TREATISE ON NAVIGATION,

NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY,
ADAPTED TO PRACTICE, AND TO THE PURPOSES
OF ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION;

AN EXTENSIVE SERIES OF EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE, AND ALL THE TABLES

REQUISITE FOR NAUTICAL COMPUTATIONS.

FIFTH EDITION,
GREATLY IMPROVED.

BY EDWARD RIDDLE, F.R.A.S.,

VASTCB OF TUK XAL'TK'AL SCHOOL, liOVAL HOSPITAL, UKKKSWICH.

LONDON:
ROBERT BALDWIN, 47, PATERNOSTER-ROW.
MDCCCXL1X.
 Strecc
Jx>.v:.v : 1'rintod by WILLIAM Ci.owwand Sows, Stamford
 TO

THE RIGHT HONOURABLE

SIR FRANCIS THORNHILL BARING, BART., M.P.,

REAR-ADMIRAL JAMES WHITLEY DEANS DUNDAS, M.I'.,

CAPTAIN MAURICE FITZHARDINGE BERKELEY, M.P.,

CAPTAIN THE RIGHT HONOURABLE LORD JOHN HAY, M.P.,

CAPTAIN ALEXANDER MILNE,

AND

THE HONOURABLE WILLIAM COWPER, M.P.,

THE LORDS COMMISSIONERS FOR EXECUTING THE OFFICE OF LORD HIGH ADMIRAL
OF THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND,

THIS NEW AND IMPROVED EDITION

OF A WORK DESIGNED TO IMPART TO THE PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION OF

BRITISH SEAMEN A MORE SCIENTIFIC CHARACTER THAN IT HAS
HITHERTO GENERALLY ATTAINED,

IS,

WITH THEIR LORDSHIPS' PERMISSION,

RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED BY

THE AUTHOR.
 PREFACE.

IN the work of which a fifth edition is now offered to the public, it has
been attempted to furnish, in a moderate compass, a mathematical
course adapted at once to the instruction of youth destined for the sea-
service to the every-day wants of the practical mariner and to the
more extended views of those who aspire not only to an acquaintance
with Navigation as an art, but to a knowledge of its principles as a
branch of science. Few persons have been extensively employed in
teaching Navigation who have not felt the want of some such book ;
a want which will now be more extensively felt than heretofore, from
the establishment of boards in all the principal seaports for the ex-
amination of masters and mates in the theory and the practice of their
profession.
To understand the principles of Navigation and the formulae for
computation in Nautical Astronomy, considerable preparatory know-
ledge of the elementary branches of mathematical science is indispen-
sable ; and it is perhaps the leading characteristic of the following
work, that, while it contains all the tables and rules for computation
necessary for, the practical seaman, it contains also the investigations of
the rules, and the preparatory mathematical information necessary for
understanding the investigations.
The introductory article on the principles of Algebra will enable
the student to read, without difficulty, the analytical investigations in
Plane and Spherical Trigonometry ;
and while the treatises on the
other elementary branches of science will be found sufficient to serve
the purpose for which they are chiefly intended, it is hoped that they
may also tend to produce that taste for demonstrative science which is
one of the most valuable effects of mathematical instruction.
The most useful trigonometrical formulae are written out in words,
in the form of practical rules ; and the whole of the work has been so
arranged, that the theoretical and the practical parts may be taught
either separately or jointly.
The principles of Navigation are explained at considerable length,
and their application shown in the solution of a variety of problems, in
plane, parallel, middle latitude, and Mercator's sailing, in keeping a
sea-journal, and the construction of charts.
The employment of steam in long voyages having given to Great
Circle Sailing an importance which it did not previously 'possess, a
short article on the subject is given in this edition.
An investigation is given of the principles of the quadrant and other
reflecting instruments for nautical observations, accompanied with
instructions for adjusting them.
The practical rules for the solution of the most useful problems in
Nautical Astronomy will, it is hoped, be found simple and unam-
biguous. The method of finding the latitude from double altitudes
will, the author trusts, contribute to bring that problem into general
use among practical seamen.
 VI PREFAl

The practical rules and tables for clearing the lunar distance from
the effects of parallax and refraction are deduced from formula' \\hieh
were first investigated by J. dcMeridoza Uios ; a short trigonometrical
process has been added, in which the minute corrections which are
neglected in ordinary practice may be introduced.
It having been found that occultations of stars by the moon can
easily be observed at sea, a new and simple rule is given for computing
the longitude from these observations.
The method here given for finding the longitude from the ol>
difference between the intervals of transit of the moon and a fixed star
may, perhaps, claim the attention of practical astronomers in gent-nil.
as well as of the scientific individuals engaged, under ( io\ eminent,
in extensive nautical and geodetic surveys. This, which is now _:
rally considered as the best of all astronomical methods of finding
differences of longitude, on land, is here reduced either to a simple
proportion, or to the adding together of two logarithms.
The investigations of the practical rules will present no difficulty
to those who understand the theory of Plane and Spherical Trigono-
metry, as given in the preceding parts of the work ; and the concluding
Miscellaneous Nautical Problems will afford sufficient variety to guide
the student in solving by ppherics any useful problem that can arise in
practice.
From the care which has been bestowed upon the Tables, it is
believed that few, if any, errors of the least practical importance will
be found in them. With respect to Tables, the work has one a<l\ an-
tage which in schools will be found of considerable importance. It
contains every Table requisite in solving the different examples, the
parts of the Nautical Almanac being given for the time to which the
examples are fitted which require its aid. Another advantage, which
the work possesses in this respect, is of not less importance in practice.
The Tables of the sun's declination, right ascension, and the equation
of time, with the auxiliary Table for reducing them to subsequent
years, are sufficient to enable the mariner to find his latitude, and
his

longitude by a chronometer, with sufficient exactness, at sea, for nearly

forty years to come, without the aid of the Nautical Almanac.
A
work from which any branch of science is to be taught should
abound with practical examples ; and the following work will, in that
respect, be found to answer its object. The examples requiring nu-
merical calculation have, in this edition, been carefully revised.
Grateful for the patronage which his work has received, as evinced
by the sale of four very large editions, the author has endeavoured to
make the present edition still more worthy of public support. The
articles on the Theory of Trigonometry, Plane and Spherical, and on
the investigations of the rules in Nautical Astronomy, have, substan-
tially, been rewritten,
and greatly simplified.
For much in them that is new and useful the author is indebted to
his son, Mr. JOHN RIDDLE, Second Master of the Nautical School,
of whose taste* in science these articles will probably be thought not
unfavourable examples.
 CONTENTS.

Elementary Principles of Algebraical Calculation 1

Of Logarithms
Elementary Principles of Geometry .......
......
11
13
Of
On the Intersection of Planes ........
Proportion as applied to Geometry

.........
41
48
Geometrical Problems
Examples for Exercise in .......
Geometry
58
57
Elementary Principles of the Theory of Plane Trigonometry
Examples Theory of Trigonometry
for Exercise in the

Elementary Principles of the Theory of Spherical Trigonometry

.....

.
.

.
60
7:{

75
Construction and Use of the Mariner's Scale . . . . . .91
Practical Application of the Principles of Plane Trigonometry . . 96
On Heights and Distances 1U6

.......
Practical Application of the Principles of Spherical Trigonometry

Elementary Principles of Navigation

. . 113
126
Great Circle Sailing
On the Compass and the Log
Geographical Problems
........
.........
136
136
141
On Correcting the Log Distance, and the Course for Variation . . .144
Of Leeway 146
Plane Sailing
Traverse Sailing
On Plying to
..........
Windward
148
152
155
On Sailing in Currents . . . . .
._ . . . 157
Parallel Sailing . .160
Middle Latitude and Mcrcator's Sailing .

Workman's Improvement in Middle Latitude Sailing

On Finding the Longitude made on a Compound Course
. .

....
.

.
.

.
.

.
163
165
170
On Charts 175
Method of Keeping a Sea-Journal, with Examples for Exercise . . 179
Principles of the Quadrant, Sextant, &o with rules for Adjustment
NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY, Definitions and Principles
,

... .. 190
195
Preparatory Problems, to take Data from the Nautical Almanac, &c. . . 204
Various Practical Methods of Finding the Latitude from Observation . -2-20

Practical Methods of Finding the Variation of the Compass from Observation :>:> I

On the Principles of the Methods of Finding the Longitude from Observation

at Sea 235
On Finding the Time from Altitudes 23V
On Finding the Error of a Chronometer from Equal Altitudes of a Fixed Star IM .'

To Compute the Equation of Equal Altitudes of the Sun . . . 243

To find the Error of a Chronometer from Equal Altitudes of the Sun . . 244
Different Methods of Finding the Kate of a Chronometer . . . 245
VIII OON TKNTS.

To Find the Longitude by a Chronometer , 248

New Method of finding both the Latitude and Longitude, by Double Altitudes 250
To Compute the Altitudes of Celestial Objects 253
Methods of Clearing the Lunar Distance from the Effects of Parallax and
Refraction 256
To Allow for the Effect of the Figure of the Earth in Clearing the Lunar
Distance
To Find the Greenwich Time by even Proportion from Lunars . . uti-J

To Correct the Greenwich Time, as obtained in the usual Way, from Lunar
Distances, for the irregular Motion of the Moon in the Intervals of
Three Hours 262
To Find the Longitude by Lunar Observations 266
To make several Lunars available in determining the Longitude of the same
Place on Land or at Sea ;
and to Find the Hale of a Chronometer
at Sea 276
To Find the Longitude from the Eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites . . 278
To Find the Longitude from an observed Occultation of -a Fixed Star by the
Moon 279
Investigation of the Practical Rules in Nautical Astronomy . . . 282

Spherical Trigonometry ........

Cseful Miscellaneous Nautical Problems, solved by the direct Application of

....... 290
Promiscuous Questions for Exercise
On the Transit Instrument ......... .'K)2

304
To Find
......
the Longitude from the Difference of the Intervals of Transit of the
Moon's Bright Limb and a Star 305
To Find

On Winds
........
the Longitude from the Observed

passing the Meridian

Time of the Moon's Bright Limb
309
310
On Tides with Rules and Tables for Finding the
: Time of High Water, and
the Height of the Tide 312
i
 AN EXTENSION
OF THB
DOUBLE ALTITUDE PROBLEM,
TO FINDING THB
LONGITUDE AS WELL AS THE LATITUDE
AT SEA.
BY EDWARD IlIDDLK, F.R.A.S.
HBAD MASTER OF THE NAUTICAL SCHOOL, GREENWICH HOSPITAL.

[THE following extension of the use of a well known Problem in Nautical

Astronomy, was made by the author after the fifth edition of his work
had passed through the press, and the publisher gladly gives it inser-
tion, assured that by nautical men it will be deemed of importance.]
'

July 24</<, 1849.

 DOT BLB ALTITtlDK PROBLEM.

On an Extension of the Double Altitude Problem to finding the

Longitude as well as the Latitude at Sea.

DOUBLK altitudes of the same object, with the elapsed time and polar
distance, have long been employed in finding the Latitude at sea ; but I
am not aware that the attention of practical men has been drawn to the
fact, that the Longitude as well as the Latitude may be directly found from
observations of this class, if the times be marked by a chronometer whose
error for Greenwich time is known.
The method of finding the latitude by double altitudes given in "Riddle's
Navigation," affords peculiar facilities for this extension of the method.
For the first altitude being reduced to the place of the second, and the
latitude of the second place of observation found, the sec of this

computed latitude added to the sine of arc 3, in the rule for finding the
latitude, is the sine of the meridian distance at the middle time ;
which
increased by the half elapsed time, is the meridian distance at the place
of the second altitude, when the least altitude is taken. Hence the time
at the place is known and this; compared with the mean time at Greenwich,
deduced from the chronometer, gives the longitude of the place of the
second observation.
EXAMPLE FROM OBSERVATION.
At Greenwich Hospital Schools, on July 19th, 1849, E. R. took the

following observations, to find both the Latitude and the Longitude the
chronometer being 2m. 10"5s. slow for Greenwich Mean Time, and the
index error of the sextant 45" .

Times by Chron. Doub. Times by

/*. TO. *. h.
19 24 36 56
24 48
25 1

25 13
25 22
25 34
25 45
 DOUBLE ALTITUDE PROBLEM. 11

LATITUDE BY E. RIDDLE* MKT1IOD.

9-576689 sin 22 10 H.B.T.

9-!>7l066 sin 69 19 P.O. cos 9'548024
{T547755 sin 20 40 arc 1 sec -Q28887 cosec -45^215

67 49 arc 2 cos 9'5769ll

028887
9-816943 sin 41 cos 9-877780
9-989774 cos 12 23* sin 9-331693

051350 sec 27 19arc3sin 9'66l7l8.

39 34 arc 4 cos 9-886954 .cos 9 '948584 . .

2lTT5~arc5 . . . . . .... cos 9; 944922

-205771 sec 51 29| Latsin 9 '893506

arc 3, sin * 9 661718
h. m. s.
9-867489,i u 4728'=3 9 54 d i.tmidT
1 28 40 H.K.T.
4 38 3?mer dist K
24

App. T. 19 21 26 do. west

Eq. T. +5 59

Mean time at Schools 19 27 25

Mean time at Observatory 19 27 21 -8

Longitude in time E 3-2=48*

If the less altitude had been

decreasing, 4h. 38m. 34s.
would have
been the apparent time.
Persons desirous of how the above method of finding the mer.
knowing
at the middle time is obtained, are referred to the diagram p. 29-1,
tlist.

fourth edition, or p. 282, fifth edition of " Riddle's Navigation" where in

the right angled triangle z E p, z u is arc 3, z P the co-lat., and z P E the
mer. dist. at the middle time.
And sin z P E = sin z E cosec z p = sin arc 3. sec lat.

Another Example from Observations, one set taken before and the other
after noon.

On E. R.
April 26th, 1849, the following observations were taken by
to find the Latitude and Longitude of Greenwich Hospital Schools. The
Chronometer was 8m. 50'5s. fast for Greenwich Mean Time, and the index
error of the sextant 22" .
xu DOUBLE ALTITUDE PROBLEM.

Times by Chron.
A. m. 9.
22 24 35
24 49
24 58
24 68
 ALGEBHAKAI. C AI.l I I.ATION. 5

Now, if the sum of a and c, or a +

c, were to be multiplied by b,

the product would contain as many times a and as many times c as

there are units in b ; or a +
c multiplied by b would be represented,
as above, by a b c b, or by a+ c b. + .

Again, suppose a to be the greater, and c the less of two quantities,

and let the difference of a and c be multiplied by b ; for every time
that a is taken c must be subtracted ; and therefore the product will
be represented by as many times a as there are units in 6, diminished
by as many times c as there are units in b, or ab cb will represent
the required product.
Let now a -f c be multiplied by b d. If a c were multiplied +
by b alone, the product, as we have already seen, would be a b c b. +
But in multiplying by b we have multiplied by a quantity which is

too great by d, for the multiplier b d is only the excess of b

above d ; therefore, from the product of a c by b, we have to deduct +
as many times a -j- c as there are units in d, or we have to subtract
ad +cd from ab + cb, and the remainder ab + cb ad cd,
is the required product.

Finally, let a
c be multiplied by b d. This signifies that a c
is to be taken as often as there are units in the difference of b and d;
or, ifa c be multiplied by b, as many times a c must be deducted
from the product as there are units in d ; or, from the product of
a c by b, the product of a c by d must be subtracted. Now, the
product of a c by 6 is a 6 c b, and the product of a c by d
.is ad cd. And ab cb ad cd = ab c b ad + cd is

the required product.

