Telephone |» Fox ;-+] togin voter J Tnventory Chock ‘Schedule Production Production ate Notify Customer as to Delivery Date FIGURE 2-16 Flow diagram for order entry. it moves through the various processing stations or operations. The diagram makes it easy to visualize the entire system, identify potential trouble spots, and locate control activities, Standardized symbols are used by industrial engineers; however, they for the necessary for problem solving, Figure 2-16 shows a flow diagram for the order entry activity of a made-to-ord number of people performing an operation. The diagram shows who is the next customer in increasing the understandin; structed by a team, because it is rar entire process, Improvements to the process can be accomplished by eliminating steps, combining steps, or making frequently occuring steps more efficient the process, thereby ig of the process. Flow diagrams are best con- for one individual to understand the SEVEN MANAGMENT AND PLANNING TOOLS in post-World War II operations re- Most of these tools have their roots search work and in the work of leaders of the Japanese total quality contrel movement of the 1970s. They are Slinty diagram, interrelationship diagram, tree diagrars, prioritization matrices, matrix diagram, process decision pro. gram chart, and activity network diagram. 7 a Descriptions of these tools are given in The Memory Jogger Plus + “by Michael Brassard and in Total Quality Management, 2nd edition, byDale Besterfield, Carol Michna Besterfield, Glen Besterficld, and Mary Besterfield Sacre. PROBLEM-SOLVING METHOD ‘The project team achieves the optimal results when it operates within the framework of the problem-solving method. In the initial stages of a process- improvement program, quick results are often obtained because the solu- tions are obvious or someone has a brilliant idea. However, in the long 3 term, a systematic approach will yield the greatest benefits The problem-solving method (also called the scientific method) as applied to process improvement has seven phases: 1. Identify the opportunity. 2. Define the scope. 3. Analyze the process. 4, Develop the optimal solutions. 5. Implement and study results. 6. Standardize the solution. 7. Plan for the future. These steps are not totally independent; they aie sometimes interreinted. In fact, some techniques such as the control chart can be effectively utilized in more than one step. Process improvement is the goal, and the problem- solving process is a framework to achieve that goal, Phase 1 Identify the Opportunity ‘The objective of this phase is to identify and prioritize opportunities for improvement. It has two parts: identify the problem and form the team, Problem identification answers the question, What are the problems? pan The answer leads to those problems that have the greatest potential for improvement and have the greatest need for solution, Problems can be identified from a variety of inputs, such as the following: Pareto ‘analysis of repetitive exiernal alarm signals, such as field failures, complaints, returns, and others (see Chapter 8). Pareto analysis of repetitive internal alarm signals (for example, serap, rework, sorting, and the 100% test). Proposals from,key insiders (managers, supervisors, professionals, a and union stewards). eee : we ctProposals from suggestion schemes. Field study of users’ needs, Data on performance of products versus competitors (from users and from laboratory tests), Comments of key people outside the organization (customers, suppli- ers, journalists, and critics). Findings and comments of government regulators and independent laboratories. Customer surveys. Employee surveys. Brainstorming by work groups. Problems are not bad or good; they provide opportunities for improve- ment. For a condition to qualify as a problem, it must meet the following three criteria: Performance varies from an established standard. Deviation from the perception and the facts. ‘The cause is unknown: if we know the cause, there is no problem. Finding problems is not too difficult, because there are many more than can be analyzed. The quality council or work group must prioritize them using the following selection criteri 1. Is the problem important and not superficial and why? 2. Will problem solution contribute to the attainment of goals? 