Watershed Management

Prof. T. I. Eldho
Department of Civil Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Bombay

Module No. # 4
Lecture No. # 18
Subsurface and Groundwater Flows

(Refer Slide Time: 00:26)

Namaste and welcome back to the video course on watershed management. In module
number 4, lecture number 18, today we will discuss subsurface and groundwater flows.
So, some of the important topics which will be discuss today include - Subsurface flow,
Infiltration, Aquifers, Groundwater flow, Groundwater flow modeling, Numerical
modeling and ground water quality.

So, some of the important keywords are - Subsurface flow, Infiltration, Aquifer, Ground
water flow, Ground water flow modeling, Numerical modeling, Groundwater quality. So,
as we discussed earlier in some of my earlier lectures, so as we discuss about the water
resource in a watershed, so related to watershed management, so we have to see the total
availability of the water. So, as far as water is concerned, water can be either surface
water or ground water.

So, in any of the watersheds ground water is a major resource as water, so that we have
to say utilize it properly; we have to plan it properly; we have to understand its behavior
within the watershed, and then also we have to, while we use the ground water, we have
to replenish the ground water through the various schemes like rain water harvestings,
artificial recharge and other ways.

(Refer Slide Time: 01:54)

So, within this context, today we will discuss the important aspects of ground water flow
and it is modeling within the perspective of watershed management. So, as we have
already seen the groundwater is a part of subsurface flow. So, subsurface water is the all
water beneath the earth’s surface.

So, we can see that whenever rainfall takes place, there is the infiltration takes place and
then water will be percolated down, and that movement, so all water beneath the air
surface, we can call it as subsurface water.

So, the water will be is recharged by infiltration either directly on the land surface or in
the beds of streams, lakes and oceans. So, you can see in this figure, so when the rainfall
takes place, the recharge is taking place with respect to the infiltration and then also say
from the surface water resources like lakes, then rivers and oceans also the water is
infiltrated down to the subsurface and that becomes the subsurface water.

And then, as far as the subsurface water discharge is concerned, it is discharged through
evaporation, transpiration and then from springs, seeps on land surface or beds of surface
water bodies, and then, we can get this water through pumping wells, gravity drains,
etcetera.

So, as far as subsurface water is concerned, there is say the water recharge taking place
with respect to rainfall or with respect to the movement of water from the surface water
sources like lakes, rivers, ponds or ocean. That is the recharge taking place to the
subsurface as subsurface water, and a discharge is concerned, the water which we are
taking through pumping wells or water coming out as springs or say the gravity drains
which we give; so, that way, the discharge is taking place.

So, as far as subsurface environment is concerned, you can see that some of the, so this
depends, this subsurface flow, the subsurface water movement depends upon the porous
material; so, water moves within the pores the soil. So, you can see that if this is the soil
media, so within the soil media lot of pores will be there. So, water will be moving
through this say the pores and that water is coming as the subsurface water.

So, most of the terrestrial hydrological activities takes place within a few feet’s from the
surface of the earth or within the roots zone. You can see that whatever is happening is
that say water is recharging and then, so it is a, the, immediately it is going through the
soil and then it will be reaching the aquifer system or the water table. It can be, say
aquifer can be confined or unconfined in nature. So, generally, it will be initially within
the unconfined layers, and then, say most of these activities will be taking place within
the root zone, and then, further this ground water may percolate down deep. So, the
deeper portion also can takes place.

So then, say as far as subsurface water is concerned, say what we discuss now is, say
within the context of soil water. So, this soil water - we can divide into three parts. So,
say how the water is available within the subsurface or within the soil.
(Refer Slide Time: 05:21)

So, accordingly, we can classify into three types – so, first one is the drainable water. So,
that is the water that readily drains from soil under the influence of gravity and water
occupying pores larger than capillary size. So, that way, that will be drained out. So, that
is say with respect to the recharge and then what is available, say within the subsoil or
the subsurface. That kind of water is called a drainable water.

Then second class is so called plant available water. So, plant available water is the
volume of water released from soil between a soil water pressure head of about minus 1
by 3 bar, which is so called generally called field capacity, and about minus 15 bars
which is so called wilting point. So, this water is at general detained in storage by
capillary forces.

So, you can see that when this water is infiltrating down, so we can generally classify the
water available in subsurface or in the soil as fully saturated, which is generally called as
groundwater, and then, there will be a capillary fringe like this and then there will be
unsaturated zone, where the water will be available within the soil which is not fully
saturated.

So, that way, then the water which is generally available to the plant; I mean between the
field capacity and the wilting point. That is so called plant available water, and third one
is say the water still exists in the soil. That is so called unavailable water which we
cannot drain or which we cannot, which will not be available to the plants. So, that is so
called hydroscopic water.

So, water held tightly in films around individual soil particles. So, that is will not be
available to the plants or even it will not be possible to drain. So, that way, the water,
subsurface water - we can classify into drainable water, plant available water and the
unavailable water.

So, as we discussed earlier, say within the hydrologic processes, then say with respect to
the rainfall to run off various processes are there like infiltration, then evaporation, evapo
transpiration, interception, like that various processes will be there. So, what is available
as water subsurface water or ground water is coming from the infiltration of the water
which is coming from the rainfall.

