR)
Principle:
Light is sent through a transmitting fiber and is made to fall on a moving
target. The reflected light from the target is sensed by a detector. With respect to intensity
of light reflected from its displacement of the target is measured.
Description:
It consists of a bundle of transmitting fibers coupled to the laser source and a
bundle of receiving fibers coupled to the detector as shown in the figure.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 47

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

The axis of the transmitting fiber and the receiving fiber with respect to the
moving target can be adjusted to increase the sensitivity of the sensor.
Working:
Light from the source is transmitted through the transmitting fiber and is made
to fall on the moving target. The light reflected from the target is made to pas through the
receiving fiber and the same is detected by the detector.
Based on the intensity of the light received, the displacement of the target can
be measured, (i.e.) if the received intensity is more than we can say that the target is
moving towards the sensor and if the intensity is less, we can say that the target is moving
away from the sensor.
MEDICAL ENDOSCOPE
Optical fibers are very much useful in medical field. Using low quality, large diameter
and short length silica fibers we can design a fiber optic endoscope or fibroscope.
A medical endoscope is a tubular optical instrument, used to inspect or view the
internal parts of human body which are not visible to the naked eye. The photograph of
the internal parts can also be taken using this endoscope.
Construction
Figure shows the structure of endoscope. It has two fibers viz.,
1. Outer fiber(f0)

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 48

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

2. The inner fiber (fi).

Outer fiber:
The outer fiber consists of many fibers bundled together without any particular
order of arrangement and is called incoherent bundle. These fiber bundles as a whole
are enclosed in a thin sleeve for protection. The outer fiber is used to illuminate or
focus the light onto the inner parts of the body.

Inner fiber:
The inner fiber also consists of a bundle of fibers, but in perfect order.
Therefore this arrangement is called coherent bundle. This fiber is used to collect the
reflected light from the object. A tiny lens is fixed to one end of the bundle in order to
effectively focus the light, reflected from the object. For a wider field of view and
better image quality, a telescope system is added in the internal part of the telescope.

Working:
Light from the source is passed through the outer fiber (f0). The light is
illuminated on the internal part of the body. The reflected light from the object is
brought to focus using the telescope to the inner fiber (fi).

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 49

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Here each fiber picks up a part of the picture from the body. Hence the picture
will be collected bit by bit and is transmitted in an order by the array of fibers.
As a result, the whole picture is reproduced at the other end of the receiving
fiber as shown in the figure. The output is properly amplified and can be viewed
through the eye piece at the receiving end.
The cross sectional view is as shown in the figure.
In figure, we can see that along with input and output fibers, we have two
more channels namely, (i) Instrumental Channel (C1) and (ii) Irrigation channel (C2)
used for the following purposes.
Instrumentation channel (C1):
It is used to insert or take the surgical instruments needed for
operation.
Irrigation channel (C2):
It is used to blow air or this is used to clear the blood in the operation
region, so that the affected parts of the body can be clearly viewed.
LOSSES IN OPTICAL FIBERS
When light propagates through an optical fiber, a small percentage of light is
lost through different mechanisms. The loss of optical power is measured in terms of
decibels per km for attenuation losses.
ATTENUATION:
It is defined as the ratio of optical power output (Pout) from a fiber of length
‘L’ to the power output (Pin)

10 P
Attenuation log in dB / Km
L Pout
Since attenuation plays a major role in determining the transmission distance,
the following attenuation mechanisms are to be considered in designing an optical
fiber.
1. Absorption:
Usually absorption of light occurs due to imperfections of the atomic
structure such as missing molecules, (OH-), hydroxyl ions, high density cluster
of atoms etc., which absorbs light.
2. Scattering:

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 50

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Scattering is also a wavelength dependent loss, which occurs inside the

fibers. Since the glass is used in fabrication of fibers, the disordered structure of glass will
make some variations in the refractive index inside the fiber. As a result, if light is passed
through the atoms in the fiber, a portion of light is scattered (elastic scattering) .this type of
scattering is called Raleigh scattering.