3. Can the probiem be defined clearly using numbers? A work group that needs to select its initial problem should find one that gives the maximum benefit for the minimum amount of effort. The second part of Phase 1 is to form a team. If the team is a natural work group, then this part is complete. If the problem is of a multifunctional nature, as are most, then the team is selected and tasked by the quality council to address the improvement of a specific process. The team leader is selected and becomes the owner of the process, Goals and deadlines are determined. More information on teams is given in Chapter 4, Phase 2"Define thie Scope Failure in problem solving is. frequently. caused by poor definition of the Problem, A problem well stated is half solved. Criteria for a good problem statement are as follows: * BB] cessrnove cccIt clearly describes the problem and is easily understood. It states the effect--what is wrong, when it happens, and where it is occurring, not why it is wrong or who is responsible. It focuses on what is known, what is unknown, and what needs to be done. It uses facts and is free of judgment. It emphasizes the impact on the customer. An example of a well-written problem statement is: ‘Asa result of a customer satisfaction survey, a sample of 150 billing invoices showed that 18 had errors that required 1 hour to correct, In addition to the problem statement, this phase requires a comprehen- sive charter for the team. The éhiirter specifies 1, Authority. Who authorized the team? 2, Objective and Scope. What are the expected outputs and specific areas to be improved? 3. Composition. Who are the team members and process and sub- process owners? 4, Direction and Control, What are the guidelines for the internal opera- tion of the team? S. General, What are the incthods to be used, the resources, and the specitic milestones? Phase 3 Analyze the Process ‘The objective of this phase is to understand the process and how it is currently performed. Key activities are to determine the measurements needed to anclyze the process; gather data; define the process boundaries, outputs and customers, inputs and suppliers, and process flow: identify root causes; and determine levels of customer satisfaction. ‘The first step is,for the team to develop a process flow diagram. A flow diagram translates complex work into an easily understood graphic description. This activity is an “eye-opening” experience for the team, be- cause it is rare that all members of the team understand the entire process. ‘Next, the target performance measures are defined. Measurement is fundamental to meaningful process improvements. If something cannot be measured, it cannot be iniproved. There is an old saying that what gets measured gets done, The team will determine if the measurements needed memes ar0>{0 understand and improve the process are presently being used; if new ones are needed, the team will Determine data needed to manage the process, Establish regular feedback with customers and suppliers, Establish measures for quality/cost/timelines of inputs and outputs. Once the target performance measures are established, the team can collect all available data and information, If these data are not enough, then additional new information is obtained. Gathering data (1) helps confirm that a problem exists, (2) enables the team to work with facts, (3) makes it possible to establish measurement criteria for baseline, and (4) enables the team to measure the effectiveness of an implemented solution. It is important to collect only needed data and to get the right data for the problem. The team should develop a plan that includes input from internal and external customers and ensures the plan answers the following questions: 1, What problem or operation do we wish to learn about? 2. What are the data used for? 3. How many data are needed? 4 What conclusions can be drawn from the collected data? 5. What action should be taken as a result of the conclusion? Data.can be collected by using check sheets, by computers with their applica- tion software, by data-collection devices such as hand-held gauges, and by an on-line system, ‘The team will identify the customers and their expectations as well as their inputs, outputs, and interfaces of the process. Also, they will systemati. cally review the procedures currently being used. Common items of data and information are Design information, such as specifications, drawings, function, bills of materials, costs design reviews, field data, service, and maintain- ability Process information, such as routing, equipment, operators, raw ma- terial, and component parts and supplies Statistical information, such as average, median, range, standard deviation, skewness, kurtosis, and frequency distribution (QUALITY-IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUESQuality information, such as Pareto diagrams, cause-and-effect ‘grams, check sheets, scatter diagrams, control chatts, histograms, process capability, acceptance sampling, run charts, life testing, and operator and equipment matrix analysis. cause-and-effect diagram is particularly effective in this phase, Determining all of the causes requires experience, brainstorming, and a thorough knowledge of the process. It is an excellent starting point for the project team. One word of caution—the object is to seck causes, not solu- tions, Therefore, only possible causes, no matter how trivial, should be listed. Itis important to identify the root, or most likely, cause. This activity can sometimes be determined by voting. It is a good idea to verify the most likely cause, because a mistake here can lead to the unnecessary waste of time and money. Some verification techniques are 1. Examine the most likely cause against the problem statement. 