(Refer Slide Time: 08:00)

So, this infiltration process is a very important as far as groundwater or subsurface water
is concerned. So, the, about the infiltration we discussed already earlier. So, again, say as
subsurface water we will have a brief discussion further. So, infiltration is the process by
which water on the ground surface enters the soil, as we already seen earlier. Then the
infiltration capacity of soil determines how much water is infiltrated down and then how
much is the time distribution of rainfall excess for runoff from a storm.
So, accordingly, the infiltration capacities varies and say it is a very important to
estimate the infiltration, with, within the context of surface runoff and then the
availability of water as far as the subsurface water is also concerned.

So, subsurface flow and storage of water within the watershed depends upon the
infiltration. So, as we have discussed, in a, in one of the earlier lecture, the controlling
factors, say that control the infiltrations or the soil type like size of particles, then degree
of aggregation between particles, arrangements of particle, then what kind of vegetative
cover is there, then surface crusting, then season of the year, then say what is the soil
moisture level available within the soil or so called antecedent moisture, then rainfall
hyetograph subsurface moisture conditions, etcetera. So, we had a detailed discussion on
infiltration in one of the earlier lectures. So, we will not be discuss further on infiltration.

(Refer Slide Time: 09:59)

So, now, we will further discuss about the ground water, say within the contest of the
subsurface water and ground water flow. So, as we discussed just in the previous slide,
so water is, the water available within the soil we can classify into unsaturated and
saturated. So, the flows within the soil can be unsaturated flow or saturated flow. As you
can see here, say, the, once the water is infiltrated down, so here, the, we can classify
unsaturated soil and saturated soil.
So, unsaturated soil means the water moves primarily in small pores and through films
located around and between solid particles. As water content decreases, cross sectional
area of the films decreases and flow paths become more limited. So, this result in
hydraulic conductivity function that decreases rapidly with water content.

So, this unsaturated flow or unsaturated soil is a very important as far as especially as far
as the water availability to plants are concerned, and then saturated soil or saturated flow
is related to the soil pores are considered full with water. So, it may not be completely
full due to air entrapment within the soil, but say wherever we consider, the hydraulic
conductivity will be constant with respect to the head h as far as saturated flow is
concerned or saturated soil is concerned.

So, here, you can see that as shown in this figure, so say once the water is infiltrating
down, this is the unsaturated flow region, and here, this is the so called a water table;
then this is the ground water or the saturated flow. So, so, that way, now this so called
unsaturated flow that depends upon how much is infiltration, how the infiltration process
taking place, and then, say how much is the, what kind of soil is that accordingly the
water availability within the unsaturated zone and water movement through the saturated
overflow condition takes place.
(Refer Slide Time: (11:48)

So, as far as the soil water movement is concerned, so this is the response to a gradient
generally. So, depends upon how much is the pressure or how much is the gradient,
accordingly the soil water movement takes place. Say for example, if the soil is fully
wet, so wet soil to dry soil, so generally low soil moisture tension to high soil moisture
tension and high soil water potential to low soil potential when we consider wet soil to
dry soil.

And when we say that the soil is fully saturated or saturated condition means water is
moving mainly in the macro pores so that all of the pores are filled with water. Then the
unsaturated flow is concerned, unsaturated conditions are concerned, the macro pores are
full of air micro pores filled with water and air. So, the moisture tension gradient creates
the unsaturated flow.

And then very similarly the saturated flow is concerned, it is we can also call saturated
flow as gravitational flow. So, this occurs under saturated conditions when the force of
gravity is greater than forces holding water in the soil. So, from capillary flow onwards
the saturated flow starts. So, capillary flow occurs in unsaturated soil. So, here, this is the
unsaturated soil and just below there is a capillary fringe is there and then below is the
saturated flow.
So, we can measure this, this, say this, the soil content, the water content in the soil. So,
the measurement of soil moisture various methodologies are available like a gravimetric
method, then tensiometer, then electrical resistance method, etcetera, number of
methodologies are available. So, using these techniques, we can identify how much
moisture content is there within the soil. So, anyway, we will not be discuss further on
this aspects. Now, we will go to the saturated flow conditions or the groundwater flow.

(Refer Slide Time: 13:59)

So, the groundwater flow is, say fully saturated flow condition. So, infiltrated water, say
some replenishes soil moisture deficiency if soil is not saturated, and when the soil is
fully saturated, then we are having the shallow groundwater system. So, as you can see
within the hydrologic processes, so you can see that with respect to rainfall, the water is
infiltrating down, and then, where the shallow groundwater system is web after the
saturation, we are having the shallow groundwater system.

So then, water then percolates down until it reaches the saturated zone called aquifer or
deep groundwater system. So, here, once it is say fully saturated and then water is further
percolating down to the aquifer system. So, the upper water surface of saturated zone is
called generally a water table. So, when we consider an unconfined aquifer, we are
having the, say the unsaturated zone, then the capillary fringe zone and then the saturated
zone. So, that saturated zone, that say the surface is so called a water table.
So then, say as we can see that say here, say for example, this is the water table and this
is the unsaturated zone and this is further, the, to the saturated flow condition. So, as we
can see that as I mentioned earlier, groundwater is one of the important source of water
for the humanity, for say domestic and all types of uses.

So, it is an important part of the hydrologic cycle, so we cannot separate the groundwater
flow with respect to the runoff or the surface water. So, say out of the available fresh
water resources, the major source is the ground water. So, an estimate says that the
ground water constitute more than 80 times amount of fresh water in rivers and lakes
combined. So, you can see so the importance of groundwater.