Wehence deduce the following rule for the multiplication of alge-
braical quantities.

Multiply every term of the quantity to be multiplied by each term

separately of that by which the multiplication is to be made ; observing,
when the signs of the terms multiplied together are alike, to make the

sign of the product ; but +

when the signs of the terms are unlike ;
and the sum of the several products will be the total product required.
Note. As 5* signifies 5x5, and o 4 signifies 5 x 5x5x5;
5* x 5 4
same as 5x5 x 5 x 5 x 5 X 5, or 5'; and in
will be the
8 4
the same way, a x a s= a a a X a a a a . er
r
. therefore, . . . . = ;

different powers o. the same quantity are multiplied by the addition

of their indices.
EXAMPLES IN MULTIPLICATION.
1 .
Multiply 3 a by 11.Answer, 33 a.
2. Multiply a by a. Answer, cf.
1
3. Multiply a+ b by a b. Answer, a b\
4. Multiply a b by a b, or find the square of a b. Answer,
a -
1
 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF

5. Multiply a + b by a + />, or find the square of a + b. Answer,

a1 + 2 a b + b*.
s
6. Multiply a by a*. Answer, a*.
7. Multiply 5 a b by 7 a. Answer, 35 a* b.

8. Multiply 5 a + b by 7 a. Answer, 35 a* + 7 a b.

9. Multiply a + b by a. Answer, a* + a 6.

OF DIVISION.
3 times 9 divided by 3 gives 9 for the quotient and 3 times 9 ;

divided by 9 gives 3 for the quotient. In like manner, a times 6,

or a b, divided by b, gives a for the quotient ; and 7z b divided by a

gives b for the quotient.

Again, the quotient of 3 divided by 7 is represented fractionally
3 12
12 divided by 16 is - or as 12
by ; represented fractionally by ,

12
and 16 have a common divisor 4, the quotient - '-
in its lowest
o
terms will be . In like manner, ma divided by mb is represented

ma a
by or by the equivalent fraction
m br > .

b
12 + 8 3+2
-
Further, 12 + 8, divided by 16, is
expressed by ,
or ,

or
5
,
or
,
1
1
; and, in the same way, -- .

is expressed by

3 a+ - 2 a
>
or
5a
-^'
or
,1
1
4-'
or 1 +
~\~
a, or a +
a
.

Again, for the signs, +ax + b is + ab, therefore - is +b

-
;

+ a

+ a X b is ab, therefore - r-
b
is + a, and
+a
is b.

Therefore, in dividing, it is to be observed, that like signs in the factors

give +
in the quotient, and unlike signs in the factors give in the

quotient.
Wehave hence the following general rule for division Place the :

dividend over the divisor in the form of a fraction, and this fraction will
be the value of the quotient. If either the whole numerator and deno-
minator, or each of their terms, have a common divisor, divide by that
divisor, and the result will be the quotient in simpler terms.

As 3
7 divided by 7
7x7x7 or to 7 X
is equivalent to , 7, or to 7*;

a. a. a. a. a. a
and a divided by a is equivalent to - , or to a a, or .

a. a. a. a
to a* ; the division of different powers of the same quantity is effected

by subtracting the index of the divisor from that of the dividend.

 ALGEBRAICAL CALCULATION.

EXAMPLES IN DIVISION.

1. Divide 6 a by 2. Answer, 3 a.
2. Divide Tab by a. Answer, T b.
a*
3. Divide a* + a b by b. Answer, - \- a.

4. Divide a* 6* by a b Answer, a b. . +
5. Divide a* + 2 a b + b* by a + b. Answer, a + b.

2 b + 3 c
6. Divide 4 a 6 + 6 a e by 2 ad. Answer, .

OF FRACTIONS.
3,4
O
= 1, and
i
= 1 ; or, generally,
d
=r 1,
(t OC
= 1 ;
that is, any

fractional expression, whose numerator and denominator are equal, is

equal to 1.

2 5 73 10 13 a c a + c
'T :

T T'
: (r
T + ~b - ~~T~
734
;
"9 9"' ~s

a+6 a b 2a
T"
a c a e
'T"T ~T~ ~^~ + ~2~ "2"
'-' C = =
~5 T'
Fractions having a common denominator are therefore added by

placing the sum of their numerators ; and subtracted, by placing the

difference of their numerators over the common denominator.

7 2 7x9 2x8 7x9+2x8

-8+^9= 8-^9 +9^8 = 9x8 ^^^ ; r

_L
a d + b c
^_ 7x9-2x8
T ~d ~Td '
J
jr.
~S 9" 9x8
a c ad be a +b a b 2b
~b
'

~d
= ~bd
'
~2~ ~~2~ ~~2

Hence, when the fractions to be added, or subtracted, are of different

denominators, they are reduced, as in common vulgar fractions, to equi-
valent fractions, having a common denominator and then the sum or ;

the difference of their numerators, so reduced, is placed over the com-

mon denominator, for the required sum or difference of the fractions.
Algebraic fractions are, therefore, reduced to a common denomina-
tor, added and subtracted exactly in the same manner as common vulgar
fractions are.

EXAMPLES IN AUDITION AND SUBTBACTION OF FBACTIONS.

a a
1. Add
oo
a
to
b

c
-. Answer,
-\
-
o
7a + 6c
b
.

2. Add to -=-. Answer, .

o 7 4^
 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF

Answer,
2ac+
3 c
- 24
.

2 a + 2 6f
Answer,
a* b*

2
Answer,
2bc

6. From -.
- subtract -= . Answer,

From -
b { c

- -+ " "
r take

-
7. ^ .
Answer, -^ .

a b a b a*

-
b*

6 + c _ a*
8. From 1 take .
Answer, ,
2bc 2bc

and -
oo
multiplied by 7 is
oo
,
oo
divided by 7 is ,
or
37 1
a ac a a
X c = -
and
.

-:- c =
-T-

326,3
.

37y =
,
o 6 6 6c

Again,
_ y= yx
35,
and 4-
2
y=T X
21
15;
or

a c
~ ac .a c
= ad
T" x ~T r^' and T" =
~T 7~~-
o a ocz o a oc
Themultiplication and division of algebraic fractions are therefore
performed in the same manner as in vulgar fractions : multiplication
being effected by taking the product of the numerators and denomina-
tors respectively, for the numerators and denominators of the fractional

product ; and division, by taking, in the same manner, the product of

the dividend and the reciprocal of the divisor.

EXAMPLES IN MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF FRACTIONS.

1 .
Multiply by a. Answer, .

r , . ,
6bc ,
2a 12
-
2. Multiply by ; .
Answer, .

41 a b c 41
*7/ 1 1

3. Multiply by ?. Answer, 1.

+ b- ~- -
-
a a b a*

--
,
ir t^. -.
b*
4. Multiply
' by
J ,,. Answer, 7.
o b d*-\- b* a* -\- a* b* a* b b

5. Divide
ab -
+ na b c d =
-
.

by a b. Answer, .
\-\-ncd
; .
ab nabcd ab nabcd
;

T^- a u c ab -{- a 1

6.
.

Divide
i
-=-
b
by 7
b a '
+
.
Answer, ^
be
.
 ALGEBRAICAL CALCULATION.

6 a 24
7. Divide -
by .
Answer, .

-8

8. Divide
a +b a b 2ab
, t by C
.
Answer,
L

OF THE TRANSPOSITION OF THE TERMS OF

EQUATIONS.
IP 9+4 =13, then 9= 13-4; and if 9=r 13-4, then 9+4=13.
+ 7=11 + 4, then 8 + 7-4= 11, and 8-4= 117; or
If 8 if
a + b = c, then a =c b ; and if a =c b, then c = b + a.
Whence a term, or any number of terms, may be transposed from
one side of the equation to the other, without destroying the equality,
by changing the sign of each term so transposed.
Again,9+4=13, then
if 9 +4 - = 0; and if 9 + 4 13 = 0,
13
9 + 4=13, or, generally, if a + b = then a + b c =
c, ;

and if a +b c = 0, then a + b = c; if a c + d = then e,

=e a +c </, or a c -\- d e = 0.

Hence, the terms on one side of an equation be transposed with

if all

their signs changed, the resulting expression will be equal to 0.

If
4
= 2, then 8 = 2 x 4, or if -^-
b
= e, then a = b c ;

f>r\

if -7 x 9 = 63, then 7 = ,
or if a b = c, then a = -
; if
^7 v

= 10 - 6J, then 7 = 20 - 13; it 2-

"
= c + d e, then
2

a=c6 + rf6 e&; if6x8 = 64-16, then 6 = ~ - ^;

8 o

or if ab =c+ d e. then a =
bob
c
+
d
r .

Hence, if a term of an equation be multiplied by any number, the

multiplier may be omitted, if all the other terms of the equation be
divided by that number; and, conversely, if a term of an equation be
divided by any number, the divisor may be omitted, if all the other
terms of this equation be multiplied by it.

= 16, then 4 = ^16"; or if 4* = 12 + 4, then 4 = ^12 + 4;

If 4 f
OF if a* = b, then a = /b or if a* = b + c d, then a = ;

Jb + c d; j~a~ A, then a = b* if J a = b
if then ; c,

a = b c.

Hence, if a power of any required quantity be given, the quantity

itself will be obtained by extracting the corresponding root of the given
10 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF

quantity ; and if a root of any quantity be given, that quantity will be

the corresponding power of the given quantity.

EXAMPLES.
1. Given x + 18 = 3 x 5. Answer, x = 11$.
2. Given 3 x - 5 = 23 + 2 x. Answer, 28.

3. Given -f-
5
+4 = 10. Answer, 30.

4. Given -J
2
+ + 4
= 13. Answer, 12.
o
x 2x 3x x
5. Given +.

r- = 11 + .
Answer, 24.
2i o 4 o
6. Given 3 (x 2) + 4 = 4 (3 a?). Answer, 2.

7. Given 5 3 (4 x) + 4 (3 2 x) = 0. Answer, 1.

8. Given ?-^ + ~v = 20 ^ir^- Answer, 18.

% O et

9. Given 2 - 45 <*
~_g? _ 15 .
Answer, .

a: + 6 '29
10. Given 4 a: -f- 2a = 3x + 4b. Answer, 4 b 2 a.

bc f*
11. Given b(a bx) +c(axc) = 6c. Answer,

12. Given a;
*s ^
^^ x =
^ 1.
A fr v
Answer,

-
** j i. i i.-i
,
a a b

13.
~.
Given x + a = .
Answer, --2 .

a + x
14. Given a? +a = b c. Answer, Jb c a.

s
b9 -j- c s

15. Given 2bcx =. b* + c a*. Answer, -

^7-7

^
~2 = 3# + 2
16. Given a; + -
8
.
Answer, 2.

17. Given
a:-l
= 7 . Answer, 7.
a;+7 7(a;-l)
18. Given Jx +9 = + Jx.1 Answer, 16.
15
19. Given J5 + x + Jx = .
Answer, 4.
V5 + x
* ~ =
20. Given |J ^ =7 = 4.
\4x + ^2y = 36) y
*?1. Answer, a;

21. Given x* - 17 = 130 2 a;8 .

Answer, x = 7.

22. Given a* 4- 2 x = 35. Answer, x. = 5 or - 7.

 LOGARITHMIC CALCULATION. 1 1

23. Given x* -f- 7x= 8. Answer, x = 1 or - 8.

24. Given 3x + 2x-9 = 76. Answer, x = 5 or 5j.

25. Given x* 17 x = 72. Answer, x = 8 or 9.

26. Given 7 x* 1 1 x = 6. = 2 or
Answer, x f .

27. Given
|* +j[ ^ X

|.
Answer, x = 21 or 20 ; y = 20 or 21
28. Given
{f I^ff ^j- Answer, x = 11 y = 4.

29. Given Ja + ,Jx Ja x. Answer, x = = .

OF LOGARITHMS.
LOGARITHMS are a series of numbers contrived to lessen the labour

attending long calculations ; the operation of multiplication being

effected by the addition, and that of division
by the subtraction of loga-
rithms. The
raising of powers is effected by multiplying the logarithms
by the index of the power ; and the extraction of roots, by
dividing the
logarithms by the index of the root.
Logarithms may be considered as the exponents of the powers of a
certain number, called the root of the system ; or they may be con-
sidered as an arithmetical series, indicating the places of the numbers
in a corresponding geometrical one.
The common system of logarithms, or that which is most useful in

common calculations, has 10 for its root and the ; logarithm of any
number in that system, is that power of 10 which is equal to the given
number.
Thus 10' is 10, 10* is 100, 103 is 1000; the log of 10 therefore is 1,

that of 100 is 2, and that of 1000 is 3, &c.

Now 10*, 10s , 10, 1, ,

, &c., form a continually decreasing

geometrical series their logarithms, therefore, form a continually de-

:

creasing arithmetical series.

Nos
1000 . . 100 . 10 . 1 . -1 . -01 &c.
3 2 1 - -
1 - - 2 &c.
Logs . . . . . .

Hence the log of 1 is 0, and the logs of all numbers less than 1 have
their indices negative; the log of every number between 1 and 10 is
between and 1 ; the log of every number between 10 and 100 is be-
tween 1 and 2 ; the log of every number between 100 and 1000 is

between 2 and 3, &c. The numbers

&c., called the indices of 1, 2, 3,
the logarithms, are therefore always less by one than the digits con-
tained in the integral part of the number whose logarithm is taken.
12 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

The most important properties of logarithms are investigated in

following propositions :

If a" = M
then x = log M (to the root a)

The relations of the root, logarithm, and number, will be easily

remembered from the following :

(root)
(log) = number.

M + log N = log M N
M
log M log N = log
{log
Let . . . a* =M or x = log M
and . . . a" =N or y = log N
then by multiplication cf +y = M N
x + y = log M N
or log M + log N =r log M N .
^ . I .

Again, by division . a*"" = M

N

x - y - l
log

or log M log N r= log

r

.... 2.

log M = log M" |

M I
log
-JL_ = log
.

VM
{n. f
Let . . . a* = M or x =r log M
raised to the wlh power an * = M"
n x =r log M"
or n. log M = log M" .

th
Again, taking the n root a "
= VM
x .-

n
= log V*
M
or
log - = log
n
 OF GEOMETRY. 13

GEOMETRY.
DEFINITIONS.
1. GEOMETRY the science by which we determine the relations be-
is

tween quantities that have extension.

2. A
Point is that which has position, but no magnitude.
3. A Line length only.
is

4. A Surface, or Super/ides, is a figure which has length and breadth

only.
5. A Solid is a figure which has length, breadth, and thickness.
6. A Right Line, or Straight Line, is one which

does not change its direction between its extremities.

7. A Crooked Line is one which changes its direc-

tion at intervals.
8. A Curve Line is one which continually changes
its direction.
9. When a line is not stated to be crooked, or curved, it is understood
to be straight.
10. Parallel Lines are those which, being in the
same plane, will not meet, though produced to any _I^n
distance.
11. Oblique Lines are those which will meet if

produced.
12. A Line is a Tangent to a curve, when the
line touches the curve without cutting it, when
both are produced.
13. An Angle is the inclination of two lines which

diverge from the same point.

14. A Perpendicular is a line meeting another

line, so that the angles on each side of it are equal.

15. A Right Angle is the angle formed by a perpendicular with the

line which it meets.
16. An Oblique Angle is one which is formed by the meeting of two
lines not at right angles to each other.
17. An
Acute Angle is less, and
an Obtuse Angle is greater, than a
right angle.
18. A
Plane Surface, or a Plane, is that with which a right line
may every way coincide.
19. A Curve Surface U that with which a right line will not every

way coincide.
14 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

20. Plane Figures are bounded either by right Hues or curves, and
they have as many angles as they have sides.

21. A Triangle is a figure of three sides.

22. An Equilateral Triangle is one whose sides

are all equal.