2, Recheck all data that support the most likely cause. 3. Check the process when it is performing satisfactorily against when it is not by using the who, where, when, how, what, and why approach. 4, Utilize an outside authority who plays “devil's advocate” with the data, information, and reasoning. Use experimental design, Taguchi's quality engineering, and other advanced techniques to determine the critical factors and their levels. Once the root, or most likely, cause is determined, the next phase can begin. Phase 4 Develop the Optimal Solutions This phase has the objective of establishing problem solutions and recom- mending the optimal solution to improve the process. Once all the informa- tion is available, the project team begins its search for possible solutions, More than one solution is frequently required to reitiedy a situation. Some- times the solutions are quite evident from a Glirsory analysis of the data. ‘There are three types of creativity: (1) create new processes, (2) com- bine different processes, or. (3) modify the existing process. The first type is innovation in its highest form, such as the invention of the transistor. Combining two or more processes is a synthesis activity to create a better process. It is a unique combination of what already exists. This type of creativity relies heavily on benchmarking (see Chapter 10). Modification involves altering a process that already exists so that it does a better job. It succeeds when managers utilize the experience, education, and energy of ————— ee J“empowered work groups or project teams. There is not a distinet line between the three types—they overlap? In this step, creativity plays the major role, and brainstorming is the Principal technique. Other group dynamies that can be considered for this Step are the Delphi method and the nominal group technique, Areas for possible change are the number and length of delays, number of steps, timing and number of inspections, rework, and materials handling, Once possible solutions have been determined, evaluation or testing Of the solutions comes next. As mentioned, more than one solution can Contribute to the situation. Evaluation and/or testing determines which of the possible solutions have the greatest potential for success and the advan- tages and disadvantages of these solutions. Criteria for judging the possible Solutions include such things as cost, feasibility, effect, resistance to change, consequences, and training. Solutions may be categorized as short range and Jong range, One of the features of contro! charts is the ability to evaluate possible solutions. Whether the idea is good, poor, or has no effect is evident from the chart. Phase 5 Implement and Study Results Once the optimal solution is selected, it can be implemented. This phase has the objective of preparing the impiementation plan, obtaining approval, implementing the process improvements, and studying the results, Although the project team usually has some authority to institute reme- dial action, more often than not the approval of the quality committee Or other appropriate authority is required. If such is the case, a written and/or oral report is given The contents of the implementation plan report must fully describe Why will it be done? How will it be done? When will it be done? Who will do it? Where will it be done? Answers to these questions will designate required actions, assign responsi= bility, and establish implementation milestones. The length of the report is determined by the complexity of the change. Simple changes may require only an oral report, whereas others require a detailed written report. 2 Poul Mallet, “Inpro Tircugh Creat,” Quality Dies (May 199}: #1. (QUALITY.IMPROYEMENT TECHNIQUES i]' ' ‘After approval by the quality council, itis desirable to obtain the advice and @bnsent of departments, functional areas, teams, and individuals who may be affected by the change. A presentation to these groups will help gain support from those involved in the process and provide an opportunity for feedback with improvement suggestions. In order to study the results, measurements must be taken, Ownership of the measurement activity must be assigned. Measurement tools such as run charts, control charts, Pareto diagrams, histograms, check sheets, and questionnaires are used to monitor and evaluate the process change. The team should meet periodically during this phase to evaluate the results to see that the problem has been solyed or if fine-tuning is required. In addition, they will wish to see if any uatoreteen problems have developed as a result of the changes. If the team is not satisfied then some of the phases will need