So, groundwater is one of the most important say resource - water resource - available
for humanity. So, only difficulty is that the deeply percolated water - it is a very difficult
to pump out, but say in most of the places, we can, the, whatever the especially shallow
water or the somewhat deep zone water we can say pump it out and then use accordingly.

(Refer Slide Time: 16:37)

So, groundwater is one of the important source of water. So, as we, as we discussed say
once the water is percolating down, we are the, water through the saturated zone once it
is reaching the aquifer system or where the water is stored or water is moving through
the soil. So, that formation is so called aquifer.
So, accordingly, now let us see the different types of classifications as far as the aquifers
are concerned. So, here, in this slides, the classification of aquifers are given. So, aquifer
as I mentioned, it is a formation that contains sufficient saturated permeable material to
yield a significant quantity of water to wells or springs. So, this is the definition of
aquifer. So, say for example, if a sand formation where significant amount of water is
holding within the soil and that can be drained say by using wells or it will coming
through springs; so, that is so called a aquifer.

Then say there is classification like a aquiclude. Aquiclude is a saturated but relatively
impermeable material and it does not yield appreciable quantities of water. Say for
example, clay formation, so clay formation once it is saturated contains so much of water
but we cannot drain the water easily; so, it is relatively impermeable material; so, we
cannot drain the water. So, that is that kind of formations soil formation is called
aquiclude, and then, aquifuge. Aquifuge is a relatively impermeable formation it neither
contains nor transmits water. Say for example, granite formation, so that is so called
aquifuge.

Then aquitard; aquitard is a saturated but poorly permeable stratum, so like sand clay
mix or sandy clay. So, that is, that kind of formation is called an aquitard. So, that way,
when we look the groundwater as a source is available mainly from aquifer or aquitard,
and then, say other formations even the water is available, we cannot get the substantial
amount of water.

So then, aquifers again further can be classified into confined or unconfined. So, you can
see that say an unconfined aquifer means say water is say infiltrating down and this is the
water table as shown in this figure, and then, there is a impermeable layer below. So,
there is a water table over a free surface as you can see here in this figure.

So, that kind of formation is so called unconfined aquifer, and then, confined aquifer
means the formations or the aquifer between which is confined between two layers. We
can see that here this is 1 layer of impermeable form layer and this is another layer of
impervious layer. So, the confined aquifer is this soil, this material, where considered
amount of water is there and which is also moves with respect to gradient.
So, that formation is so called a confined aquifer. So, generally, the aquifers can be
classified into either confined aquifer or unconfined aquifer. So, that depends upon the
hydrological conditions of the particular area. So, now, let us further discuss what the
important characteristics are as far as the aquifers are concerned. So, we have seen that
the rainwater or the precipitated water is say infiltrating down, and then, that is further
percolating down to the aquifer system.

(Refer Slide Time: 20:25)

So, the water movement within the subsurface or within the soil depends upon various
parameters like porosity, specifically yield storage coefficient, hydraulic conductivity,
etcetera. So, let us see some of these important definitions as given in this slide.

So, first one is porosity. So, those portions of soil not occupied by solids, so, that is say
the meaning of porosity. So, generally the porosity is expressed as ratio of volume of
pores or interstices to total volume. So, that is the porosity; so, you can see that in this
soil medium, say large number pores you can see. So, porosity is the ratio of volume of
pores to pores or interstices to total volume.

Then further percolation means rate at which water moves downward through the soil.
So, once it the water is infiltrated down, so what is the rate at which the water is moving.
So, that is so called percolation, and then, another important term is so called
permeability. Permeability is an expression of movement of water in any direction. So,
percolation is generally we mention as downward movement, but permeability means it
can be in lateral directions also. So, that is, the, so, permeability an expression of
movement of water in any direction, and then, as far as the aquifer is concerned, say the
terms like a specific yield. Specific yield especially we mention for unconfined aquifers.
So, it is the ratio of volume of water that after saturation can be drained by gravity. So,
that is the definition of specific yield.

And then storage coefficient or generally call it as storativity. So, storativity is the
volume of water that an aquifer releases from or takes into storage per unit surface area
of aquifer or per unit change in head normal to that surface. So, generally we mention the
storage coefficient for confined aquifers or sometimes we mention for a unconfined
aquifer also depending upon the way which is mentioned within specified equations.

Then another important term is so called hydraulic conductivity. So, hydraulic

conductivity which is generally mentioned as the symbol is K. So, this is a constant that
serves as a measure of the permeability of the porous medium. So, how much water can
move through the soil medium, say from one location to another location. So, it is that K
represents or a hydraulic conductivity represent the measure of the permeability of soil
media or porous media.

So, accordingly, the, the, the movement takes place within the soil media, and the, it is
unit is the velocity, the unit of velocity like meter per day or meter per second like that.
Then another term is called transmissivity of the of the aquifer media. So, transmissivity
is the rate at which water is transmitted through a unit width of aquifer under unit
hydraulic gradient. So, generally transmissivity is equal to hydraulic conductivity
multiplied by b - where b is the saturated thickness of aquifer.