1
Raleigh scattering loss 4

3. Radiative loss:
Radiative loss occurs in fibers due to bending of finite radius of
curvature in optical fibers. The types of bends are
a. Macroscopic bends
b. Microscopic bends
a. Macroscopic bends:
If the radius of the core is large compared to fiber diameter, it may cause
large-curvature at the position where the fiber cable turns at the corner. At these corners the
light will not satisfy the condition for total internal reflection and hence it escapes out from
the fiber. This is called as macroscopic / macro bending losses. Also note that this loss is
negligible for small bends.

b. Microscopic bends:
Micro-bends losses are caused due to non-uniformities or micro bends inside
the fiber as shown. This micro bends in fiber appears due to non uniform pressures created
during the cabling of the fiber or even during the manufacturing itself. This lead to loss of
light by leakage through the fiber.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 51

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Remedy:
Micro-bend losses can be minimized by extruding (squeezing out) a
compressible jacket over the fiber. In such cases, even when the external forces are applied,
the jacket will be deformed but the fiber will tend to stay relatively straight and safe, without
causing more loss.
DISTORTION AND DISPERSION
The optical signal becomes increasingly distorted as it travels along a fiber. This
distortion is due to dispersion effect.
Dispersion:
When an optical signal or pulse is sent into the fiber the pulse
spreads /broadens as it propagates through the fiber. This phenomenon is called dispersion as
shown in the figure.

From figure we can see that the pulse received at the output is wider than the input
pulse. Hence the output pulse is said to be distorted, due to dispersion effect.

The pulse broadening or dispersion will occur in three ways, viz.,

1. Inter-modal dispersion
2. Material dispersion or chromatic dispersion
3. Waveguide dispersion
Intermodal dispersion:
When more than one mode is propagating through the fiber, then the inter
modal dispersion will occur. Since, many modes are propagating; they will have
different wavelengths and will take different time to propagate through the fiber,
which leads to intermodal dispersion.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 52

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Explanation:
When a ray of light is launched into the fiber, the pulse is dispersed in all
possible paths through the core, so called different modes.
Each mode will be different wavelength and has different velocity as shown in
the figure. Hence, they reach the end of the fiber at different time. This results in the
elongation or stretching of data in the pulse. Thus causes the distorted pulse. This is
called intermodal dispersion.
Material dispersion:
In material dispersion, the dispersion occurs due to different wavelength
travelling at different speed inside the fibers shown in the figure.

Remedy:
The material dispersion can be minimized at certain wavelengths say 870nm,
1300 nm and 1550 nm; these wavelengths are termed Zero Dispersion wavelengths(ZDW).

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 53

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Whether light wavelength is lesser than Zero Dispersion wavelengths , it

travels slower and when it is higher than ZDW it travels faster. Thus the speed is altered and
adjusted in such a way that all the waves passing through the fiber will move with constant
speed and hence the material dispersion is minimized.

Note: this dispersion will not occur in single mode fibers

Wave guide dispersion:

The wave guide dispersion arises due to the guiding property of the fiber and
due to their different angles at which they incident at the core-cladding interface of
the fiber.

In general
Inter-modal dispersion > Material Dispersion> Waveguide dispersion

DETECTOR:
A detector is one which converts photons into electrons
A detector is one which converts light into either current or voltage.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION of a Photo Detector
A photodiode is a PN junction or PIN structure. When a Photon of sufficient energy strikes
the diode, it excites an electron, thereby creating a free electron and a hole.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 54

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

If the absorption occurs in the junction's depletion region, these carriers are swept from the
junction by the built-in field of the depletion region. Thus holes move towards the anode, and
electrons toward the cathode, and a photocurrent is produced.
Definition:
It is a device which converts light signal to electrical wave forms.
Types of photo detectors:
There are three types of Photo-detectors
i. Photo emissive
ii. Photo conductive
iii. Photo voltaic
Photo voltaic devices:
We will study the three forms of devices.
i. PN junction photo detector
ii. PIN photo diode
iii. Avalanche photo diode(APD)
Figure explains the basic detection mechanism of PN junction diode photo
detector. When reverse biased, the potential barrier between p and n regions
increases. Therefore no current flows.

Figure shows an incident photons being absorbed in the junction after passing
through the p layer. The light photons incident on the junction produce large number

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 55

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

of electron – hole pairs. The electrons are attracted towards n region and holes are
attracted towards p-region due to reverse bias of the diode. Thus the current passes
through the external resistor.
The current through the load depends upon on the intensity of the light
incident on the diode.
The absorbed energy raises a bound electron across the band gap.
PIN PHOTO DIODE:
It is a device which consists of a p and n regions separated by a lightly doped intrinsic
region.
The cross-sectional view of p-i-n photodiode is as shown.