23. An Isosceles Triangle has only two of its sides

equal.

24. A Scalene Triangle is one whose sides are

all unequal.

25. A Right Angled Triangle has one of its

angles a right angle.

26. An Oblique Angled Triangle is one whose

angles are all oblique.

27. An Obtuse Angled Triangle has one ob-

tuse angle.

28. An Acute Angled Triangle has all its angles

acute.

29. A figure of four sides is called a Quadri-

lateral, or a Quadrangle.

30. A Parallelogram is a quadrilateral having

each pair of opposite sides parallel.

31. ARectangle is a parallelogram having one of

its
angles a right angle and it is said to be con-
;

tained by any two of its

adjoining sides.

32. A Square is a rectangle having all its sides

equal.

33. A Rhomboid is a parallelogram, one of whose

angles is
oblique.

34. A Rhombus is a rhomboid whose sides are all

equal.
 OF GEOMETRY. 15

35. ATrapezium is a quadrilateral which has not

its opposite sides parallel.

36. A
Trapezoid is a quadrilateral having only
one pair of opposite sides parallel.

37. A
Diagonal is a line joining the opposite an-
gular points of a quadrilateral.

38. Plane figures of more than four sides receive the general deno-
mination of Polygons.

39. A Polygon of five sides is called a Pentagon ; one of six sides

a Hexagon ; one of seven sides a Heptagon ; one of eight sides an
Octagon, &c.
40. A Regular Polygon is one which has all its sides equal, and also
all its angles equal.

41. An Irregular Polygon is one which has not all its sides and all

its angles equal.

42. A
Circle is a plane figure bounded by a curve
line, every part of which is equally distant from a
certain point within the figure, called the centre.

43. The curve line which bounds the circle is called the Circum-
ference. Note the Circumference is sometimes called the Circle.

44. The Radius of a circle is a line drawn from

the centre to the Circumference.

45. The Diameter of a circle is a line drawn

through the centre, and terminating on both sides at
the circumference.

46. An Arc of a circle is

any part of the circum- /

ference.

47. A Chord is the straight line joining the extremities of an arc.

48.
arc and
A Segment
its chord.
is a part of a circle bounded by an

O
r^^^
/
16 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

49. A Semicircle is a segment cut off by a dia-

meter.

50. A Sector is a part of a circle bounded by two

radii and their intercepted arc,

51. A Quadrant is a sector whose bounding radii are perpendicular

to each other.

52. In a right angled triangle, the side opposite the right angle is
called the ffypothemtse, and the sides including the right angle are
called the Base and Perpendicular,, and sometimes the legs of the

triangle.

53. When
an angle is denoted by three letters, one
of them placed at the angular point, and the other
is

two on the lines which include the angle ; and that

which stands at the angular point is read in the
middle asABc, orCBA. A/ \c
54. An angle in a segment of a circle is contained by two lines
drawn from any point in the arc of the segment to the extremities of
the same arc.

55. An angle on a segment, or on an arc, is contained by two lines

drawn from the extremities of the arc to any point in the opposite part
of the circumference.

56. An angle at the circumference of a circle is

one whose angular point is in the circumference and ;

an angle at the centre is one whose angular point is

at the centre.

57. A rectilineal figure is inscribed in a circle, or

the circle circumscribes the rectilineal figure, when
all the angular points of the figure are in the circum-

ference of the circle.

58. A rectilineal figure circumscribes a circle,, or

the circle is inscribed in the rectilineal figure, when
each side of the figure touches the circumference of
the circle without cutting it.

59. Arectilineal figure is inscribed in another, or

the latter circumscribes the former, when all the an-

gular points of the former are placed on the sides of

the latter.
 OF CiEOMETUY. 17

60. Identical Figures are those which are mutually equal in all tlu-ir

p.uts.
61. Similar Figures are those which have all the angles of the one

equal _to all the angles of the other, and the corresponding sides about
the angles of each figure proportional.
62. The Perimeter of a figure is the sum of all its sides.

63. A Problem an operation proposed to be performed.

is

64. A T/ieorem a truth which

is
proposed to prove. it is

65. A Proposition a general term, signifying either a problem

is or
a theorem.
66. A Lemma is a preparatory proposition to render what follows
more easy.
67. A Corollary is an obvious consequence resulting from a pre-
ceding proposition.
68. A Scholium is an observation, or remark, upon something pre-
it.
ceding
69. An Axiom is a self-evident truth.
70. A Postulate is a request to admit the possibility of performing
a certain operation.

AXIOMS.
1. Things which are equal to the same thing, are equal to each
other.
2. When equals are added to equals, the wholes are equal.
3. When equals are taken from equals, the remainders are equal.
4. When equals are added to unequals, the wholes are unequal.
5. When equals are taken from unequals, the remainders are unequal.
6. Things which are like multiples of the same, or of equal
things,
are equal to each other.
7. Things which are like parts of the same, or of equal things, arc

equal to each other.

8. The whole of any thing is equal to the sum of all its parts.
9. The whole of any thing is greater than a part of it.
10. Magnitudes which coincide with one another, or fill the same

space, are identical or mutually equal in all respects.

11. All right angles are equal to one another.
12. If two straight lines are parallel to each other, a line which meets
one of them produced, meet the other.
will, if
13. If two straight lines intersect each other, they cannot both be

parallel to the same straight line.

POSTULATES.
1. Let it be granted that a straight line may be drawn from any one
point to any other point.
c
IS I.U.MKNTAHY PRINCIPLES

2. That u .straight line may be produced l<>

:m> K-ngtli in the same
direction.
3. That a circle may be described round any point as a centre, and
\\ithany radius.
That from any point
4. in a given straight line a perpendicular
that line may be drawn.
5. line, or rectilineal angle, may
That a right be made equal to any
or rectilineal that any right line or rectilineal
given right line, angle ;

that through a given point a line may be

angle may be bisected ; and
drawn parallel to any other line.

THEOREMS.
THEOREM I.

In any two c
if two sides A,
ABC, DBF, c B, in the one, be
triangles
respectively equal to two sides F D, F E, in the other, and the angle c
included by the sides c A, c B, in the one, be equal to the angle F, in-
cluded by the equal sides F D, F E, in the other : then the two triangles
are identical, or equal in all respects; and have the angles equal which
are opposite to the equal sides.
For, conceive the point c to be laid on the point
F, and the line c A on the line F D, then, because
these lines are equal, the point A. will coincide with
the point D. And as c A coincides with F D, and
the angle c is equal to the angle F, the line c B will
fall on the line F E ; and, because c B and F E are equal, the point B will

coincide with the point E. Therefore as the points A and B coincide

with the points D and E, the line A B will coincide with the line D E.
Hence the two triangles are identical, and have all the parts of the one
equal to the corresponding parts of the other namely, the side A B to
;

the side D E, the angle A to the angle D, and the angle B to the angle E.

Q.E.D.
THEOREM II.
In any two triangles ABC, D E F, if two angles A and B, in the one,
be respectively equal to ttvo angles D and E in the other, and the sides
A B and D E adjacent to these equal angles be also equal, the triatt ;//>.>

are identical, or equal in all respects.

For, conceive the point A to be laid on the point
D, and the side A B on the side D E, then, because
these lines are equal, the point B will coincide with
the point E. And as A B and D E coincide, and
the angle A is equal to the angle D, the side A c
will fall on the side D F ; and for a like reason B c will fall on E F.
Therefore as A c falls on D F, and B c on E F, the point c must coincide
with the point F ; and consequently the two triangles are identical ;
 OF GEOMETRY. 19

having the other two suit's A c, B c, equal to the two D p, E F, and the
iviiiuimng angle c equal to the remaining angle P. Q. E. D.
THEOREM III.
In any isosceles triangle AB r, the angles A and B, opposite the equal
sides, A c mid B are equal.
c,

For, conceive the angle c to be bisected by the line c D,

then, as the two triangles A c D and BCD have A c equal
to B c, CD common and the angle A c D equal to
to both,
the angle BCD, they are identical (Theo. 1), and there-
fore the angle A is equal to the angle B. Q. E. D.
Cor. 1. The line which bisects the angle included between the equal
sides of an isosceles triangle, bisects the third side, and is also perpen-
dicular to it.

Cor. 2. Every equilateral triangle is also an equiangular one.

THEOREM IV.
If any triangle A c B, have two equal angles a* c B A and CAB, the
sides A c and B c opposite those equal angles are also equal to each
other.
For if A c and B c are not equal, suppose one of them, as
A c, to be longer than the other, and let A D be the part of
A c which is equal to B c and join B D. Then, because
;

A D is equal to B c, A B common to both, and the angle

DAB equal to the angle c B A therefore, the triangle ;

A B D is equal to the triangle ABC (Theo. 1), the less to the greater,
which is impossible. Hence A c and BC are not unequal, that is, they
are equal. Q. E. D.
Cor. Every equiangular triangle is also an equilateral one.

THEOREM V.
If any two triangles, as A B c, D E F, have the sides A c and D F, A B
a nd D E, and B c and E F, respectively equal, the triangles are identi-

cal, and have the anyles equal which are opposite to the equal sides.

For, let the point A be laid on the point D,

and the line A B on the line DE ; then, because
these lines are equal, the point B will coincide
with the point E. Let the point c fall at c, the
points o and F being on opposite sides of the
lineD E, and let F o be joined. Then as D F
and D G are each equal to A c, they are equal to
each other, and consequently the angles D F o
and D o F are equal (Theo. 3). In the same
way E F o and EOF may be shown to be
equal and consequently the angles D F E and
;

D o E, or A c B, are equal. Hence, as the two

ci
20 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

sidesA c, B c are respectively equal to the two sides D F, F E, and the

angle A c B is also equal to the angle D F K, the triangles ABC
and
D F E are identical (Theo. 1), and have the angle BAG equal to the

angle E D F ; and the angle ABC equal to the angle DBF. Q. E. D.

THEOREM VI.
Tlie angles DBA and D B c which one straight line B D makes with
another, A c, on the same side of it, are either two right angles, or toge-
ther they are equal to ttvo right angles.
For ifis
perpendicular to A c, then each of the
DB
angles DBA
and. D B c is a right angle. But if B D is /
not perpendicular to A c, let B E be perpendicular to it, |
/
then each of the angles ABE and E B c is a right angle, j^ jj
and A B D exceeds a right angle by E B D, and D B c is
less than a right angle by the same angle E B D the two angles, A B D
;

and DEC, are therefore together equal to two right angles. Q. E. D.

Cor. 1. All the angles that can be made at any point as B, by any
number of lines, drawn on the same side of a line A c, are together

equal to two right angles.

Cor. 2. As all the angles that can be made at the point B, on the
other side of the line A c, are together equal to two right angles, all
the angles that can be made, in the same plane, about any point, as B,
are together equal to four right angles.
Cor. 3. If a straight line revolve in a plane about a point in which
one extremity of the line remains, the angles which the successive posi-
tions of the revolving line make with each other during a complete

revolution, are together equal to four right angles and the correspond-
;

ing portions of the circumference of the circle, described by the other

extremity of the revolving line, make together the whole circumference.
If, therefore, the circumference of a circle be assumed as the measure
of four right angles, the arc intercepted between any two radii may be
considered as the measure of the angle which these two radii make with
each other.
Cor. 4. And hence we may further infer that, with the same radius,
equal angles have equal measures that the arc of a semicircle is the
;

measure of two right angles ; and the arc of a quadrant the measure of
one right angle.
THEOREM VII.
If two lines A B, B
c, on opposite sides of the line B D, meet that line
in the same point B, so as to make the adjacent angles A B D and D B c

together equal to two right angles, these two lines A B and B c are in
the same straight line.
straight line, let A B produced
For if they are not in the same be in
the direction B E. Then the angles A B D and D B E together are equal
 OF GEOMETRY. 21

to two right angles (Theo. 6) ; and as A B D and DEC

ether are also given equal to two right angles, if
in.:

the common angle A B D be omitted from each of these

equal sums, the remaining angles D B E and DBC must

be equal a part to the whole, which is impossible. The
lines A B and B c are therefore not otherwise than in the same straight

line, that is, they form one straight line. Q. E.D.

TlIEOBEM VIII.
If two straight lines' \ B, D'E, intersect each other in c, any two ver-
tical or opposite angles, a* A c D and B c E, are equal.
For as A c meets D E in c, the angles A c D and ACE
are together equal to two right angles (Theo. 6) ;
and for a like reason the angles B c E and are ACE
equal to two right angles. Hence the angles A c D
andACE together are equal to the angles B c E and
ACE together and by omitting from each sum the common
; angle ACE,
we have the remaining angles A c D and B c E equal to each other.
Q.E.D.
THEOREM IX.
If any side, as A B, of a triangle A B c be produced, as to D, the
outward angle c B D is greater than either of the inward and opposite
angles A and c.
For let B c be bisected in E, join A E, and pro-
duce it till EF is equal to A E, and join B F ; then
because A E equal to E F, and B E to E c, and the
is

angle AEc the angle F E B (Theo. 8), there-

to A B^ D
1

fore the angle F B E is equal to the angle A c B &

(Theo. 1), and consequently the whole angle D B c is greater than the
angle c.

In the same way, by producing c B, and bisecting A B, it may be

shown that the angle ABO, which is equal to c B D, is greater than B A c.
Q. E. D.
THEOREM X.
Any two angles, a* A B c and B c A, of a triangle ABC, are
together less than two right angles.
For let A B be produced to D, then the angles ABC
and c B D are together equal to two right angles ; but
the angle c B D is greater than the angle ACS; conse-

quently the angles ABC

and A c B together are less than
the two right angles. Q. E. D.
Tm:<>ui.M XI.
In any triangle ABC, if (he side AB be greater than the side A c,
22 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

the angle Ac B, opposite the greater side, is greater than the angle
ABC opposite the less.
For let A D be the part of A B which
equal to A is < .

and join D c ; then because A c and

are equal, the AD
angles AC D and ADC
are equal (Theo. 3). But the
angle A D c is greater than the angle D B c or ABC
(Theo. 9) ; whence A c D is also greater than ABC. Much more,
therefore, is the whole angle A c B greater than ABC. Q. E. D.
Cor. In any triangle, the greatest side has the greatest angle oppo-
site to it, and the least side has the least angle opposite to it.
THEOREM XII.
In any triangle A B c, if one angle, as A, be greater than another
angle, as B, the side B c, opposite the greater angle, is greater than the
side A c opposite the less.
For if B c is not greater than A c, it must be either
equal to it or less B c cannot be equal to A c, for
;

then the angle CAB would be equal to the angle

AB .' vTheo. 3), which it is not, by condition neither ;

can it be less, for then the angle CAB would be less

than ABC (Theo. 11), which it is not, by condition. Hence as BC is

neither equal to A c, nor less than it, it must be greater. Q. E. D.

THEOREM XIII.
If two triangles ABC, D E F, have two
sides A B, B c, of the one

respectively equal to D E, E F, two sides of the other, but the angle ABC,
included by the two sides of the one, greater than the angle DBF
included by the corresponding sides of the other ; then the side Ac is

greater than the side D F.