So, these are some of the important terms which we will be using as far as the subsurface
flow or groundwater flow is concerned. We have seen what is subsurface water or
groundwater and what is aquifer and what are it is important characteristics. So, now, let
us discuss what are the governing laws as far as the groundwater flow or groundwater
movement is concerned. So, one important say governing law was proposed by Darcy in
nineteenth century.
(Refer Slide Time: 24:04)

Darcy is a French engineer. Darcy was a French engineer who conducted large number
of experiments in nineteenth century and put forward certain laws called as Darcy’s law.
So, Darcy defined how water moves through a saturated porous media with analogy of a
cylinder fitted with inflow and outflow pipes. Darcy showed that velocity was a function
of difference in head h over a finite distance l.

So, if we consider the, say for example, if this is the soil media, so between say one
location to another location within the flow direction, say what is the head difference and
what is the distance between those two points accordingly he proposed the Darcy’s law.

So, Darcy’s law is say velocity of flow v is equal to minus k d h by d l - where v is so

called darcy’s velocity or specific discharge and K is the hydraulic conductivity and this
dh by dl is the hydraulic gradient. So, here, in this equation, minus sign indicates the
flow of water is in the direction of decreasing head, and once we find the Darcy’s
velocity, we can find the actual velocity by dividing Darcy’s velocity divide by the
porosity.

So, this Darcy’s law is one of the most important law as far as groundwater is concerned,
and based upon that only all the further theories on groundwater flow movement and
transport process were put forward later time.
So, Darcy’s law is very important. So, generally the Darcy’s law combined with mass
balance or the conservation of mass. We derive the governing equations as far as the
groundwater flow is concerned. So, that we will be discussing later, and as per this
Darcy’s law, generally, the flow should be very low Reynolds’s number or laminar flow
condition.

So, Reynolds’s number which is the ratio of inertial force to viscous force. Generally,
this law is valid when Reynolds’s number is less than one but still it may be valid within
the range of, say even Reynolds’s number up to 10.

So, now, say this hydraulic conductivity which we have seen one of the most important
parameter as far as the porous media is concerned. We can find the hydraulic
conductivity by various experiments like pumping tests within the aquifer or tracer test
or say depending upon the soil media we can use formulas, and then also based upon
laboratory methods; we can determine the hydraulic conductivity. So, now, let us further
discuss say how the ground water flow is moving within the porous media and then what
way we can quantify or what way we can model this ground water flow movement. So,
let us see in the coming slides.

(Refer Slide Time: 27:07)

So, as I mentioned earlier also, as far as soil or the porous media is concerned, it is very
heterogeneous and then the it is properties like the porosity or the hydraulic conductivity
is varying drastically from one location to the another location and from one direction to
another direction. So, the soil media or porous media is totally heterogeneous and
anisotropic. So, anisotropic means the parameters are varying with respect to direction;
heterogeneous means the parameters are varying from one location to another location.

So, due to this, say generally it is very difficult to say get the correct value of this
hydraulic conductivity or porosity. So, generally, we use some approximations
depending upon say some pumping test or some of the field test. We determine some
values and then we do through a calibration process. We identify the hydraulic
conductivity and other parameters as far as the aquifer concerned.

So, as I mentioned earlier also say as far as the soil is concerned, say or the aquifer is
concerned various types of soils forms the aquifer system like a aluminum deposit,
limestone, volcanic, rock, sandstone, igneous and metamorphic rocks. So, accordingly,
since all these varieties taking place say and sometimes say one variety or most of the
time a mixture of this varieties. So, that way, the post medious characteristics drastically
changes from one location to another location.

So, that is why we got the porous media is heterogeneous, and then from, say the vertical
direction or lateral direction also this parameters are changing. So, that is why we call
this porous media as anisotropy. So, accordingly, say when we discuss about the
groundwater flow movement, so due to the heterogeneity or due to the anisotropy, the
movement rate also the groundwater movement rate also varies. So, that way, when we
discuss about the groundwater flow analysis, so the process is very complex due to the
complexity of the porous media and then various other parameters.

So, most of the time when we are looking for groundwater quantity or quality
investigations, say the we have to deal with very complex hydrogeological systems. So,
you can see that as in as shown in this figure, say there are number of layers of material,
different types of materials as far as porous media is concerned.

So, that way, it is very difficult process or very complex to say study the groundwater
flow movement or the groundwater quality analysis. So, that also is clear from this figure
also where watershed is concerned, the parameters are changing from one location to
another location.
We have the limitations as far as the field investigations are concerned. So, we cannot
say generally field investigation means through bore holes or bore wells we have to get
the data. So, that is also not so easy since we cannot have so many bore wells or bore
holes say as far as a watershed is concerned.

So, generally say few through the data available, through, through some of the bore wells
or bore holes we get the data and then we average as far as the various parameters are
concerned. So, that way, groundwater flow modeling, the computer based modelings are
the only solutions as far as the groundwater flow investigations or groundwater quantity
investigations or quality investigations.

So, now, another issue, the, other than the groundwater quantity another important issue
is the quality of the available ground water. So, when we discuss about the water
resource plans within a watershed, the watershed management plans say water resource
is concerned. So, the available water should be the not only the quantity but quality also
should be good for various uses like the domestic uses or the agricultural uses.

So, groundwater quality is a major issue. So, earlier times say, with the, there was a
thinking that the groundwater is a good quality and we can directly utilize, but due to the
industrial revolution or say over use of fertilizers and other things for the agriculture.
Now, last few decades it has been identified that groundwater is also very much
amenable to pollution and many locations groundwater pollution have been identified.
(Refer Slide Time: 31:59)

So, ground water pollution has become a major problem in many countries. So, the
reasons are - indiscriminate disposal of industrial wastes, extensive use of chemicals in
agriculture like fertilizers and pesticides, and a host of other human interventions are
causing the groundwater pollutions.