to be repeated. Phase 6 Standardize the Solution Once the team is satisfied with the change, it must be institutionalized by positive control of the process, process certification, and operator certifica- tion. Positrol (positive control) ensures that important variables are kept under control. It specifies the what, who, how, where, and when of the process and is an updating of the monitoring activity. Table 2-3 gives an illustration of a few variables of ae soldering process. In addition, the quality penipRerals—the system, environment, and slpérvision—must be certified. The partial checklist in Table 2-4 provides the means to initially evaluate the peripherals and periodically audit them to ensure the process will meet or exceed customer requirements for the product or service. Finally, operators must be certified to know what to do and how to do it for a particular process. Also needed is cross training in other jobs within the process to ensure next-customer knowledge and job rotation. TABLE 2-3 Positrol of a Wave Soldering Process. WHAT SPECS. wHo HOW WHERE WHEN A880 0.864 g Lab Sp. gravity | Lab Daily flux +0008 | technician | meter Belt ft/min Process , | Counter | Board Bach speed 10% , |. technician feed change te Preheat z0°° | Automatic |. Thermox | Chamber | Continuous temperature | + 5° couple | entrance | ‘Reprinted, with permission of the Bhote © 1991 AMACOM, a di blisher, from World Class Quality: Using DOE To Make I: Happen by Kiki of the American Manégement Association. FitcstesisonvNesietion APETABLE 2-4 Checklist for Process Certification. QUALITY sySTEM ENVIRONMENT SUPERVISION Authority to shut down line | Water/air purity Coach, not boss Preventive maintenance Dust/chemical control Cleat structions Visible, audible alarm signals | Temp./humidity control | Combining tasks Foolproof inspection Electrostatic discharge Encourage suggestions Neighbor and sell-inspection | Storage/inventory control | Feedback of results Reprinted, with permission of the publisher, tom World Class Quality: Using DOE To Make lt Happen by Kiki Bhote © 1991 AMACOM, a division of the American Management Association Total product knowledge is also desirable. Operator certification is an on- going process that must periodically occur. Phase 7 Plan for the Future This phase has the objective of achieving improved levels of process perfor- mance. Regardless of how successful initial improvement efforts are, the improvement process must continue. It is important to remember that Total Quality Management (TQM) addresses the quality of management as well as the management of quality. Everyone in the organization is involved in a systematic long-term endeavor to develop processes that are customer oriented, flexible, and responsive, and to constantly improve quality. A key activity is to conduct regularly scheduled reviews of progress by the quality council and/or work group. Management must establish the systems to identify areas for future improvement and to track performance with respect to internal and external customers. Continuous improvement means not being satisfied with doing a good job or process but striving to improve that job or process. It is accomplished by incorporating process measurement and team problem solving in all work activities. TQM tools and techniques are used to improve quality, delivery, and cost. We must continuously: Ta for excellence by reducing complexity, variation, and out-of-control processes. Lessons learned in problem solving, communications, and group dy- namics as well as technical know-how, must be transferred to appropriate activities within the organization. E Although the problem-solving method is no guarantee of success, expe- rience has indicated that an orderly approach will yield the highest probabi ity of success. Problem solving concentrates on improvement rather than control. conawnovnme eeues PROBLEMS j 1. Construct a Pareto diagram for replacement parts for an electric stove. Six- months’ data are: oven door, 193; timer, 53; front burners, 460; rear burners, 290; burner control, 135; drawer rollers, 46; other, 84; and oven regula- tors, 265. A project team is studying the downtime cost of a soft-drink bottling line. Data analysis in thousands of dollars for a 3-month period are: back pressure regulator, 30; adjust feed worm, 15; jam copper head, 6; lost cooling, 52; valve replacement, 8; and other, 5. Construct a Pareto diagram. Approximately two-thirds of all automobile accidents are due to improper driving. Construct a Pareto diagram without the cumulative line for the data: improper turn, 3.6%; driving too fast for conditions, 28.1%; following too closely, 8.1%; right-of-way violations, 30.1%; driving left of center, 3.3%; improper overtaking, 3.2%; and other, 23.6%. 