Let A B G be the part of the angle ABC which
is equal to D E F, and let B o be equal to E F or
B c. Then the triangles ABO, DBF, are iden-
tical (Theo. 1), and have the sides AG and D F
equal to each other. And as B c and B G are
equal, the angles B c o and B G c are equal
(Theo. 3) hence B G
: c is
greater than A c G, .and much more is AG c
greater than ACG; therefore (Theo. 12) AC is greater than A G, or
than its equal D F. Q. E. D.
THEOREM XIV.
If two triangles ABC, DBF (see the last figure), have two sides
A B, B c of the one respectively equal to D E, E F, two sides of tfie otln r,
but the third side AC of the one greater than the corresponding side
D F of the other, then the angle \ B c is greater than the angle D E F.
If A B c is not greater than DBF, it must either be equal to it, or
less. But if A B c and DBF were equal, then AC and D F would be
 OF GEOMETRY. 23

equal (Theo. 1 ), which they are not ; and if A B c were less than DBF,
then A c would be less than D F (Theo. 13), which it is not. Hence,
as A BC is neither equal to D E F nor less, it must be greater. Q. E.D.
THEOREM XV.
///
any triangle A B c,
sum of any two of its sides, as
the AC and c B,
if greater than the remaining side A B.
For let A c be produced till c D is equal to c B, and
join DB
then because c D is equal to c B, the angle
;

c D B equal to the angle c B D (Theo. 3) there-

is ;

fore the whole angle AB D is greater than the angle

CDB or A D B and consequently (Theo. 12) the side
;

A D, or the sum of A c and c B, is greater than A B. Q. E. D.

THEOREM XVI.
In any triangle ABC (Fig. Theo. 1 1), the difference of any two of its
sides, as A B and AC, is less than the remaining side c B.
For let A D be the part of A B which is equal to A c, then D B is the
difference of A B and A c and as A c and B c together are greater than
;

A B (Theo. 15), or than A D and D B together, if the equal parts A c

and A D be taken from each sum, the remainder B c must be greater
than the remainder D B or D B is less than B c. Q. E. D.
;

THEOREM XVII.
If a line EF intersect two parallel lines A B and c D, the alternate
angles BEF and c F E are equal to each other.
For if they are not equal, one of them must be V

greater than the other. Suppose BEF to be the V^;

greater, and let D E F, a part of B E F, be equal to V ""'..

cF E. Then because E B is parallel to c F, E D which C F\ D

meets E B, will *
produced, meet c F in some
also, if

point, as D (Axiom 12). Then because E F c is the outward angle of

the triangle F E D, it is greater than the inward and opposite angle FED

(Theo. 9) ; but these angles are also by supposition equal, which is im-
possible. The angles BEF and c F E are therefore not unequal, that is,

they are equal to each other. Q. E. D.

Cor. A
line which is perpendicular to one of two parallel lines, is

also perpendicular to the other.

THEOREM XVI 1 1.

If a line E F meet two other lines A B and c D, and the alternate

angles BEF and E F c be equal, the lines \ B and c D are parallel.
For if c D is not parallel to A B, from F, the point . \

in which EF
meets CD, draw FO parallel to A B.
Then as the angles BEF and E F c are equal by hy-
pothesis, and the alternate angles BEF and E F o
24 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

are also equal (Theo. 17) ; the angle E P o must be equal to the angle
E F c ; the less to the greater, which is impossible. Therefore no line
passing through F, except c D, is
parallel to A u ; and consequently
cD
is parallel to AQ. E.
B. D.
Cor. Lines which are perpendicular to the same line are parallel to
each other.
THEOREM XIX.
If two parallel lines A B, CD, be cut by another line E H, in the points
F and G, any outward angle, as E F A, is equal to the inward opposite
angle F G c on the same side of E H ; and any two inward angles, as
A F G and F G c, on the same side of E H, are together equal to the two
right angles.
For the angle AFE equal to B F G (Theo. 8),
is

which angle is G c (Theo. 17) hence

equal to F ; /y \p B
the angles A F E and F G c are equal. But A F E \
and A F G together make two right angles (Theo. x ^> =^
6) ; therefore A F G and F G c together are equal to \ jj
two right angles. Q. E. D.
Cor. 1. two other lines make the outward angle
If a line meeting
equal to the inward and opposite one, on the same side of the line ; or
if the two inward angles on the same side of the line be, together, equal

to two right angles, these two lines are parallel.

Cor. 2. If a line cut two other lines, and the outward angle be not
equal to the inward and opposite one on the same side of the line ;
or if the two inward angles on the same side of the line are not toge-
ther equal to two right angles, these two lines, are not parallel, and they
will therefore meet if produced.

THEOREM XX.
If any two lines, A B and c D, be each parallel to another line E F,
the lines A B and
D are parallel to each other.
c
For let the line G L cut the lines A B, c D, G
and EF, in the points H, i, and K. Then the A \H B
angles G H B and HID, being each equal to C \I D
IKF (Theo. 19), are equal to each other; ^ \K F
therefore A B and c D are parallel (Theo. 19,
Cor. 1). Q. E. D.
THEOREM XXL
If two lines A c, A D meeting in a point A, be parallel to two other
lines E B, B F, meeting in another
point B, the included angles CAD
and E B F are equal to each other. "
**

For A B and produce the line to G ; then,

join
as the angle c A B is equal to the
angle E B c,
and the angle o A B to the angle F B o (Theo. CD 'E F
 OF GEOMETRY. 25

19), the equal angles BAD

and o B F, taken from the equal angles
BAG and o B E, leave the remaining angles and B F equal to CAD
each other. Q. E. D.

THEOREM XXII.
If any side A B, of a triangleABC, be produced, the outward angle
c B D, is equal to both the inward and opposite angles B A c, and A c B,
taken together.
For let B E be a line parallel to A c. Then the C E
angle c is
equal to the angle c B E (Theo. 17) ; and /\ /
the angle A to the angle E B D (Theo. 19) ; hence the / \
'

whole angle c B D is equal to the two angles A and c

together. Q. E. D.
Cor. The angle c is the difference between the outward angle c B D
and the other inward and opposite angle A ; and A is the difference be-
tween c B D and c.

THEOREM XXIII.
The three interior angles of any triangle ABC, are together equal to

two right angles.

For let A B be produced to D ; then the angle
c B D is equal to the angles A and c together
(Theo. 22). But the angles c B D and c B A are
together equal to two right angles (Theo. 6) ;
whence the three interior angles ABC, A c B, and
B A c are together equal to two right angles. Q. E. D.
Cor. If two angles in one triangle be equal to two angles in another
1.

triangle, the remaining angles of those triangles are equal.

Cor. 2. If one angle in a triangle be equal to an angle in another

triangle, the sums of the remaining angles in each triangle are equal.
Cor. 3. If one angle in a triangle be a right angle, the other two

angles, together, are equal to a right angle ; and each of them is, there-
fore, an acute angle.
Cor. 4. Every triangle has, at least, two acute angles.

THEOREM XXIV.
All the inward angles of any rectilineal figure A B c D E are together

equal to twice as many right angles as the figure has sides, wanting
four right angles.
For from any point F, within the figure, let lines be J>

drawn to its angular points, dividing the figure into

as many triangles as it has sides. Then, the interior

angles of each triangle being together equal to two

right angles (Theo. 23), the interior angles of all the

triangles are, together, equal to twice as many right angles as the

26 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

figure has sides. But the interior angles of all the triangles are the
inward angles of the figure, and the angles about the point F and the ;

angles about the point F are four right angles (Cor. 2. Theo. 6).
Hence, the interior angles of the figure and four right angles, are toge-
ther equal to twice as many right angles as the figure has sides ; or the
interior angles of the figure, themselves, are equal to twice as many

right angles as the figure has sides, wanting four right anglt's.
Q. E. D.
Cor. 1. All the interior angles of any quadrilateral figure are toge-
ther equal to four right angles.
Cor. 2. If the sum of two angles of a quadrilateral figure be equal
to two right angles, the sum of the
remaining angles is also equal to
two right angles.
THEOREM XXV.
If the sides A B, B
c D, &c., of any rectilineal figure be produced,
c,
the outward, or exterior angles. A, B, c, &c., are together equal to four

right angles.
For let the inward angles be denoted, as in the
figure, by the letters a, b, c, &c., then each exterior
angle and its corresponding interior one, as A and a,

B and b,c and c, together make two right angles

(Theo. 6) therefore all the exterior and all the in-

;

terior angles together make twice as many right an-

gles as the figure has sides. But all the interior angles, and four right
angles, are also together equal to twice as many right angles as the
figure has sides (Theo. 24). Hence the interior and the exterior
angles of the figure are, together, equal to the interior angles of it and
four right angles. If, therefore, the interior angles be omitted from
each of these equal sums, the exterior angles will remain equal to four
right angles. Q. E. D.
THEOREM XXVI.
In any triangle ABC, if one of the sides, as A B, be produced, and
the outward angle c B D, and one of the inward and opposite angles,
as B A c, be bisected by the lines B E and A E, meeting in E, the angle
E z* equal to half the angle A c B, the remaining inward and opposite
angle of the triangle.
For the angle c B D is
equal to the angles B A c
and A c B together (Theo. 22) ; therefore E B D,
which is the half of c B D, is equal to the half of
the angles B A c and B c A together, or to the
A
angle B A E and the half of B c A. But E B D is
also equal to the angles B A E and E together (Theo. 22). Therefore
the angles B A E and E together, are equal to the angle A E and half
 OF GEOMKTI.S. L'7

the angle c together and hence, by omitting the common angle B

; A E,
we have the angle E equal to half of B c A. Q. E. D.

THEOREM XXVII.
If from a point A, a perpendicular A B be drawn to any line D E,
this perpendicular is the shortest line that can be drawn from the point

A to the line D E ;
and of other lines as A c and A D, draivn from the
same point \ to the line D E, that which is nearer the perpendicular is
lessthan the one more remote.
For the angle ABC being a right angle, the angle
A c B is less than a right angle (Cor. 3. Theo. 23) ;

hence the side A B is less than A c (Theo. 12). Again,

because A c B is less than a right angle, A c D is greater
than a right angle (Theo. 6) and consequently the angle A D c
; is less

than a right angle (Cor. 4. Theo. 23) and therefore the side
; Ac is

less than the side A D (Theo. 12). Q. E. D.

THEOREM XXVIII.
In any parallelogram A B c D, the opposite sides are equal to each
other, and so also are the opposite angles ; and the diagonal B D divides

it into two equal triangles.

For as A B and D c are parallel, the angles A B D and
CDS are equal (Theo. 17) and for a like reason the
;

angles A D B and c B D are equal ; and the side B D

being common to both the triangles B D c and DBA,

they are identical (Theo. 2) ; the triangle A B D is therefore equal to

the triangle B D c, the side A B to the side D c, A D to B c, and the an-

gle A to the angle c ; and as the two parts of the angle are equalADC
to the two corresponding parts of the angle A B c, the whole angles
ADC and ABC are also equal. Q. E. D.
Cor. If one angle of a parallelogram be a right angle, all its angles
are right angles, and consequently all the angles of a rectangle are right

angles, and a parallelogram which has one oblique angle has all its
angles oblique.
THEOREM XXIX.
Any quadrilateral, ABcD
(Fig. Theo. 28), whose opposite sides
A B, c D, and A
D, B c are respectively equal, is a parallelogram.
For let the diagonal B D be drawn then as the triangles BAD, D c B,
;

have the sides A B and D c equal, and also A D equal to B c, and the side
B D common to both the triangles, they are identical (Theo. 5) there- ;

fore the angles B D c and A B D are equal, and so are the angles A D B
and c B D. Hence A B is parallel to c D, and AD
to BC (Theo. 18) ;
and the figure is therefore a parallelogram. Q. E. D.
Cor. A
square is a parallelogram, and hence also all the angl<

square are right angles (Cor. Theo. 28).

28 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

THEOREM XXX.
The A D and BC (Fig. Theo. 28), which join the corresponding
lines
extremities A and D, B and c, of the equal and parallel lines A B and
c D, are themselves equal and parallel.
For let the points D and B be^, joined then because A B and c D are
;

parallel, the angles A B D and CDS are equal (Theo. 17) and there-
;

fore, as A B is
equal to c D, and B D common to both the triangles A B D
and c D B, they are equal in all respects (Theo. 1) consequently A D
;

is equal to B c, and the angle A D B to the alternate angle D B c and, ;

therefore, A D and B c are parallel (Theo. 18). Q. E. D.

THEOREM XXXI.
The diagonals AC, B D, of any parallelogram A B c D, bisect each
other.
as the parallel lines A B, c D are cut by the lines
For ^ ^
A c and B D, the alternate angles B A E and D c E are

equal (Theo. 17), and also the angles E B A and c D E ;

and as A B is also equal to c D (Theo. 28), the triangles
ABE, D c E are identical(Theo. 2), and have AE equal to E c, and
B E equal to E D. Q. E. D.

THEOREM XXXII.
If any two parallelograms, as A B c D, A B E F, be on the same base
A B, and between the same parallels A B, and F c, these parallelograms
are equal to each other.
For F A is equal and parallel to E B, and AD
equal and parallel to B c, and the angles FAD
and EEC are equal (Theo. 21) therefore the
;

triangles FAD and EEC are identical (Theo. 1).

.If therefore each of these equal triangles be taken
from the whole figure A B c F, the remainders, or the parallelograms
A B c D, and A B E F, must be equal. Q. E. D.
Cor. If the diagonals A E and B D be drawn, the triangles ABE,
A B D, which are halves of the equal parallelograms A B E F, A B c D,
are equal to each other.

THEOREM XXXIII.
Parallelograms, as A B c D, E F G H, which are upon equal bases,
A B and E F, and between the same parallels A F and D G, are equal to
each other.
For ii G, being equal and parallel to E F, is
equal and parallel to A B ; hence A u and B G
are equal and parallel (Theo.
30) ; and A B G H
is therefore a parallelogram.
But the parallelo-
grams B D and B H, being on the same base A B,
 OF GEOMETRY. 2'J

ami between the same parallels A B and D o, are equal ; and B H and
H K. bring on the same base HG, and between the same parallels 11 o
and A F, are likewise equal (Theo. 32). Hence B D and H F, being
each equal to A o, are equal to each other. Q. E. D.
Cor. 1. If the diagonals AC and F H be drawn, the triangles ABC
and E F H, which are halves of the equal parallelograms B D and EG,
are equal.
Cor. 2. As all triangles on the same base, or equal bases, and
between the same parallels, are equal, if therefore a triangle and a
parallelogram be on the same base, or on equal bases, and between the
same parallels, the parallelogram is double the triangle.

THEOREM XXXIV.
If A one of the sides of any trapezoid A B D c, be bisected in E,
c,
and E F be drawn parallel to A B or c D, the parallel sides of the
trapezoid, cutting B D, the remaining side, in F, E F is equal to half
the sum of AS
and c D.
For through E draw G H parallel to D B, meeting c D HA I

in G and B A, produced, in H. Then EF is

equal to E- P
B H or G i> (Theo. 28) and as A E is
; equal to E c, the QQ. jj

angle A E H to the vertical angle G E c (Theo. 8), and

the angle EAH to the alternate angle ECG (Theo. 17), the triangles
EAH and are identical (Theo. 2), and have the sides AH and
ECG
c G equal. Hence E F is as'much greater than A B as it is less than c D,
and it is consequently equal to half their sum. Q. E. D.

THEOREM XXXV.
If two triangles, as A B c, D E F, have two sides A B, B c of the
one, equal respectively to two sides D E, D F of the other, and the con-
tained angles F D E, ABC together equal to two right angles, the tri-
angles are equal.
For conceive the point c to be laid on the C F
point F, and the line c B on the line F D ;
then
/\ -
/ \\.
because these lines are equal, the points B'and -
^ \i
,,.

D will coincide. Let the point A fall at o ;

then as the angles ABC and F D E, or G D F and FOE are together equal to
two right angles, the lines o D and D E form one straight line (Theo. 7) ;
and consequently as D E is equal to D G, the triangles F D E and a D F,
or F D E and A B c are equal (Cor. 1 ,
Theo. 33). Q. E. D.