So, effluents in water bodies after affecting soils, so, if say the untreated effluents or to
say treated effluent to certain extent have putting into the in the river or lakes. So, this
water will be percolating down to the groundwater system through downward
gravitational movement, lateral dispersion and advective migration.

So, that way, you can see that like in this figure, so this groundwater pollution takes
place and that it will be further moving, and further the fractures, fissures, joints,
etcetera, what are there in groundwater or the aquifer system provide additional prefer
pathways for fast migration of pollutants. So, with increase in industrialization and
increasing use and reliance on groundwater, it is very important to assess the water
quality and study the movement of contaminants in an aquifer system to predict the
migration.

So it is not only the issue of groundwater quantity or the quantity of the water available
as ground water, but quality is very important. So, after identifying that many locations,
groundwater is polluted. So, we now you have to understand how the pollution is taking
place and what extent the pollution has been taken place and then what kind of remedial
activities can be done. So, that is nowadays a major question.

(Refer Slide Time: 33:45)

So, as far as groundwater contamination is concerned, as I mentioned earlier some of the

important sources are mentioned here. So, groundwater pollution can be from natural
contamination like sea water intrusion or fluoride or arsenic contamination which is
taking place in many locations, and then, the pollution or contamination can be
agriculture contamination by the use of fertilizers, say fertilizers, pesticides, etcetera.

Then industrial contamination that means the effluent liquid waste or solid waste which
is putting as land fill and that is further say the Leichardt is seeping down, so, that kind
of industrial contamination. Then underground storage tanks like in many countries, the,
like a petroleum products and other say liquid forms are kept in underground. So, there is
always possibility of leakage from these tanks; so, that can be the underground storage
tanks.

Then land application and mining. So, what kind of say the fertilizer applications or what
kind of ah solid wastes are kept on the land. So, that will percolating within with respect
to rainfall this pollutants will be percolating down, and then, another source is mining.
So, you can see that many areas are different types of mines are there. So, mining is
another important source of ground water pollution.
And then, say the septic tanks. Say most of the houses or many locations the septic tanks
will be there, and even if it is scientifically constructed, there is possibility of leakages,
so that septic tanks can be another source of pollution.

Then waste disposal in injection wells. So, many areas say the liquid ways or solid ways
keep it in the there is some soil media or very deep rocks. So, that can be a source of
pollution, and as I mentioned, landfill is another source of pollution, where if it is not
properly or scientifically constructed landfill, then Leichardt will be percolating down to
the to the aquifer system.

(Refer Slide Time: 36:15)

So, these are some of the important groundwater contamination sources .So then, as far
as once the groundwater is contaminated, so or the or the pollutant is introduce to the
subsurface or to the aquifer itself. So, there are number of processes taking place so that
this plume will be or the contamination will be further spreading. So, the changes in
chemical concentration or the contamination depends on four distinct processes like
advective transport.

So, here, the dissolved chemicals are moving with the ground water flow. So, you can
see that already groundwater flow is there, and then, with that flow, this contaminant
plume is also taken within the flow. So, that is so called advective transport. And then
second one is hydrodynamic dispersion. So, since the, so the soil media is porous and
then as far as the various way of movement within the soil the plume movement or the
contamination movement.

So, hydrodynamic dispersion is another important process. So, this can include
mechanical dispersion, hydraulic dispersion molecular and ionic diffusion, and then,
another source, another concern the groundwater pollution mechanism is fluid sources.

So, water on one composition is introduced to and mixed with water of different
composition. Then that that is the groundwater contamination mechanism like what is
happening sea water intrusion, and then, reactions, say some amount of a particular
dissolved chemical species may be added or removed from groundwater as a result of
chemical, biological and physical reaction in the water or between the water and the solid
aquifer materials.

So, like that, the groundwater contamination various mechanisms are there. So, when we
study about the groundwater pollution, we have to study this various mechanism, and
then accordingly, we have to investigate how the contamination is further spending.

(Refer Slide Time: 38:13)

So, now, say let us go to the groundwater flow or groundwater quality modeling. So,
before that, so, let us further summarize what are the important work elements as far as
groundwater investigations are concerned. So, here I have listed. When we go for
groundwater investigations, we have to go systematically. So, the work elements are well
inventory and selection of observation wells, then preparation of groundwater level map
for the particular watershed or particular area concerned.

Then, geophysical investigations: to decipher the subsurface layers and their

characteristics. Then identification of hydrogeological features of interest which are
likely to control groundwater flow and transport, then understanding of aquifer
geometry, then detailed and periodical water quality analysis, then periodical monitoring
of water levels, in, in observation wells.

(Refer Slide Time: 38:59)

So, when we discuss about the groundwater, say investigations within a watershed, we
have to go systematically. So, either water quantity investigations or quality
investigations, we have to study systematically as we are discussed in the work element.
So, various things we have to study systematically and then come up with the
investigation report.

So, now, as I mentioned, say we cannot have so much of field investigations to assess
how much ground water is available or how the groundwater quality varies. So, most of
the time, we have to depend upon mathematical models. So, now, let us see some details
about the mathematical models as far as groundwater is concerned.