A sufficiently large reverse bias is applied across the device. When an incident photon
has energy greater than or equal to the band gap energy of the semiconductor material, an
electron excites from valence band to conduction band.
These carriers are mainly generated in the depletion region where most of the incident
light is absorbed.
The high electric filed present in the depletion region causes the carriers to separate
and be collected across the reverse biased junction. This gives rise to a current flow in the
external circuit.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 56

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Avalanche photo detector:

An avalanche photodiode is more sophisticated than a p-i-n diode and it incorporates
internal gain mechanism. So the photo-electric current is amplified within the detector.
This device is a reverse biased p-n junction that is operated at voltage close to the
breakdown voltage.

The electron and hole pairs are generated in the depletion layer acquire sufficient
energy from the field to liberate secondary electrons and holes with in the layer by impact
ionization.
The secondary electron – hole pair drift in opposite directions and together with the
primary carriers may produce new carriers. Thus, carrier multiplication and internal
amplification occurs. This internal amplification process enhances the responsivity of the
detectors.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 57

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

LIGHT EMITTING DIODES:

It is a semiconductor p-n junction diode which emits light when it is forward biased.
Principle:
The electrons injected into the p- region make a direct
downward transition from the conduction band into valence band and they recombine with
holes and emit photons of energy Eg.
We know that the forbidden gap energy is given by
Eg h (1)

Where h = Planck’s constant

= frequency of the emitted radiation

c
But we know (2)

Substituting (2) in (1)

hc
Eg

Hence, the wavelength of the emitted photon is given by relation

hc
Eg
Therefore, the wavelength of the light emitted purely depends on the band gap energy.

Construction:
Figure shows crossectional view of a LED.
A n- type layer is grown on a substrate and a p- type layer is deposited on it by
diffusion. Since carrier recombination takes place in the p-layer, it is deposited upper most.
For maximum light emission, a metal film anode is deposited at the outer edges of the
p-layer. The bottom of the substrate is coated with metal (gold) film for reflecting most of the
light surface of the device and also to provide connection with n- type layer.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 58

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

Working:
When the p –n junction diode is forward biased, the barrier width is reduced, raising
the potential energy on the n-side and lowering that on the p-side.
The free electrons and holes have sufficient energy to move into the junction region.
If a free electron meets a hole, it recombines with each other resulting in the release of a
photon
Thus light radiation of the LED is caused by the recombination of holes and electrons
that are injected into the junction by forward bias voltage.

Advantages of LED:
1. Light output is proportional to the current. Hence, the light intensity of LEDs can be
controlled easily by varying the current flow.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 59

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

2. LEDs are rugged and therefore withstand shocks and vibrations.

3. Varieties of LEDs are available which emit in different colours like red, green, yellow
etc.
4. It has long life time and high degree of reliability.
5. It has low drive voltage and low noise.
6. It is easily interfaced to digital logic circuits.
7. It can be operated over a wide range of temperatures.
Disadvantages of LED:
1. It requires high power.
2. Its preparation cost is high.
3. LED is not suitable for large area display because of its high cost.
4. It cannot be used for illumination purposes.
ANNA UNIVERSITY PART A QUESTIONS
1. Give four applications of fiber optic sensors.
2. Explain the basic principles of fiber optic communication.
3. Distinguish between step index and graded index fiber
4. Define numerical aperture and acceptance angle
5. What is the principle used in PIN photo diode?
6. What is meant by injection luminescence?
7. Give any four examples for intrinsic and extrinsic sensor.
8. Mention the advantages of optical fiber communication systems.
9. What are the conditions of Total Internal reflection.
ANNA UNIVERSITY PART B QUESTIONS
10. Define numerical aperture and derive an expression for numerical aperture and angle of
acceptance of fiber in terms of refractive index of core and fiber( Refer Page No 4-6)
11. Explain the propagation of light through optical fiber and the applications of optical fiber as
waveguide and sensor.(Refer Page No 4- 6 & Page 15 & 19-22)
12. Describe in detail any one of the light source and detector used in fiber optic communication
system( Refer Page No 28 -33)
13. What are different types of fiber optical sensors? Explain the working of any two sensors.
( Refer Page No 19-22)
14. Classify the optical fibers on the basis of materials, modes of propagation and refractive index
difference.( Refer Page No 7 – 13 Note: Need not give the difference in the answer)