THEOREM XXXVI.
If two equal triangles, as AC B, A D B, be on the same bnse A B, and
a/1 (he same side
of i/, the line D c, which joins their vertices, is parallel
to the base A B.
For if D c is not parallel to A B, let i> E meeting A c in E be parallel
30 KI.KMKXTARY PRINCIH.KS

to A B, and join B K. Then the triangle A i> B is equal to I)

the triangle A E B (Cor. Theo. 32) ; but the triangle A D B

is also
equal to the triangle A B c, by condition ; hence
the triangles ABE and ABC are equal, a part to the whole,
which is
impossible. No line therefore drawn from D, ,

except that of which a part, can be parallel to A B, and D c is

Dc is

consequently parallel to A B. Q. E. D.
Cor. 1. Equal parallelograms, on the same base, and on the same
side of it, are between the same parallels.
Cor. 2. Equal triangles, or equal parallelograms on equal bases, in
the same straight line and on the same side of it, are between the same

parallels.

THEOREM XXXVII.
If any two parallelograms, AC, EG, have two sides A B, AD, and
the contained angle BAD in the one, equal to two sides E F, EH, and
the contained angle F E H in the other, these parallelograms are equal.
For let the diagonals D B and FH be drawn.
Then the triangles A B D and E F H are identical
(Theo. 1); and consequently as the parallelo-
grams are doubles of these equal triangles,
they are equal to each other. Q. E. D.
Cor. 1. Rectangles contained by equal straight lines are equal to
each other.
Cor. 2. The squares on equal lines are equal to each other.

THEOREM XXXVIII.
If A B c D be any parallelogram, and B D a diagonal of it ; and if
E I F be drawn parallel to A B or c D, and G i H parallel to A. D or n <
.

making the parallelograms H F and E G about the diagonal B D the ;

remaining parts A I and I c, called the complements of the parallelo-

grams H F and E G, are equal to each other.
For the parallelograms AC, H F, and E G, being I> G- C
each bisected by the line DIB, the triangles A B D
"^
and DEC and so are the triangles B H i
are equal ;

and B F i, DEI
and D G i (Theo. 28) therefore the ;

remaining or complementary parts A i and i c must

also be equal. Q. E. D.

THEOREM XXXIX.
Let A B be any line, and B c number of
another, divided into any
parts B D, D E, and EC ; A B and B c is equal
the rectangle contained by
to the rectangles contained by A3 and B D, A B and D E, and A B

and EC; an equality which is commonly expressed thus, A B B c .

= A B BD-4-AB.DE-I-AB. K < '.

 OF GEOMETRY. 31

Km- he the rectangle contained by A B and B

let \< J> R C
it i
. D F and E G be drawn parallel to A B then
and let ;

A i> the sum of the

i

rectangles AD, F E, and G c. Now II

A D is contained by A B and B D, F E by F D and D E,
and G c, by G E and E c and as D F and E G are each equal to A B, these
;

rectangles are equal to the rectangles contained by A B and B D, A B

and D E, and A B and E c. Hence AB.BC = AB.BD-|-AB. DE-J-
AB. EC. Q. E. D.
If A B be represented by a, B D, D E, and EC by 6, c, and d, respec-

tively, then BC will be represented by b + c + d, and the rectangle

a b .
+c+ d will be equal to ab + ac + ad.
Cor. If a straight line be divided into any number of parts, the

rectangles under the whole line and each of the parts of it will be
equal to the square of the whole line ; for if A B were equal to B c, B H
w ould be the square of A B or B c.

THEOREM XL.
straight line A B, be divided into any two parts, A c, c B, the
If a
rectangle of the whole line A B, and one of the parts, as A c, will be
equal to tfie square of that part, and the rectangle contained by the
two parts A c and B c. Or AB.AC AC8 AC.BC. = +
For let A D be perpendicular to A B and equal to A c, A C B
and D F be parallel to A B, and B F, c E, each parallel
let

to A D. Then as c E is equal to A D, or A c, and the j> u p

angle at A is a
right angle, A E is the square of A c and ;

c F is the rectangle of B c and c E, or of B c and c A. But the sum of

the square A E and the rectangle E B, is the whole rectangle A F, which
is contained by A B and A D, or
by A B and A c. Hence A B A c = .

AC* + AC.BC. Q. E. D.
Cor. 1. If AC or AD
be represented by a, and BC by b then ;
AB
will be represented by a -f- b, and a a -f- b will be equal to a* -f- a
. b.

Cor. 2. 2AB.AC = 2AC* + 2AC.BC.

THEOREM XLI.
line, as AS, be divided into any two parts A F and F B,
If a straight
(Itr
square of the whole line A B is equal to the squares of the two parts
A F and r B, and twice the rectangle contained by t/tose parts. T7tat is,
AB*OrAP-f-FB =AF*-r-BF + 2AF.FB.
2

A c be the square on A B, and F r the square

For let

on F B, and produce F G and i G, till they meet i> c ami

A D in E and n. Then as F E is equal to B r, and i u to
A B, and A B is equal to B c, therefore F E and H i are
equal and if from the equal lines E F and H i, the equal
;

lines F G and G i be taken, the remaining parts o E and H G will be

equal and brcause H E is a parallelogram, u D is equal to G c, and D B

;
32 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

to HO (Theo. 28) consequently the sides of the parallelogram H E are

;

all equal and as the angle D is a right angle (Cor. Theo. 29), H E is a
;

square, and it is H G, or it is the square of the

described on the line

equal line Further, the figures A G and o c are equal to two

A F.

rectangles contained by A F and F B for F o and G i are each equal ;

to F B, and i c is equal to A F. Therefore the square of A B is equal

to the squares of A F and F B, and twice the rectangle of A F and F B.

Or if A F be represented by a, and F B by 6, then a +b = a* + b*

+ 2ab. Q.E. D.
Cor. If a line be bisected, the square of the whole line will be equal
to four times the square of half the line.

THEOREM XLII.
Let A c and B cjbe any two lines, then the square of A B, the differ-
ence of AC and B c, is less than the sum of the squares of AC and B c

by twice the rectangle of A c and B c. Or AC BC = AC*-4-BC 8 -

2 A c B c. .

For let A B D E be the square on the difference A B, G

A c F G
the square on the line A c, and B c i K. the E n |H
square on B c, and produce E D to H.
NowA D is less than the two squares A F and B i
by
the rectangles G H and H K ; but G F is equal to A c ;
and if from the equal lines, A c and A G, the equal parts, K 1

A B and A E, betaken away, the remaining parts, G E and B c, are equal ;

E F is equal to the rectangle of A c and B c.
consequently
Again, because A B and B D are equal, and B c and B K are also equal,
A c
is
equal to r> K ; and B c is also equal to K i ; consequently D i
is equal to the rectangle contained by A c and B c. Hence the two
figures, E F and D i, are two rectangles equal to those contained by A c
and B c : and therefore the square of A B is less than the squares of A c
and BC, by twice the rectangle of AC and BC. Or if AC be repre-
sented by a, and B c by b, then a b = a* + 6* 2a b. Q. E. D.

THEOREM XL-Ill.
If A3 and AC
any two unequal lines, the difference of their
be

squares will be equal to a rectangle under their sum and difference.

Or A B8 AC*=AB-J-AC . AB AC.
For A B D E be the square of A B, and A c F G
let

the square of A c. Produce D B till B K is equal to A c ;

draw K i parallel to A B or E D, and produce F c both

ways till it meet i K and E D.
I

Then the rectangles E F and c D

together form the difference of the
two squares A it and A F. But the rectangles E F and B i are equal,
 (iKOMF.THY. 33

fore, r mid ii K are each equal to A c, and G E is equal to u c, being tadi

i-qual to the liiHtTcncc <>f A and \ c. or of their equals, A E and AO.
Therefore the rectangles E F and c D are together equal to the rect-
angles Bi and c D, or to the whole
rectangle D i and consequently D i :

is
equal to the difference of the squares A D and A F. But D r is a rect-
angle contained under D K the sum, and K i the difference of A B and A c.
Hence the difference of the squares of A B and A c is equal to the rect-
angle of their sum and difference. Or if A B be represented by a, and
A c by b, then a* A s= a b. a + b. Q. E. D.

THEOREM XLIV.
///
any right-angled triangle A. BC, the square on AC, the side oppo-
site the
right angle B, is equal to the sum of the squares described on
A B und B c, the sides including the right angle.
For let A D be the square on AC, A i the square
on A B, and c L the square on B c. Produce A F
till it meet G i in H and through B draw K B N E
;

parallel to A F, meeting G i, produced, in K. Then

because the angle c A H, adjacent to c A F, is a
ii-:ht angle, it is equal to BAG: from each take

away the common angle BAH, and there remains

the angle BAC, equal to the angle GAH. But
the angles A G H and A B c, being right angles, are

equal to each other, and A B is equal to A G. Hence A H is equal to A c

or A F (Theo. 2) and therefore the parallelogram A K is equal to the
;

rectangle A E (Theo. 33). But the parallelogram A K is equal to the

square A i (Theo. 32), for they are on the same base, A B, and between
the same parallels, A B and G K. Consequently the square A i, and the
rectangle A E, being each equal to the parallelogram A K, are equal to one
another. In the same way, by producing r> c and L M, may the square B M
be shown to be equal to the rectangle c E therefore the two squares
;

A i and B M together are equal to the whole square A D. Q. E. D.

Cor. Hence the square of either of the sides including the right angle,
is
equal to the difference of the squares of the hypothenuse and the other
side : or equal to the rectangle of the sum and difference of the hypo-
thenuse and the other side.

THEOREM XLV.
In any triangle, ABC, obtuse-angled, as at c, if a perpendicular.
A D, be drawn from the vertical angle A to the base B c produced the ',

square of A B, opposite the obtuse angle, is greater than the squares of

the other two sidet B c and A c, by twice the rectangle of BC and c D.
For the square of A B is equal to the squares of B D and D A (Theo.
44) ; and the square of B D is equal to the squares of uc and c D, ami
t\\ice the rectangle of BC and CD (Theo. 41). Hence the square of
D
34 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

AB is equal to t lie
squares of B c, c >. and D A, and
i

twice the rectangle of B c and c D. But the squares

of c D and D A are together equal to the square of
Ac ; hence the square of A B
is
equal to the squares
of BC and CA, and twice the rectangle of BC and
c D : or the square of A B is greater than the squares of B c and c A by
twice the rectangle of BC and c D. Q. E. D.
Cor. 2BC.CD=t=BA*~ BC* c A* :: B A* (BC* + C A*).
THEOREM XLVI.
In any triangle A B c, if A D be a perpendicular drawn from the
vertical angle A, on the opposite side B c, the square of A B, opposite an
acute angle, as c, is less than the squares of the other two sides, A c
and B c, by twice the rectangle ofsc and D c.
For the square of A c is equal to the squares of A D ,\
and D c (Theo. 44) and the square of B c is equal to
;

the squares of BD
and DC, and twice the rectangle of
BD and DC (Theo. 41). Hence the squares of A c and B J) C
B c together are equal to the squares of B D and D A, twice the square
of D c, and twice the rectangle of B D and D c. But the squares of B D
and D A are together equal to the square of B A ; and twice the square
of D c, and twice the rectangle of B D and D c, are together equal to
twice the rectangle of BC and DC (Cor. 2. Theo. 40). Hence the

squares of A c and B c are equal to the square of A B, and twice the

rectangle of B c and D c or the square of A B is less than the sum of
;

the squares of A c and B c by twice the rectangle of B c and D c.

Q. E. D.
Cor. 2 B c c D . =
(B c + A c*)
8
B A*.

THEOREM XLVII.
In any triangle ABC
(see the two preceding figures), if A D be a
perpendicular from the vertical angle A, on the base BC, or on the base
produced ; the difference of the squares of A B and AC is equal to the
difference of the squares of B D and D c.
For the square of A B is equal to the squares of A D and D B, and the
square of A c is equal to the squares of A D and D c (Theo. 44). Hence
the difference of the squares of A B and A c is equal to the difference
between the sum of the squares of A D and D B, and the sum of the
squares of A D and DC; or, as the square of A D is common to each of
these suras, the difference of the squares of A B and A c is equal to the
difference of the square of B D and D c. Q. E. D.
Cor. As the difference of the squares of any two lines is equal to a

rectangle under their sum and difference, the rectangle under the sum
and difference of A B and A c, any two sides of a triangle, is equal to
the rectangle under the sum and difference of B D and DC, the seg-
 OF GEOMETRY. 35

ments of the third side, made by a perpendicular from the opposite

THEOREM XLVIII.
If any straight line \ B be bisected in c, and any other point D be
taken either in the line, or in the line produced, the squares of the

unequal parts, A D and D B, will together be double the squares of AC,

half the line, and c D, the distance between the points of section.
For draw c E perpendicular to
A and make it equal to A c or
B,
c B join A E and E B and through
; ;

D draw D F parallel to c E, meeting A~ C D B A

E B, or EB produced, in F; and
through F draw G F parallel to A B, meeting E c, or E c produced, in G.
Then because A c and c E are equal, and the angle is a
right ACE
angle, each of the angles c A E and c E A is half a right angle. For a
like reason each of the
angles c E B and c B E (or D B F) is half a right
angle, and consequently the whole angle AEF is a right angle. And
because DF c E, F D B is equal to EC B (Theo. 19), and it
is
parallel to
is therefore a
right angle hence B F D is half a right angle and
: ;

consequently B D is equal to D F, or c G (Theo. 4) ; and for a like

reason c D or G F is equal to GE.
Now the square of A E is equal to the sum of the squares of A c and
c E (Theo. 44) ; or, as these two lines are equal, the square of A E is
double the square uf A c. In the same way it may be shown that the
square of E F is double the square of G F or CD. And as A E F is a
right angle, the squares of A E and E F, which have been shown to be
equal to double the squares of A c and c D, are together equal to the
square of A F. But the squares of A D and D F, or of A D and D B, are
also equal to the square of A F (Theo. 44). Therefore the squares of
A D and D B are together equal to double the squares of A c and c D.
Q. E. D.
Or thus. Let A c or B c= a, and c D = b, then A D =: a -f b, and
BD =a b; and a +6+a -6=2a +2 8
6*.

THEOREM XLIX.
If the base A3 of a triangle ABC be bisected in D, and the point D
be joined to the vertex c, the squares of AC and B c, the other sides of
tin-
triangle, will together be equal to double the squares of A ^
and i> ( .

For let c E be a line drawn from c, perpendicular to C

A B then because Ac*=AD*-f-DC> + 2AD.DE and
;

Bc'rrBD* -f- 0(^2 B D. D E=A D* + DC1 2 A D D E. .

By addition we have A c* + B c" = 2 A D* -j- 2 D E*.

36 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

'I'll! "ill M I-

If any point D be taken in A B, the diameter of a circle, that i><u-t

<

of the diameter D B, which pauses through the centre r, is greater

Hum
other line D E that can be drawn the i> to the circum-
(in;/ from point
ference of the circle; and D E is yrnttrr titan any other line D P
simi-

larly drawn from D to the circumference, but at

a greater distance
from D B.
For join c E, c F ; then as c E is equal to c B, DC
and c E are together equal to r> B ; and as D c and cE

together are greater than D E (Theo. 15), D

B is also
greater than D E. Again, DC and CE, two sides of

the triangle Dc equal to D c and

E, are respectively
c F, two but the angle D c E
sides of the triangle Dc F,
is
greater than the angle D c F ; therefore the base
D E of the triangle
D c E is greater than the base D F of the triangle D c F (Theo. 13).
Again, A,D the difference of c A and c D, is the same as the difference
of c F and c D, which (Theo. 16) is less than F D.