3. ‘A major record-of-the-month club collected data on the reasons for returned shipments during a quarter. Results are: wrong selection, 50,000; refused, 195,000; wrong address, 63,000; order canceled, 5,000; and other, 15,000. Construct a Pareto diagtam 4, 5. Paint nonconformities for a 1-month period for a riding law mower manu- facturer are: blister, 212; light spray, 582; drips, 227; overspray, 109; splatter, 141; bad paint, 126; runs, 434; and otlier, 50, Construct a Pareto diagram, 6. Prepare and analyze the matrix for the assemblers of the transmission assembly section and their nonconforming manufacturing activities. Data are as shown in the following table. errr ne EE ERSTE MARY LYNN RENT. + Mushroomed hammer + Wrong tools (1) + Leaky seals (4) w + Leaky seals (3) + Improper torque (5) + Leaky seals (3) + Loose fasteners (1) + Oil dry in hydraulic » area (1) + Wrong tools (4) + Loose fasteners (3) + Spliced air tool hose + Improper method (2) + Hoses and tubes un- ~ a capped (3) + Improper method (5) * Oil on floor (2), } + Loose fasteners (4) . * Open air line (1)Ne 7. 9, 10. KEN DAVE BILL * Improper method (1) + Loose fasteners (2) + Leaky seals (2) + Wrong tools (1) * Mushroomed hammer + Defective lifting de- * Oil dry in hydraulic a) vice (1) area (2) + Wrong tools (4) + Loose fasteners (1) * Improper torque (1) + Leaky seals (3) + Improper method (3) + Hoses and tubes un- capped (1) + Oil on floor (3) + Improper torque (3) Four cloth-weaving looms are being compared by type of nonconformity. Prepare a matrix and analyze. Data are Loom 24: broken string, 3; warp tension, 2; shuttle, 1; and jam, 3 Loom 36: nonconforming splice, 2; shuttle, 8; warp tension, 8; broken string, 2; and jam, 1 Loom 28: warp tension, 5; and jam, 2 Loom 15: jam, 7; shuttle, 6; warp tension, nonconforming splice, 4 roken string, 7; and Prepare a Grier diagram for the model XYZ automotive tire. Data (first number is the code) on nonconformities are: 110, 2—5, 3—0, 4—9, 5—6, 6—0, 7—2, 80, 9—3, 10—1, A—6, B—1, C—3, and 0--5. Prepare a time series graph for nonconformities per unit for hospital Medi- care claims and analyze the results. Data are: 1986—0.20, 1987—0.15, 1988—0.16, and 1989—0.12. Form a project team of six or seven people, elect a leader, and construct a cause-and-effect diagram for bad coffee from a 22-cup appliance used in the office. Form a project team. of six or seven people, elect a leader, and construct, a C&E diagram for: . (a) Dispersion analysis type fof a quality characteristic (b) Process analysis type for a sequence of office activities on an insur- ance form. (©) Process analysis type for a sequence of production activities on a lathe: Joad 25 mm dia.—80 mm long rod, rough turn 12 mm dia.—40 mm ‘QUALITY.IMPROVEMENT TECHNIQUESJong, UNF thread—12 mm dia,,thread relief, finish turn 25 mm dia, —20 mm long, cut off, and unload. 12. Design a check sheet for the maintenance of a piece of equipment such as, a gas furnace, laboratory scale, or typewriter. 13. By means of a scatter diagram, determine if a relationship exists between ; product temperatures and percent foam for a soft drink. Data are z °F F pRopuct % PRODUCT % DAY TEMPERATURE FOAM __DAY TEMPERATURE FOAM 1 36 15 ul 44 32. 2 38 19 2 a 3 « 3 37 a B 38 20 4 44 30 14 a1 ru 5 46 36 15 45 35 6 39 20 16 9 38 7 41 25 7 30 40 8 2 36 18 48 2 9 39 2 19 46 40 10 40 B 20 41 30. 14. By means of a scatter diagram, determine if there is a relationship between hours of machine use and millimeters off the target. Data for 20 (x, y) pairs with hours of machine use as the x variable are (30, 1.10), (31, 1.21), (32, 1.00), (33, 1.21), (34, 1.25), (35, 1.23), (36, 1.24), (37, 1.28), (38, 1.30), (39, 1.30), (40, 1.38), (41, 1.35), (42, 1.38), (43, 1.38), (44, 1.40), (45, 1.42), (46, 1.45), (47, 1.45), (48, 1.50), and (49, 1.58). Draw a line for the data using ‘eyesight only and estimate the number of millimeters off the target at 55h. 1S. Data on gas pressure (kg/cm) and its volume (liters) are as follows: (0.5, 1.62), (1.5, 0.75), (2.0, 0.62), (3.0, 0.46), (2.5, 0.52), (1.0, 1.00), (0.8, 1.35), (1.2, 0.89), (2.8, 0.48), (3.2, 0.43); (1.8, 0.71), and (0.3, 1.80). Construct a scatter diagram and determine’the relationship. 16. The following data (tensile strength, hardness) are for tensile strength (100 psi) and hardness (Rockwell E) of die-cast aluminum. Construct a scatter } diagram and determine the relationship: (293, 53), (349, 70); (368, 40), (301, i 55), (340, 78), (308, 64), (354, 71), (313, 53), (322, 82), (334, 67), (377, 70), | (247, 56), (348, 86), (298, 60), (287, 72), (292, 51), (345, 88), (380, 95), (257, : 51), (258, 75). —17, Data on the amount of water applied in inches and the yield of alfalfa in tons per acre are: Water 12 18 24 300036 2a. Yield 53576372, 828g, S Prepare a scatter diagram and analyze the results. ! 18. Construct a flow diagram for the manufacture of a product or the providing of a service. 19. Working in a team of six or more people, implement the seven phases of the problem-solving method. Elect a team leader and identify a substan- tial problem.