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 60

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

15. Describe how optical fiber is used in communication field. What are its advantages of it over
the conventional methods?( Refer Page No 15 to 17)
16. Describe the construction and working of medical endoscope and give its application in
medical field.( Refer Page No : 22 to 23)
TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
1. Give four applications of fiber optic sensors.
a) Fiber optic sensors are used as optical displacement sensors, which is used to
find the displacement of a target along with its position.
b) It is used as fluid level detector.
c) It is used to sense the pressure, temperature at any environment.
d) It is also used to measure the number of rotations of the fiber coil using the
instrument called a gyroscope.
2. Explain the basic principle of fiber optic communication.
Total internal reflection is the principle of fiber optic communication.
Principle:
When light travels from a denser to rarer medium, at a particular angle of
incidence called the critical angle, the ray emerges along the surface of separation.
When the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle, the incident ray is reflected in
the same medium and this phenomenon is called the total internal reflection.
3. Give the application of fiber optical system.
a) It can be used for long distance communication in trunk lines.
b) A large no of telephone signals nearly 15000 can be passed through the optical
fibers in a particular time without any interference.
c) It is used in computer networks especially in LAN.
d) It is also used as optical sensor.
4. Mention any four advantages of LED in electronic display.
a) Very small in size.
b) Different colours of display.
c) Works under a wide range of temperature.
d) It is a very wide range of operation.
5. Mention any four advantages of fiber optic sensors.
a) It has no external interference
b) It is used in remote sensing.

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 61

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

c) Safety of data transfer.

d) It is small in size.
6. Mention any two fiber optic sources.
a) Light emitting diode (LED) in LED we have two types 1.planar
2.dome shaped LED.
b) Laser diodes (LD). In laser diodes we have homojunction laser
heterojunction laser injection laser diode etc.
7. What is meant by injection luminescence? Give examples.
When the majority careers are injected from P to N and N to P region, they
become excess minority carriers. Then this excess minority carrier diffuses away
from the junction and recombines with the majority carriers in P and N region and
emits light. This phenomenon is known as injection luminescence.
8. What is meant by LED? Give its principle.
An LED is the abbreviation of light emitting diode. It is a semiconductor P N
junction diode which converts electrical energy to light energy under forward biasing.
9. What is the principle used in PIN photodiode?
This diode works in reverse bias. Under reverse bias when light is made to fall
on the neutral or intrinsic region electron hole pairs are generated. These electrons and
holes are accelerated by the external electric field, which results in photo current.
Thus light is converted into electrical signal.
10. Give any four examples of intrinsic sensor.
a) Pressure sensor
b) Liquid level sensor
c) Phase and polarization sensor.
d) Optical fiber flow sensor.
11. 10. Give any four examples of extrinsic sensor.
a) Displacement sensor
b) Laser Doppler velocimter sensor
c) Fluor optic temperature sensor
d) Current measurement sensor
12. State the applications of optical fibers in medical field.
a) Fiber optics endoscopes are used in medical diagnosis
b) It is used to visualize the inner organs of the body

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 62

www.Vidyarthiplus.com
 www.Vidyarthiplus.com

UNIT V PHOTONICS AND FIBER OPTICS

c) Fibers as endoscopes are used in various medical fields such as cardioscopy,

laparoscopy, cryoscopy etc.
13. What is meant by attenuation?
It is defined as the ratio of the optical power (Pout) from a fiber of length ‘L’ to
the power input (Pin).

10 P
Attenuation = log in dB / Km
L Pout

14. Mention the advantages of optical fiber communication over radio wave
communication.

a) Optical communication can be made even in the absence of electricity

b) The optical signals are not affected by any electrical signals or lightening

c) Optical fiber communication is free from electromagnetic interference(EMI)

d) This type of communication is suitable to any environmental conditions

e) Easy maintenance, longer life, economical and high quality signal

transmission are the additional features of optical fiber communication.
15. What are the losses that occur during optical fiber communication?
During the transmission of light through the optical fiber, three major losses

will occur, viz., attenuation, distortion, and dispersion.

Attenuation is mainly caused due to absorption, scattering and radiation of

light inside the fibers.

Distortion and dispersion occurs due to spreading of light and also due to

manufacturing the defects.

16. What are the conditions of Total Internal reflection?

a) Light should travel from denser medium to rarer medium

b) The angle of incidence(Ф) on core should be greater than critical angle (Фc)
Ф > Фc

c) The refractive index of the core (n1) should be greater than the refractive index
of the cladding (n2).
n1 > n2

SUDEC/K.K.ARTHIKEYAN/STUDY MATERIALS/PH 6151/ ENGG PHY- I/2013-2014 Page 63

www.Vidyarthiplus.com