THEOREM LI.
Anangle at the centre of a circle is double the angle AIM-."/
AcB
the circumference, when both of them stand on the same arc A B.
For join D c, and produce it to E ;

then the angle A c E is equal to the

sum of the angles CAD and c D A
(Theo. 22). But as Ac is
equal to
c D, the angles CAD and c D A are
equal (Theo. 3) ; therefore the angle
AC E is double of either of them, as A D c. For a like reason B c E is
double of B D c ; and, consequently, by addition or subtraction, the
angle A c B is double the angle A D B. Q. E. D.
Cor. 1. As the angle AC B at the centre is measured by the arc A B,
on which it stands, the angle A D B at the circumference is measured
by half the arc A B on which it stands.
Cor. 2. All angles in the same segment of a circle, or standing on
the same arc, are equal to each other ; for each of them is equal to
half the angle at the centre, standing on the same arc.
Cor. 3. The angle in a semicircle is a right angle. For when AC
and c B of
{first fig. this prop.) become one straight line, A D B is a

semicircle, and the angles ACE and B c E are together equal to two
right angles ; whence A D B, which is half the sum of A c E and B c E,
is in that case equal to one right angle.

THEOREM LII.
The sum of any two opposite angles, BAD and B c D, of a quad-
rangle A B c D inscribed in a circle, is equal to two right angles.
 OF GEOMETRY. 37

For the angle B A D is measured by half the arc

H D, and the angle B c D by half the arc BAD
i

(Cor. 1. Theo. 51) ; therefore the sum of the angles

BAD and B c D is measured by half the whole cir-
cumference. But half the whole circumference is
the measure of two right angles (Theo. 6. Cor. 3).
Hence the angles BAD
and BCD are together equal to two right
angles. Q. E. D.
THEOREM LIII.

If any side, B A, of a quadrilateral A B c D (see the last figure),

inscribed in a circle, be produced, the outward angle DAE is equal to
the inward and opposite angle c.

For the angles DAB and DAE are equal to two right angles
(Theo. 6), and the angles DAB and DCS are also equal to two right
angles (Theo. 52). Hence, by omitting the common angle from DAB
each sum, the remaining angles DAE and DCS are equal. Q. E. D.

THEOREM LIV.
If in a circle ABDc there be drawn two parallel chords A B, c D,
the intercepted arcs A c and B D will be equal.
For join BC. Then, becauseAB and CD are
parallel, the alternate angles ABC and DCS are

equal (Theo. 17). But the angle A BC is measured

by half the arc A c, and the angle D c B by half the
arc DB
(Cor. 1. Theo. 51). Whence the halves of
A c and B D are equal, and consequently the whole
arcs A c and B D are equal. Q. E. D.
Cor. If A B move parallel to itself, till it coincide at G with the

tangent E G F, the intercepted arcs o c and G D will be equal.

THEOREM LV.
be a tangent to a circle, and AC a chord drawn from A, the
If A B
point of contact, the angle B AC is equal to any angle in the alternate
segment ADC.
For from c draw the chord DC parallel to the
tangent A B, and join A D. Then as the arcs A c and
A D are equal (Cor. Theo. 54), the angles ADC and
A D are equal, being measured by the halves of the
<

equal arcs AC and A D (Cor.

1. Theo. 51). But the
angle A c D equal is the alternate
to angle B A c
(Theo. 17); therefore the angle BAG is equal to the angle ADC.
And as tin- angle A DC is equal to any angle in the segment ADC
(Theo. 51. Cor. 2), the angle B AC is also equal to any angle in the
alternate segment ADC. Q. E. D.
38 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

Cor. As the angle A D c is measured by half the arc A c, the angle

BAG, made by the tangent A B, and the chord A c, is also measured by
half the intercepted arc A c.

THEOREM LVI.
The angle D E * formed within any circle A c B D, by tlie intersection
of two chords, A B, c D, is measured by half the sum of the intercepted
arcs A c and B D.
For join A D. Then the angle A D E or ADC is
measured by half the arc A c, and the angle D A E, or
DA B, by half the arc BD (Cor. 1. Theo. 51). But the
angle D E B is equal to the sum of the angles DAE and
ADE (Theo. 22) ; it is therefore measured by half the
sum of the arcs A c and B D. Q. E. D.

THEOREM LVII.
If two chords, A B, c D, of the circle A B D c, meet when produced in
a point E without the circle, the angle E is measured by half the differ-
ence of the intercepted arcs A c and B D.
For join A D. Then the angle A D c is measured by
half the arc A c, and the angle D A B by half the arc
DB (Cor. 1. Theo. 51). But the angle DEB is equal
to the difference of the angles DAB and EDA (Theo.
22. Cor.) ; therefore the angle D E B is measured by
half the difference of the arcs A c and B D. Q. E. D.
Cor. If one of the lines, as BCD, revolve round the
point E, till the points c and D coincide in F, E F will then be
a tangent
to the circle, and the angle F E A will be measured by half the differ-
ence of the intercepted arcs A F and F B.

THEOREM LVIII.
A line c DE the centre c to the middle of the chord A B
draivn from
is perpendicular to that chord; and c D E, drawn from the centre c,

perpendicular to the chord A B, bisects both the chord and the arc A E B.

For let the two radii c A, c B be drawn then, if A B ;

be bisected in D, the two triangles A c D, BCD have

the sides A c and B c equal, A D and B D equal, and D c
common to both ; they are therefore identical (Theo. 5),
and have the adjacent angles ADC and B D c equal ;
these angles are consequently right angles, and c D is

therefore perpendicular to A B.

Again, if c D be perpendicular to A B, the angles c D A and CDS are

equal ; and c A being equal to c B, the angle c A B, or c A D, is equal to
the angle c B A, or c B D (Theo. 3) ; therefore A c D and BCD, the

remaining angles of each triangle, are also equal (Theo. 23. Cor. 1).
 0V GEOMETRY. 3D

I
Fence, as Ac is
equal to c B, the triangles ADC and B D c will be iden-
tic
(Theo. 2), and consequently the side A D is equal to the corre-
al

sponding side B D ; and as the angle A c D is equal to the angle BCD,

the arc A E is
equal to the arc B E. Q. E. D.

THEOREM LIX.
Let A B, A B D c, and let G E, G F,
c D, be any two chords in a circle
be perpendiculars drawn from the centre G, on the chords A B and c D.
If A B and c D are equal, E G and G F are equal; or if EG and G F are
cijt/til,
A B and c D are also equal.
For draw the two radii A G, G c then as A B and ;

c D are bisected in E and r (Theo. 58), if they are

equal, their halves A E and c F are equal. But the
square of A G is equal to the sum of the squares of
A E and E G, and the square of G c is equal to the sum
of the squares of G F and F c (Theo. 44) and as A G ;

and GC are equal, their squares are equal. Hence the sum of the
Squares of A E and E G is equal to the sum of the squares of c F and
F G and if the squares of the equal lines A E and c F be taken from
;

each of these equal sums, the square of E G will remain equal to the
square of G F, and consequently G E is equal to G F. In the same way
it
may be shown that when G E is equal to G F, A E is equal to c F,
therefore A B and c D, the doubles of those lines, are equal.

THEOREM LX.
If B D and B c be two unequal chords in a circle, the angle B AD al
(/i i
centre, subtended by the greater chord B D, is greater than the angle
B A c subtended by the less.
For as the sides A D, A B, of the triangle DAB,
are equal to the sides AC, A B, of the triangle CAB,
but D B is greater than B c, therefore the angle DAB
isgreater than the angle CAB (Theo. 14).
Cor. 1 . As the angle D A B is measured by the
arc D c B, and the angle c A B by the arc B c, there-
fore the arc D c B, subtended by the greater chord, is greater than the
arc B c, subtended by the less.
Cor. 2. In the same circle equal chords subtend equal arcs, or equal
angles, whether at the centre or circumference ; and equal arcs, or
equal angles, whether at the centre or the circumference, are subtended
by equal chords.
THEOREM LXI.
I/A.CB, an angle at the centre of a circle, be the tixth part of four
right angles, or the third part of two right angles, A B, the chord of
the arc which measures the angle A c B, is equal to the radius of the
circle.
 40 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

For as all the interior angles of a triangle are toge-

ther equal to two right
angles (Theo. 23), if A c B be
the third part of two right angles, the remaining

angles A and B will together be equal to two-thirds of

two right angles. And as A c and B c are equal, the
angles A and B are equal (Theo. 3) and consequently each of these is
;

equal to the third part of two right angles, or to the angle A c B.

Hence the triangle ABC, being equiangular, is
equilateral (Cor.
Theo. 4), or A B is equal to A c or B c.
Remark. The circumference of a circle, or the measure of four
right angles, is commonly divided, in practice, into 360 equal parts,
called degrees ; therefore the chord of 60
degrees, or the chord of the
measure of the sixth part of four right angles, is, in any circle, equal
to the radius and hence if the chords of every arc in a circle of a
;

given radius were arranged dn a line, such a line, called a line of

chords, would afford a convenient practical method of describing an
angle whose measure might be given in degrees, &c.

THEOREM LXII.
If A B be the radius of a circle, then B c, a perpendicular on its

extremity B, is a tangent to the circle.

For from any other point c in the line B c, draw

CD A to the centre A,
meeting the circle in D. Then,
because the angle ABC is a right angle, the angle
A c B is less than a right angle (Cor. 3. Theo. 23) ;

therefore AC is
greater than AB
(Theo. 12), or than
its equal A D and consequently the point c is without
;

the circle. In the same way every other point of the line B c, except
the point B, may be shown to be without the circle ; and therefore as
the line B c meets the circle in the point B only, it is a tangent to the
circle. Q. E. D.

THEOREM LXIII.
Ifitc (see the last figure) touch the circumference of the circle in B,
the radius A B will be perpendicular to B c.
For as BC touches the circumference in the point B only, every
other point of B c is without the circle ; A B is therefore the shortest

line thatcan be drawn from the point A to the line B c ; hence A B is

perpendicular to B c (Theo. 27).

THEOREM LXIV.
If*T> touch the circumference of a circle in B, then B A, drawn per-
pendicular to B D, will pass through tlie centre of tJie circle.
For if the centre of the circle be not in the line A B, let any point
c out of that line be the centre of the circle, and join B c. Then
 OF GEOMETRY. 41

the angle c- n i>

being a right angle (Theo. 63), it is
i'(|iial
to A 11 i), which is also, by condition, a right
alible : that equal to the greater,
is, the less angle is

which is
impossible. Hence, as no point out of the
line B A can be the centre of the circle, the line B A

passes through the centre. Q. E. D.

THEOREM LXV.
In any circle A c D B, if the chord c D and the diameter \ B meet
each other in G, the rectangle ofGA, G B, tlie
segments of the one will
be ttjiitil of G c, G D, the segments of the
to the rectangle other.
For D E be joined, and the per-
let

pendicular E F drawn to D c. Then,

because D E is equal to E B, G B is the
sum of G E and E D and because r> E ;

is equal to E A, A G is the difference

of D E and E G. Again, because D F

is equal to F c
(Theo. 58), G c is the
difference of the segments of the base
r> F and F
G, made by the perpen-
dicular E F and D G is the sum of the segments D F and F G.
;

But the rectangle under the sum and difference of D E and E G is

equal to the rectangle under the sum and difference of D F and F G
(Theo. 47. Cor.) whence the rectangle of G B and G A is equal to the
;

rectangle of o D and G c. Q. E. D.
Cor. 1. As the rectangle of A o and G B, the segments of the dia-
meter, is equal to the rectangle of G c and G D, the segments of any
other line made by its intersection with the diameter, it is evident that
if any two lines drawn through the same point cut the circumference
of a of the segments of the one is equal to the
circle, the rectangle

rectangle of the segments of the other.

Cor. 2. If, when the point of meeting is without the circle, the line
G c D revolve about the point G, till the points c and D coincide, as in
H, G H is a tangent to the circle ; and the rectangle of G c and G D is
then the square of G H ; and hence also a tangent to the circle, drawn
from G, on the other side of the diameter, is equal to the tangent OH;
or tangents drawn from the same point to the same circle are equal to
each other.

OF PROPORTION.
PROPORTION is the ratio, or numerical relation, which one quantity
bears to another.
<,>
u.ii it itio between which proportion can exist must be of the same
kind, as a lim- and a line, a surface and a surface, a solid and a solid.
42 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

A
greater quantity is said to be a multiple of a less when it contains
the less a certain number of times without any remainder ; and quan-
tities so related are said to have the same ratio or proportion to each

other, that unity, representing the less, has to as many such units as
are contained in the greater.
If a quantity, as A, be contained exactly a certain
number of times in another quantity, B, the quantity

A is said to measure the quantity B and if the same ;

quantity A be contained exactly a certain number of

times in another quantity c, A is also said to be a
measure of the quantity c, and it is called a common
measure of the quantities -B and c and it is evident that the quantities
;

B and c bear the same relation to each other that the numbers do which
represent the multiple that each quantity is of the common measure A.
Thus, if B contain A three times, and c contain A also three times,
B and c, being equimultiples of the quantity A, are equal to each other.
And B contain A three times, and c contain A four times, the pro-
if

portion between B and c is the same as the proportion between the

numbers 3 and 4.
Again, if a quantity D be contained as often in another quantity E,
as A is contained in B, and as often in another quantity F, as A is con-
tained in c, the ratio of E to F, or the proportion between them, is the
same as the proportion between B and c, and in that case the quantities
B, c, E, and F, are said to be proportional quantities, a relation which
is commonly expressed thus, B c E F. : : : :

Hence, in finding the proportion between two quantities it is neces-

to refer to a which is conceived to measure them both,
sary quantity
and the method of finding such a common measure may be thus
explained by an example.
Suppose it were required to find a common A FB
measure of the quantities A B and c D. From the
greater, c D, take the less, A B, as often as it is
v^i\
contained in it ; and from A B take the remainder,
E D, as often as it is contained in it
; and from E D, the
first remainder,

take F B, the second, as often as it is contained in it, and so on, till

nothing remains ; then the last remainder is a common measure both

of the original quantities, A B and c D, and of the several successive
remainders. For
as the last remainder measures the preceding one,
and is also a measure of itself, it is a measure of the several parts of
which the next preceding remainder is composed and it is therefore ;

a measure both of each preceding remainder, and of the original

quantities A B and c D.
Let us, as an instance, suppose that c D contains A B thrice, with the
remainder i> E; and that A B contains D E twice, with the remainder
 OF GEOMETRY. 43

BF ; and that E D contains B F twice exactly. Then A F, which is

twice D, contains B F four times
i: and therefore A B contains B F five
;

times. When
which contains A B three times, contains B F fifteen
<
K,

times and as E D contains B F twice, the whole c D contains B F seven-

;

teen times and B F is therefore a common measure of A B and c D.

;

The quantities to be compared may, however, be so related to each

other, that the subdivision of the remainders, in the manner above
described, will never terminate. But even in that case the operation
may be continued a quantity so small be obtained, that, on its being
till

applied as a measure of the two given quantities, the remainders will

be less than any quantities that can be assigned and hence the differ- ;

ence of the proportion between the two given quantities, and the pro-
portion between the numbers which represent the nearest multiple that
each of them is of this
approximate common measure will be indefinitely
small, and the proportions may therefore be considered as identical.

THEOREM LXVI.
Like multiples of any two quantities, A B and c D, have the same

proportion as the quantities themselves.