So, a model as I mentioned earlier is a representation of a system; that means here the
groundwater system. So, only effective way to test effects of groundwater management
strategies through modeling. So, due to especially surface water is concerned, we can say
directly see what is happening, but groundwater is as we can see that only observation is
possible through the wells or the bore holes. So, that way, it is always better to go for
mathematical modeling or mathematical modeling is the only way out as far as
groundwater investigations are concerned.

So, mathematical model simulates a groundwater flow and, or, solute fate and transport
indirectly by means of a set of governing equations thought to represent the physical
process that occur in the system. So, that is the mathematical model within the context of
groundwater. Then the governing equations - we can identify governing equations are
generally derived from Darcy’s law and water balance equation with head as the mainly
as the dependent variable.

And then, of course, we have to define the boundary conditions, say if this is the aquifer
system, we have to identify what is the head available here or the flux, say for example,
if this is an impermeable medium, water cannot percolate down further. So, that is an
impermeable where the flux can be assumed as 0.

So, the boundary condition can be the direct boundary conditions or dirichlet boundary
conditions and then Neumann boundary conditions or in terms of flux, and then, when
we are going to transient analysis like within an aquifer system, when we are pumping
water, there the head will be continuously varying with respect to time. So, that is so
called transient analysis. So, there we have to start with some initial conditions what is at
time t is equal to 0, how the head is distributed or how the contamination is spread
through the throughout aquifer.
(Refer Slide Time: 41:50)

So, based upon that only, we will be doing further the mathematical modeling. So, that
way by using the Darcy’s law or and the conservation of mass or water balance, we can
derive the groundwater flow equation. So, as shown in this slide, the derivation of
groundwater flow equation is - we can do by considering a representative elementary
volume R E V. So, delta X by delta Y divided by delta Z. So, if you consider flux
through the R E V representative elementary volume.

(Refer Slide Time: 42:20)

So, what is coming out minus what is in is equal to the change in storage, and then, this
we can combine with the Darcy’s law. So, that way, we can derive the groundwater flow
equation. So, the derivation of groundwater flow equation is based upon the mass
balance and the Darcy’s law. So, here, this is the say representation as far as Darcy’s law
and then law of mass balance with respect to this.

(Refer Slide Time: 42:52)

So, finally, using both, we get the divergence K gradient h is equal to S del h by del t.
This equation we can obtain which is the governing groundwater flow equation. So, in a
better mathematical form, here I have written the groundwater flow equations generally
in 3D form.

Say for example, confined, unconfined aquifer, so del by del x of K x del h by del x plus
del by del y K y del h by del y plus del by del z of K z del h by del z is equal to S s into
del h by del t minus R - where this R is the recharge of pumping, so, minus for recharge
and plus for pumping. So, S s is the say specific yield or specific storage coefficient as
given here, and for confined aquifer, we can represent the equation like this, and in 2D,
the same equation can be mentioned like this.

So, of course, depending upon like various recharge or pumping terms or other sources
coming to the aquifer system, this equation can some more times will be there or some
changes will be there; otherwise, general equations are in this form.
(Refer Slide Time: 44:17)

And then as far as ground water quality is concerned, we have to say study the transport
process taking place as far as the aquifer is concerned. So, very similar way, we can
derive the groundwater transport equation by using the fix slope. So, here, the advective
dispersive solute transport equation in groundwater, we can write here. I am not going to
derivation here, the equation is written here.

(Refer Slide Time: 45:09)

So, it is del by del x of D i j del C by del x minus del by del x i C V i plus W by n into C
dash is equal to del C by del t - so, where D is the hydrodynamic dispersion coefficient
tensor; C is a concentration of solute in source or sinks fluid; n is the porosity
dimensions, and x i x j are Cartesian coordinates; V i is the seepage velocity obtained by
solving the groundwater flow equation and then V is obtained by using the Darcy’s law
and W is the volume of flux per unit volume and C dash is the sorbed concentration. This
equation is also concerned different forms are available depending upon various kinds of
transport processes but a general form is written here.

So, as I mentioned, so here, once the groundwater flow equations are solved, we get the
head variation, and then using the head variation by using the Darcy’s law, we can obtain
the velocity in X Y Z direction, and then, from that velocity components, we can utilize
within the transport equation, and then also we have to specify the initial and boundary
conditions. As I mentioned initial condition for, flow will be, flow equation will be, that
is, say if the head variation within the aquifer system, that will be initial condition, and
boundary condition flow for flow equation will be either head prescribed or flux
prescribed in terms of dirichlet boundary condition and the Neumann boundary
condition, and as far as the transport equations are concerned, initial condition can be the
variation of concentration at the starting on the time step, and the boundary condition can
be in terms of the knowledge of concentration at particular boundaries or it is a gradient
of the concentration.

So, this, this constitute, so once we define the boundary of the aquifer system and then
we identify whether it is confined aquifer or unconfined aquifer, and correspondingly,
we can take the equation for the confined aquifer unconfined aquifer and then we can use
the transport equation.

So, the modeling can be either in two dimensions or three dimensions or sometimes in
one dimension, and then, say we can also use the Darcy’s law with respect to calculate
the velocity components. So, that constitute the mathematical model as far as the
groundwater flow is concerned, and then, say the solutions of this mathematical models,
say we can go for say for simple problems like some hypothetical or a small type of
problem where not complexities are there.