Let A B be to c D as any number (say 3)
to any other number, as 4 or let A B con- ;

tain three such equal parts as those of which

c D contains Let
/,/</, g F, be any
four.
like multiples of A a, a b, b B G h, h f, i k t ;

G- h i fc II
k H, the same multiples of c c, c d, d e, e D ; i 1 1
-\
=

then the whole of E F is evidently the same

multiple of the whole of A B, and the whole of G H of the whole of c D,

that each part of the one is of the corresponding part of the other.
And as the parts A a, a b, bx, c c, c d, &c., are all equal, their like

multiples E/,/<7, G A, &c., are also equal. Hence E F is to G u as 3 is

to 4, which is the same proportion that A B has to c D. In the same
way may the property be proved, whatever numerical relation A B may
have to c D. Q. E. D.
Cor. As A B and
c D are like parts of E F and G H, like parts ol
quantities have the same proportion as the wholes.

THEOREM LXVII.
BC:: DE:
'

In any four quantities, A B, B c, D E, and i : r . /'/ \ 1 1 :

E F, then alternately AB:DE::BC:EF.

1 f A B be to B c, or D E to E F, as any Atf B * C
number, any number, 3; then A B must
4, to
contain four such equal parts, A a, as those of D~5 * p
which B c contains three, B b ; and D E must
contain four such equal parts, orf, as those of which E F contains three,
Re. Hence, AS is to v K as \a to od (Theo. 66. Cor.); and BC
44 ELEMENTARY 1'HINl '1 1'I.ES

also is to E F as Bb to E e, or as A a to Dd ; consequently A B : DE : :

Bc : E F. Q. E. D.
Cor. IfAB:BC::DE:EF, then inversely B c : AB : : E F : D E.

THEOREM LXVIII.
In any four quantities, A B, B c, D E, E F (see the last figure), if

AB:BC::DE:EF, then ABBC:AB, or BC::DEEF:DE

or EF.
For A B -}- B c, or A c, is to A B or B c as the number of parts in A c
is number of equal parts in A B or B c or as the number of
to the ;

parts in D F is to the number of equal parts in D E or E F, that is, as

D F to D E or E F. In the same way it may be shown that A B Bc :

ABorBC::DE EF:DEorEF; and that AB + BC:ABC^BC::

DE + EF : D E cx> E F. Q. E. D.

THEOREM LXIX.
Triangles, as A B c, D E between the same parallels, A E, c F, or
F,
that have the same altitudes, are to each other as their bases, A B
and D E.
For let A B be to DE as any number, 3, for

example, to any other number, as 4 ; that is,

let A B contain three such equal parts, A a,

ab, OB, whereof r> E contains four, DC, c e,

ef, /E and join c a, c b, F c, F e, and F/.
;

Then A a, cab, C&B, FDC, Fee, &c., are all equal

the triangles c

(Cor. Theo. 1.
33); and therefore the triangle ABC contains three
such equal parts as those of which D F E contains four. Hence the
triangle ABC is to the triangle D F E as 3 is to 4, which is the same
proportion that their bases have. Q. E. D.
Cor. Parallelograms and rectangles between the same parallels, or
that have equal altitudes, are to each other as their bases.

THEOREM LXX.
If two triangles, ABC, D E F, stand on equal bases, A B, D E, the tri-
angles are to each other as the perpendiculars, c H, F i, drawn front
their vertices to their bases.
Let B P be perpendicular to A B and
equal to c H, and let B Q be equal to
F i. Then the triangle A B r is equal to
the triangle ABC, and the triangle A B Q
to the triangle D F E. But A B p : A B Q
1) IE
: : BP : B Q (Theo. 69) A B c D E F : c H F r. Q. E. D.
; or : : :

Cor. 1.
Parallelograms on equal bases are to each other as their alti-

tudes.
Cor. 2. Rectangles on equal bases are to each other as their altitudes.
 OF GEOMETRY. 45

THEOREM LXXI.
If four proportional, that is,
li/ic.i, A. A, B, c, D, be
A B c D,:the rectangle under the extremes, A
:
13
if : :

and D, is equal to the rectangle under the means, B ^~

and c, or A D = B c. . .

For A D B D A B, or c D ; and c D
. :B c B i> (Theo.
. : : : : : : : . : .

70. Cor. 2) whence A.D:B.D::B.C:B.D; therefore, as A D and

: .

B c have the same proportion to B D, A D and B c are equal to each

. . . .

other. Q. E. D.
Since by the rules of proportion in numbers, when four
Cor. 1.

numbers are proportional, the product of the extremes is equal to the

product of the means ; and, by this theorem, when four lines are pro-
portional, the rectangle of the extremes is equal to the rectangle of the
means ; it follows, that the area or space of a rectangle may be repre-
sented or expressed by the product of its length multiplied by its
breadth. And a square may be represented by the measure of its side

multiplied by itself. So that the relations which exist among such

products exist also among squares and rectangles.
Cor. 2. When the two means are equal, their rectangle becomes a

square ; and hence it follows that, when three lines are proportionals,
the rectangle of the extremes is equal to the square of the mean.

THEOREM LXXII.
If two rectangles A . D and B c .
(see the last figure) are equal, their
sides are inversely proportional, or A B
: c : : : D.
For as A D B . c, therefore A . = . D B D: . : : B c . : B . D. But A D .

: B . D : : A : B ; and B.C:B.D::C:D (Theo. 70. Cor. 2) ; hence

A B :c D. Q. E. D.
: : :

Cor. If there be three lines, and the rectangle of the two extremes be
equal to the square of the mean, these three lines are proportionals.

THEOREM LXXIII.
If three straight lines, A, B, and c, be proportionals, that is, if A: B
: : B c, then A c
: : : : A* : B*. .

For A : c : : A* : A c .
(Cor. 2. Theo. 70) ; but A . c B
= B* (Cor. 2. Theo. 71). Hence A : c : : A*: B*. c
THEOREM LXXIV.
Any a* B E, drawn parallel to CD, one of the sides of a tri-
line,

angle A c D. divides the other sides, AC, A D, in the same proportion, or

so that A B : A c : : A E : A D.
Let c E and B i> be joined ;
then the triangles, B c E,
BD being on the same base B E, and between the same
E,

parallels, are equal (Cor.

Theo. 32) ; and if to each be
added the triangle ABE, the triangles ACE and A B D
46 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

are also equal, and they therefore have the same proportion to the whole

triangle. But the triangle A B D is to the triangle as A B is to ACD

Ac and the triangle ACE is to the triangle ACD as AEis
; to AD
(Theo. 69). Hence A B is to A c as A E is to A D. Q. E. D.
Cor. AB:BC::AE:ED, and BC:AC::ED:AD.

THEOREM LXXV.
Equiangular triangles, as ABC, DBF, have their corresponding
sides about the equal angles, as c and F, in the same proportion, viz.
CA:CB::FD:FE.
Conceive the point F to be laid on the point c,
and the line F D on the line c A, and let the point
D fall at o then as F D coincides with c G, and
;

the angle F is equal to the angle c, the line F E

will fall on the line c B. Let the point E fall at
H. Now, as the angle F D E, or the angle c G H,
is
equal to the angle A, the line GH is parallel to the line AB ; and
hence CA:CB::CG:CH (Theo. 74), or F D F : : : E.
In the same way it may be shown that AC:AB:: FDIDE, arid that
A B : Bc D E E F. Q. E. D.
: : :

Cor. Equiangular triangles are similar.

THEOREM LXXVI.
If A B c be a triangle, right-angled at c, and CD be a perpendi-
cular from the right angle c, on the hypothenuse A B, then A D : D c
: : Dc : D B, AB:AC::AC:AD, and AB:BC::BC:BD.
triangles ABC, ADC, having the common
For the
angle A, and the right angles ADC, and A c B equal,
are similar (Cor. Theo. 75) ; and in like manner may
e^ .

r,
B D c be shown to be similar to A c B.
Hence the triangles ABC, ADC, and B D c, are all similar, and con-
sequently AD:CD::CD:DB, and AB:AC::AC:AD, and A B : Bc
:: Bc : B D (Theo. 75). Q. E. D.
Cor. 1 . AB.AD = A C A B
B D = BCa and A D D B = DC*.
8
,
.
,
.

Cor. 2. AB.AD + AB.BD

AC* BC*; Or A B* A C* =B C*, + = +
another proof of the property demonstrated in Theo. 44.

THEOREM LXXVII.
If the angle c, of the triangle ABC, be bisected by the line c D, then
A c is to c B as A D is to B D.
Let B E parallel to c D, meet A c produced in E.
Then AC:CE;:AD:DB (Theo. 74). But as the
parallel lines D c and B E are cut by the line ACE, the
angles E and ACD are equal (Theo. 19) and as the ;

same parallel lines are cut by the line B c, the angles IT

 OF GEOMETRY. 47

n r B ami c B E are equal (Theo. 17). Hence, as A c D anil nc B are

i-t|iiul. K, and c B E are equal, and consequently (Theo. 4) c E is equal
to cB; therefore A c : c B : : A D D B. Q. E. D. :

THEOREM LXXVIII.
If A B c, DF
be two similar triangles,
E, A B and D E sides opposite
the equal angles c and F ; the triangle A B c is to the triangle DFE as
the square of \ B to the square of D E, or as A B* to D E*.
For let A K, DM, be the squares on A B and
DE B ;
i and E i.
diagonals of these squares ; and
co, F H, perpendiculars from c and F upon A B
and D E. Then, as the angle c A G is equal to
the angle F D H, and the angles A G c, DBF,

being right angles, are equal to each other, the

angles ACO, DFH, are also equal (Theo. 23. Cor. 1); and conse-
DFH are equiangular. Hence A c D F
quently the triangles A c G and :

: : c G F H (Theo. 75).
: ButAC:DF::AB:DE, or ::AI:DL;
therefore CG:FH::AI:DL; or CG:AI::FH:DL (Theo.
67).
But the triangle ABC is to the triangle A B i as c G is to A and the i ;

triangle D E F is to the triangle D L E as K H is t<> i> i. (Theo. 70) ; there-

fore the triangle ABC
is to the triangle A B i as the
triangle D F E to
the triangle D i, E ; or the triangle A B c is to the triangle D F E as twice
the triangle A B i is to twice the triangle D L E, or as A K is to D M ;
that is, as the square of AB is to the square of D E. Q. E. D.

THEOREM LXXIX.
If A VCD E an equilateral polygon inscribed in the circle whose
be
centre if M, and F G H I K an equilateral polygon of a like number of
sides inscribed in the circle whose centre is L, the perimeter of the
poly-
gon A B c D E is to the perimeter of the polygon F G H I K, as the radius
AM to the radius F L.

For join M to A, B, c, D, and E, and L to F, o, H, i, and K, then the

triangles A M B, BMC, &c. being mu-
tually identical ; and the triangles F L G,
G LH, &c. being also mutually identical
(Theo. 5), the angles A M B, K are i. < ,.

like parts of four right angles, and they

are consequently equal. Therefore, as
the triangles are isosceles, the angles MA B, MBA, are respectively
equal to the angles L F G, L G F. Whence the triangles are equiangu-
lar ; and therefore MA:FL::AB:FO (Theo. 75), or : : the perime-
ter ABcDEA : the perimeter F oH i K F (Theo. 66), since the perime-
ters are like multiples of A B and r G. Q. E. D.
Cor. If we conceive the sides of the polygons to be indefinitely
small, and their number to be indefinitely great, the property which
 48 ELEMKNTAHY PRINCIPLES

lias here been proved of equilateral

polygons inscribed in a circle will
become a properly of the circh-; thciiiM-lvo for the polygons \\ill then
;

coincide with the circumferences of the circles. Hence the circum-

ferences of circles are to each other as their radii, or as their diameters.

ON THE INTERSECTION OF PLANES.

DEFINITIONS.
1. A STRAIGHT line is
perpendicular to a plane when it makes right
angles with every straight line which it meets in that plane.
2. Two planes are
perpendicular to each other when any straight line
drawn in one of the planes, perpendicular to their common section, is
perpendicular to the other plane.
3. If two planes cut each other, and from
any point in the line of
their common section two
straight lines be drawn, at right angles to
that line, one in the one plane, and the other in the other plane, the

angle contained by these two lines is the angle made by the planes.
4. A straight line is
parallel to a plane when it does not meet the
plane, though produced ever so far.
5. Planes are parallel to each other when they do not meet, though
produced ever so far.

6. A
solid angle is one which is formed by the meeting, in one point,
of more than two plane angles, which are not in the same plane with
each other.

THEOREM LXXX.
If any three straight lines, A B, CD, c B, meet one another, as in c,
B, and E, they are in one plane.
For conceive a plane passing through BC to revolve
about that line pass through the point E.
till it Then
because the points E and c are in that plane, the line E c
is in it ; and, for the same reason, the line E B is in it ;

and B c is in it, by hypothesis. Hence the lines A B, c E, ~7C BT

and BC are all in one plane.
Cor. Any two straight lines which meet each other are in one plane :

and any three points whatever are in one plane.

THEOREM LXXXI.
If two planes, as A E, c F cut one another, the line of their common
section is a straight line.
For let B and D, any two points in the line of
their common section, be joined by th
straight
line B D then because the
;
points B and Dare both
in the plane A E, the whole line B D is in that
plane ; "0"^
and, for the same reason, B D is in the plane c F.
 <.l (JKOMET11Y. 49

straight line B D is therefore common to both planes;

The and it is

therefore the line of their common section.

THEOREM LXXXII.
If a straight AS, stand at right angles to each of two other
line, as

straight lines, as A c, A o, at A, their point of meeting ;

A B is also at
right angles to the plane passing through A C, A G.
For through A, in the plane passing through A G and
A c, draw any line A E and from any point E
;
in that line

draw EP parallel to AG, meeting AC in P. Make FC

equal to join c E and produce it till it meet A o in
A r ;

D ; and join B D, BE, and BC. Then as F E is parallel

to AD, CP:PA::CE :ED (Theo. 74) ; and as c F is equal
to F A, c E is
equal to E D. Therefore CAD and c B D are
triangles, whose bases are bisected ; and hence (Theo. 49) D A8 -f-
in E
A c* = + 2 E A* to
2 D E* ; each of these equals add 2 A B8 , and we have
A D* +AB A C* + A B* = 2 D E -f 2 E A* + 2 A B
8
4- But A D + A B*8 8
.
8

= B D* and A c + A B* = Be and B D* + B c* = 2 D E + 2 E B
8 8
;
8 8
.

Hence, 2DE*-f2EB = 2DE + 2EA + 2AB

8 f 8 8 8
and omitting 2 D E ;

from each, and taking the half of each remainder, we have E B8 =

E A8 +
A B* ; whence the angle B A E is a right angle. Hence as B A is
perpendicular to any line which it meets in the plane G A c, it is perpen-
dicular to every line which it meets in that plane, and therefore it is
per-
pendicular to the plane itself.