Analytical solutions are possible say simple steady state groundwater flow in
homogeneous isotropic medium. We can go for analytical solution, but as far as field
problems are concerned, analytical solutions are not at all available not at all possible.
So, we have to go for only for numerical solutions. So, numerical solutions as I discussed
in the previous lecture, so various numerical techniques are use to transform this partial
differential equations, the second order partial differential equations and the equations
are transformed into algebraic form by using techniques like finite difference method,
finite element method, boundary element method or finite volume method, etcetera. So,
in the last lecture, we discussed the methodologies like a say finite element method and
finite difference method. Also nowadays method called analytical element method is also
available for the solution of groundwater flow and the transport equation.

(Refer Slide Time: 48:06)

So, now, say before discussing little bit further about the groundwater, the numerical
techniques, so groundwater flow modeling is very important as I mentioned. So, this
groundwater flow modeling is a powerful tool for furthering our understanding of hydro
geological systems and groundwater flow and transport. So, that is what we are
discussing.

So, the importance of groundwater flow modeling include construct accurate

representations of hydro geological systems and understand the interrelationships
between elements of systems and efficiently develop a sound mathematical
representations as we have already seen in the previous slides. Then make reasonable
assumptions and simplifications like a whether two-dimensional modeling, three -
dimensional modeling or one-dimensional modeling, transient modeling or steady state
modeling, then understand the limitations of the mathematical representations.

So, we have derived these equations and then we are going for numerical modeling based
upon number of assumptions. So, that are our limitations as far as the groundwater flow
modeling is concerned. Then understand the limitations of the interpretations of the
results. So, why, since the data availability and it is accuracy is a very much varies with
respect to groundwater flow investigation. So, that way, getting 100 percent accuracy in
groundwater flow modeling is impossible to us.

So, what way, the how much is, how, what kind of assumptions we put and then what
kind of limitations are there. Accordingly, the model results will be the accuracy of the
model results depends either for flow or transport is concerned.

(Refer Slide Time: 49:44)

So, now, say for example, here before discussing the numerical technique like finite
difference or finite element, so here, say for example, for simple flow, say like a we can
even simply derive analytical equation, like say if you consider the Darcy’s law, say for
flow movement from one location to another location. If it is flow is homogeneous
isotropic, then, the, we can simply derive equation like this.

So, solutions, say for simple problems, we can derive the analytical solutions, but most
of the field problems, this kinds of analytical solutions will known be valid. So, this, for
this flow, says isotropic homogeneous media, we can say the said variation is actually
linear variation which is obtained by this equation.

(Refer Slide Time: 50:33)

So, that way, we have to go for finite difference method or finite element method or
other numerical tools. So, finite difference method and finite element method, we
discussed in the last lecture. So, further, say as I mentioned in the earlier lecture finite
difference method gives the continuous variation of the function concerned by a set of
values at points on a grid of intersecting lines as shown here.

So, the gradient or the functions are then represented by the differences in the values of
neighboring points, and a finite difference version of the equations is formed. At points
in the interior of the grid the equation is used to form a set of simultaneous equations
giving the value of the function at a point in terms of values at nearby points.

At the edges of the grid, the value of function is fixed or a special form of the finite
difference equation is used. So, as we discussed in the previous lecture, so this finite
difference can be implicit or explicit, we can have forward, backward or central finite
differences. So, according to the formulation which we are doing, so, we can have this
various schemes and then we can transform the either the groundwater flow equation or
groundwater transport equation using the finite difference method.
(Refer Slide Time: 51:50)

Say for example, in this slide, say the finite difference explicit scheme for the ground
water flow equation is given. So, if this is our groundwater flow equation, two dimension
for, say for example for confined flow. So, in explicit scheme using the finite difference
schemes for a node I J, so this is I J node for a specific time n using forward
discretization time and central difference discretization space, we can derive this system
of equation.

(Refer Slide Time: 52:47)

So, these details are available in test books like introduction to groundwater modeling is
in finite difference and finite element method by Wang and Anderson and say Jacobier
groundwater flow, Jacobier (( )) is a porous media by Jacobi er, etcetera. So, this books
gives all this details. So, due to lack of time for this, this only groundwater flow only one
lecture is dedicated. So, that way, not much time is there. So, that way, I am not going to
the details of these methodologies.

But finite difference in explicit scheme, we can obtain like a stone in the slide. So then,
finite element method is another method as we have discussed in the previous slide,
previous lecture. So, the region of interest is divided in a much more flexible way. The
nodes at which the value of the function is found have to lie on a grid system or on a
flexible mesh as we can see here.

Then either like a triangular elements, rectangular elements in two dimensions or

correspondingly prism elements or tetrahedral in three dimension we can use. So, various
schemes are there; direct approach, variational principle or weighted residual method,
etcetera. So, that way also this governing equation like the groundwater flow equation or
transport equation, we can transform and then we can have the system of equation all by
system of equations.

Then we can apply the boundary initial conditions and boundary conditions and solve
those system of equation either iteratively or direct methods to get first the head
variations, and then, using the head variations, we can get the velocity variation using the
Darcy’s law, and then, if you want to say identify how the transport mechanism, then we
solve the transport equation also, very similar way using finite element method or finite
difference method.
(Refer Slide Time: 54:12)

So, before closing this lecture, let us go through one case study. So, the case study here is
the I D A patancheru. So, here, industrial development area in patancheru near
Hyderabad, the area is in medak district and the area is about 500 square kilometer.

So, this is the aquifer region and it is spread in 3 mandals. More than 600 industries in
this area dealing with pharmaceuticals paints and pigments, etcetera, where established
in 1977. Since 1977 and then say in eighties, say there was no in, when it was the
industries were established, there was no say effluent treatment plans. So, these
industries directly put these effluents to the nearby streams. So, that way, this has
becoming major problem. In this area, groundwater pollution has been a major problem.
(Refer Slide Time: 55:12)

So, as a part of this groundwater flow transport mechanism and groundwater quality
modeling, here we have developed a model using visual mudflow. So, I will briefly
discuss about that. So, here, in this area, the groundwater recharge varies from hundred
to hundred and ten mm per year for an annual rainfall of 800mm.

Permeability values vary from 50 to 80 meter per day and a transmissivity varies from
140 to 1300 meter square per day and observed site data shows that the top weathered
aquifer is having 10 to 15 meter thick underlain by fractured layer.

(Refer Slide Time: 55:50)

So, simulated model domain is about consists fifty five rows sixty five columns and with
250 meter approximately by 250 meter grid and two layers. You can see here two layers
and this is the grid which we have generated using the visual mudflow.

So, the modflow is based upon the finite difference scheme and this is the boundary. So,
now, this cells will be inactive cells and only the cells within this boundary will be the
active cells. So, top layer of 10 to 25 thick meter alluvium nakka ver of nakka vagu or
weathered zone is granites and is underlain by 10 to 20 meter fractured zone.

Vertical section simulated in model is having the total thickness of 45 meter and water
table in the area has an elevation difference of 75 meter. So, with southern boundary near
this location is about 517 meter above means sea level, and here, it is about 495 meter.

(Refer Slide Time: 56:41)

Say as far as analysis is concerned, main issue was here the transport modeling. So, that
way, we conducted a steady state analysis. So, this using the mudflow, as I mentioned
modflow is a finite difference based package developed by McDonald and harbaugh. So,
the aquifer model simulation is carried out. So, model is calibrated between observed
data and simulated results. So, water table configuration of November 2003 was adopted
for this purpose.

So, computed and observed water level for the steady state condition is shown here. So,
this is the variation of the, so once the model is run, modflow is run, we obtain the head
variation from here to here and that is this contour line shows and then also we can
calculate how the velocity variation taking place. So, you can see that this arrow mark
shows the velocity variation within the aquifer system.

(Refer Slide Time: 57:32)

So, using this mudflow, good agreement is observed between computed and observed
water levels for the aquifer system, and then, we run another model called mass transport
in three dimension. That is also finite difference based model by assuming dispersivity
values 100 meter, 1 meter, 0.01 - based on field observation.

A constant TDS concentration at different nodes of nakka vagu which is this here and
varying from 4500 milligram per liter to 1500 milligram per liter has been used. So, the
main pollution was on the source. So, this is the initial contamination at 2003, and then,
we run the model to find out how the spreading will takes place in 2007 and further.
(Refer Slide Time: 58:23)

So, 2003 measured data was available. So, based upon that, we run the model to identify
how the contamination spreading in 2007. So, this shows the variation. So, like this, say
by using the mathematical or numerical model like a modflow or m t 3D, we can assess
the groundwater say flow condition or the quantity based modeling and the transport
modeling how the contamination spreading is taking place.

(Refer Slide Time: 58:53)

So, that way, we can model using, the ground, the groundwater flow model using finite
difference finite element method or other kinds of numerical techniques. So, for this
today’s lecture, some of the important references are listed here, and then, before closing
the lecture, some tutorial questions – so, how groundwater condition can be improved in
a watershed? Discuss the importance of groundwater in watershed management plans.
Discuss groundwater resources improvement by rainwater harvesting and artificial
recharge. So, these questions can be answered based upon today’s lecture and some of
the previous lectures on rainwater harvesting and artificial recharge.

(Refer Slide Time: 59:16)

Then some self evaluation questions - why groundwater is very important in watershed
management? Describe different types of soil water. Differentiate between unsaturated
flows and saturated flows. What are the important work elements in groundwater
investigations? Discuss ground water quality issues. So, these, all these related answers
you can obtain from today’s lecture.
(Refer Slide Time: 59:39)

And then, some assignment questions - explain how to assess groundwater potential?
Describe different types of aquifer and classify aquifer according to characteristics.
Discuss fundamental laws governing groundwater in a watershed. How to model
groundwater flow? Explain major modeling techniques for groundwater flow. So, these
questions are also can be answered by going through today’s lecture

(Refer Slide Time: 1:00:05)

And finally, as an unsolved problem, say study the groundwater potential of your
watershed area. Collect data related to aquifer soil, land use, land cover, etcetera. Obtain
hydro geological maps and top of sheets. Assess the groundwater potential based on
available data. Get the data related to number of wells in the watershed and study the
head variations within the wells discuss. How you can improve the groundwater
availability in the area in terms of rainwater harvesting or artificial recharge?

So, today what we discussed is the groundwater flow or subsurface flow conditions. So,
we have seen various aspects of groundwater flow and groundwater flow modeling. So,
we have, say here only one lecture is given for ground water flow so only the
introductory aspects only we could discuss today. So, those who are interested in this,
you can refer to some other text books given in the reference lists. Thank you very much.