THEOREM LXXXIII.
If a straight line, as A B, stand at right angles to each of three
straight lines, as B c, B D, B E, at B, their point of meeting, these three
straight lines are all in one plane.
If not, let B D and B E, if possible, be in one plane, and B c above it ;

and let the plane passing through A B and B c meet

the plane in which B D and B E are, in the straight line
B F. Then because A B is at right angles to B D and
B E at their point of meeting, it is also at right angles
to B F, which it meets in the plane of B D and B E. But
A B is also by hypothesis at right angles to B c, and
therefore the angles A B c, A B F, in the same plane, are

equal to each other, which is impossible. B c is therefore not out of

the plane of B E and B D, therefore the three lines B c, B D, and B E, are
all in one plane.
THEOREM LXXXIV.
If two straight lines, as A B, CD, be at right angles to the same plane,
as B D E, A B is parallel to c D.
In the plane B D E draw D E at right angles to B D, take any point i:
in it, and join E A, E B, and A D. Then the square of E A is equal to
 50 KLEMENTAKY PRINCIPLES

the squares of E n and B A and the square of E n is equal

;

of E D and D B (Theo. 44). Hence the square of E A is

equal to the squares of E D, D B, and B A and as the ;

squares of B D and B A are equal to the square of D A,

the square of E A is equal to the sum of the squares
of E D and DA; and consequently E i> A is a right angle.
E D being therefore at right angles to B D, A D, and c D,
these three lines are all in one plane (Theo. 83). But
A D and B D are in the same plane with A B (Theo. 80). Hence A B
and c v are in one plane and as each of the angles A B D,
; CDB is a
right angle, AB is parallel to CD (Cor. 1. Theo. 19).

THEOREM LXXXV.
If AS, one of ttco parallel straight lines, be at right angles to a
plane, as E F, the other c D is also at right angles to the same plane.
For if c D be not perpendicular to the plane E F, let D o be perpen-
dicular toit. Then as A B and D o are
perpendicular
to thesame plane, they are parallel to each other
(Theo. 84). Hence D c and D o drawn through the
same point are parallel to the same straight line,
which is impossible. Therefore no line drawn
through D, except D c, is at right angles to the plane E F ; and D c is

consequently at right angles to it.

THEOREM LXXXVI.
If A B, co, any ttoo lines, be each parallel to another line E F, though
not all three in thesame plane, A B and c o are parallel to each other.
From any point G in E F, let G H be drawn at right angles to E F, in
the plane passing through A B and E F ; and in the

plane passing through E F and c o let o K be drawn

also at right angles to E F. Then as E F is perpen-
dicular to G H and G K, it is perpendicular to G H K,
the plane passing through them (Theo. 82). And
as E F is parallel to A B, A B is also at right angles to the plane G n K

(Theo. 85). For the same reason c o is at right angles to the plane
G H K, and hence A B and c o being at right angles to the same plane,
are parallel to eacli other (Theo. 84).

THEOREM LXXXVII.
If two straight lines, as A B, B c, which meet one anot/ier, be parallel
to two other straight lines, as D E, E F, that meet one another, but are
not in the same plane with A B, BC; the angle ABC is equal to the

angle D E F.

Take B A, B c, E i>, E F, all equal to one another, and join A D, c F,

BE, AC, and DP. Then as AB is
equal and parallel to DM. AD is
OF GKOMETHY. 51

D G A H
52 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

making the angle B A E equal to the angle BAD;

make A E equal to A D, and through E draw any
straight line B E c, cutting A B and A c in B and
c, and join B D, c D. Then as DA is equal to A E,
the angle BAD to the angleE, and the side B A
BA
common to the two triangles BAD and B A E, their bases B D and B E
are equal (Theo. 1); and consequently EC is the difference of BC
and B D, and it is less than D c, the other side of the triangle B D c
(Theo. 16). Now DA and A E are equal, and A c common to the tri-
angles D A c and E A c, but D c the base of the triangle D A c is greater
than E c the base of the triangle E A c therefore the angle D A c is
;

greater than the angle EAC

(Theo. 14). But and EAB are DAB
equal by construction, whence DAB and D A c together are greater
than B A E and EAC together, or than B A c. And as the least two

together exceed the greatest, it is evident that any two of them

together are greater than the third.
Cor. EAC being less than D A c, if a solid angle be contained by three
plane angles, the difference of any two of them is less than the third.

THEOREM XCI.
solid angle contained in any number of plane angles B A c,
If \ be a
CAD, DAE, EAB, these plane angles together are less than four right
angles.
Let the planes which contain the solid angle at A be cut by another
plane, and let the section of them by that plane be
the rectilineal figure B c D E. Then the solid angle
at B being contained by three plane angles, any two
of these angles, as ABE, ABC, are greater than
the third EEC (Theo. 90). For the same reason
the angles A c D and A c B are together greater than
BCD; ADC and A D E greater than c D E and ;

A E D and A E B greater than DEB. Hence the angles at the bases of

the triangles, which have their common vertex at A, are greater than
the interior angles of the rectilineal figure B c D E. But all the angles
of the triangles B Ac, c A D, DAE, B A E, are equal to twice as many

right angles as there are triangles, or as there are sides in the figure
B c D E ; and the interior angles of that figure, together with four right
angles, are also equal to twice as many right angles as the figure has
sides (Theo. 24). Therefore all the angles of the triangles are equal
to all the angles of the figure, together with four right angles. And
as all the angles at the base of the triangles are greater than all the
interior angles of the figure, the remaining angles of the triangles, or
those which contain the solid angle A, are less than four right angles.
 OF GEOMETRY. 53

GEOMETRICAL PROBLEMS.
PROBLEM I.

To bisect a given straight line A B.

FROM the points A and B, as centres, with any distance greater than
half A B, describe arcs cutting each other in n and m.
Join n m and the point c where it cuts A B will be
t

the middle of the line required.

For join A n, A m, B , and B m
; then because An
and A m are respectively equal to B n and B m, and
nm is common to both the triangles, AW//, and B m n,
the angles Anm and B n m, or A n c and B n c are
equal. And hence as A n and B n are equal, and n c
common to both triangles, the sides, A c and B c, are equal ; or AB is

bisected in c.

PROBLEM II.
a given angle ABC.
To bisect
From the angular point B, with any radius, describe the arc AC,
and from the points A and c, with the same, or any other
radius, describe arcs cutting each other in n. Join B n,
and the line Bn bisects the angle ABC.
For join An, c , then as A B is equal to B c, A n to
c n, and B n is common to both the triangles A B n and
c B n ; therefore the angle A B n is equal to the angle
c B n ; or A B c is bisected by B n.

PROBLEM III.
From a given point c in a given line A B to draw a perpendicular.
1st. When the point is near the middle of the line.

On each side of the point c take any two equal distances en, cm;
and from n and m with any radius greater than en ,
or c nt, describe arcs cutting each other in s.
Through * and c draw the line s c, and it will be / \
the required perpendicular.
A-rr -11
For join * m, sn; then as these two lines are
equal, n c equal to me, and cs common to the triangles ncs, mcs,
the angles mcs
and n c s are equal ; and therefore * c is perpen-
dicular to A B.
2nd. When the point is at or near the end of the line.

Take any point o as a centre, and with the

radius o c describe an arc men, cutting A B in
m and c. Through m
and o draw the line mon, ?>''

cutting the arc in n. Join n c, and it is the

^_A^_. &r-B
required perpendicular.
54 l.l.l.MKNTARY PRINCIPLES

For the angle mcn being an angle in a semicircle, is a right angle,

and therefore n c is
perpendicular to A B.

PROBLEM IV.
from a given point c out of a given line \ B, to draw a line jn r-

pendicular to A B.
1st. When
the given point is nearly opposite the middle of the line.
Take any point o on the other side of the line A B, and from the
centre c with the radius c o describe an arc
f
nom cutting A B in n and m. From n, m, with
any radius greater than half n, describe arcs m
cutting each other in s. Through the points c, B
*, draw the line c G s, and c G will be the per-
pendicular required. 3?
For nc, n s, m c, m s, be joined then it
let ;

may be shown as in the demonstration of Prob. I. that the angles n G c

and mo c are equal, and c G is consequently perpendicular to A B.
2nd.When the point isnearly opposite the end of the line.
To any point m in the line A B draw the v r>

line c m, and bisect it in the point n. From n /S

with the radius n m or nc describe the arc
c G m
cutting A B in G. Through c and o 13
draw the line c G, and it is the perpendicular

required.
For moc being an angle in a semicircle, is a right angle, therefore
cG is perpendicular to A B.

PROBLEM V.
At a given point D in a given line r> E to make an angle equal to a
given angle ABC.
From B as a centre with any radius describe the arc n m cutting
B A, B c in the points m, n ; and
from D with the same radius describe
the arc r s. Take the distance m n
and apply it to the arc r s from r or s.
A D E
Through the points D, s draw the line )

D F, then the angle E D F is equal to the angle ABC.

For let m, n and s, r be joined then the triangles B n; m and D s r

having B n and B m equal to D s and D r, and n m equal to s r, have

the angles B and D, are equal.

PROBLEM VI.
At any point B a given line B A (see the last figure') to make an
in

angle of a given number of degrees or points of the compass.

With the centre B and the chord of 60 degrees as a radius, taken
 oi <;I:OMKTKY. 55

from any line of chords, describe the arc m, n ; and from the same
line of chords, or from a line of rhumbs or points adapted to the same
radius, take the chord of the proposed arc with which as a radius
;

from the centre m, cross mn iu n, and join B n : then the angle n B m

isthe required angle.
If the angle is too great for its chord to be obtained at once, take
the chord of its half, and laying it from m
to H, repeat it again from
n on the arc m
n produced, and joining the second point to B, the
required angle will be obtained.

PROBLEM VII.
Through a given point c, to draw a line parallel to a given line \ B.
From c to A B draw any line CD; then through c draw the line
c E, making the angle D c E equal to the angle
c .,

c D A ; and c E is the required line. "-..

For the alternate angles ADC and D c E being ''-..

A-
equal, the lines A D and c E are parallel.
Note. This problem is most conveniently performed by means of a
parallel ruler.

PROBLEM VIII.
To draw a line parallel to a given line A B, at a distance from it

equal to another given line c D.

At any point E in A B, erect the perpendicular E F, and make it

equal to c D. Through the point F draw F Q parallel (

,

to A B by the last problem ; then F G is the required

line.

For F G is parallel to A B by construction and F

its distance from A B, is equal to the given line CD.
; E,
CD
PROBLEM IX.
To divide a given line A B into any proposed number of equal parts.
From A, one end of the given line, draw the line A m making nny
angle with A B and from B, the other end,
;

draw B r parallel to A m. In each of these

lines, beginning at A and B, set off as many
equal parts A a, a b c, &c. and B/, fg, g h,
b,
&c. as A B is to be divided into. Join the
points Be, df
t eg,
&c. and these lines will
divide A B as required.
For as de is equal and parallel to B/, B e and dfsnc parallel ; and
in the same manner may eg, bh t and a t be shown to be parallel to

Be. Hence the parts into which ABU divided are proportional to the
corresponding parts of A e ; and as the parts of A e are equal to each
other, the parU of A B are also equal to each other.
56 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

PltOBLEM X.
To find tin-rentre of a given circle ABC.
Draw any chord A B, and bisect it with the perpendicular c D.

Insect c D in o, and o is the centre required.

For if the centre is in the line c D it must be in

o, that point in the chord equally distant which is

from its extremities. If, however, the centre is not in

c D, let it be in F any point out of the line ; and join
F FA, and F B. Then will A F be equal to F B,
E,
AK E B, and E F common to the triangles A E F and B E F ; the
to

angles A E F and B EF will therefore be equal, and consequently each

of them will be a right angle. Hence the angles c E B and F E B will
be equal, the less to the greater, which is impossible. The centre of
the circle is therefore in the line c D, and it is consequently in the

point o.
PBOBLEM XI.
To describe the circumference of a circle through three given points
A, B, C.
Join A c and B c, and bisect these lines with the perpendiculars Do
and E o, and from the point o with the distance o A,
o B, or o c, describe the circle ABC, and it will be
the circle required.
For as A D and D o are respectively equal to c D
and D o, and the included angles and c D o ADO
are equal, Ao is equal to c o ; and for a like reason
Bo is equal to c o. Hence o is the centre of a circle passing through

A, B, and c.

Remark. By this problem a circle may be described about a tri-

angle.
PROBLEM XII.
To inscribe aa given triangle ABC.
circle in
Bisect any two of the angles, as A and B, and the bisecting lines AD
and D B, will meet in r>, the centre of the circle.
For from D draw D E, D F, and D G, perpendiculars
toA B, B c, and A c. Then, as the angles DAG and
DAE, D G A and D E A are equal, the angles ADO
and A D E are also equal and as A D is adjacent ;
A.

to the equal angles in each triangle, the triangles are identical,

and therefore D E and D G are equal ; and thus also may D F be shown
to be equal to D E or D G and consequently, as the angles at E, F, and
;

G, are right angles, a circle described from D, with the distance D E,

D F, or D G, will touch A B, B c, and A c, the sides of the triangle ; and
the circle is therefore inscribed in the triangle.
Note. The reader is requested to join D to A, B, and c.
 OF GEOMETRY. 57

PROBLEM XIII.
On a given line A B to describe the segment of a circle, which will con-
an angle equal to a given angle, as M.
tain
From A draw A c, making the angle CAB equal to the given

angle M. Bisect A B with the per-

pendicular D E and draw A E per-
;

pendicular to A c, meeting D E in
E ; then from the centre E, with
the radius A E or E B, describe a
circle, and the segment of it A o B,
alternate to the angle c A B, is the
segment required.
For A D is equal to D B, and
as
the angles A D E and B D E are equal, and D E common to the triangles
A D E and B D E ; therefore A E and B E are equal. And as A E is per-
pendicular to A c, therefore A c is a tangent to the circle of which A B
is a chord and hence the angle c A B is equal to any angle in the alter-
;

nate segment, A G B.
Remark. If the given angle is a right angle, the required segment
is a semicircle described on the given line.

PROBLEM XIV.
To make a plain diagonal, decimal scale.
Take A B, of the length proposed for the longest division of the scale,
and draw ten lines parallel to it,

and equidistant from each other ;

draw A D and B c perpendicular
to A B ; and divide A B and c D
each into ten equal parts. Join A. B s a J
B to the first division in c D, the first division on A B to the second on
c D, &c. In A B produced take B 1, 1, 2, &c., each equal to A B and ;

from the points 1, 2, <fec., draw lines parallel to B c, meeting c D pro-

duced and the scale is completed.
;

For A B is divided into ten equal parts, and the oblique lines drawn
from A B to c D subdivide the divisions of A B again into tenths.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE IN GEOMETRICAL

INVESTIGATION.
1. FROM two given points, to draw two equal straight lines, which
shall meet in the same point, in a line given in position.
2. From two given points on the same side of a line, given in posi-
tion, to draw two lines which .-hall meet in that line, and make equal
angles with it.
58 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

Of all straight lines which can be drawn from two given points
3.
tomeet on the convex circumference of a given circle, the sum of those
two which make equal angles with the tangent at the point of con-
course, is the least.
4. If a circle be described on the radius of another circle, any
straight linedrawn from the point where they meet to the outer cir-

cumference, is bisected by the interior one.

5. Triangles which have one angle equal in each, and the sides about

the equal angles in the same proportion, are equiangular triangles.

6. If from any two points in the circumference of a circle there be
drawn two straight lines to a point in a tangent to that circle, they will
make the greatest angle when drawn to the point of contact.
7. If the points of bisection of the sides of a given triangle be joined,
the triangle, so formed, will be one fourth of the given triangle.
8. If the three sides of a triangle be bisected, the perpendiculars
drawn to the sides, at the three points of bisection, will meet in the
same point.
9. If from the three angles of a triangle lines be drawn to the points

of bisection of the opposite sides, these lines intersect each other in the
same point.
10. The three straight lines which bisect the angles of a triangle
meet in the same point.
11. The formed by joining the points of bisection of the sides
figure
of any trapezium, is a parallelogram.
12. If squares be described on the hypothenuse and sides of a right-

angled triangle, and the extremities of the sides of the former and the
adjacent sides of the others be joined, the sum of the squares of the lines
joining them will be equal to five times the square of the hypothenuse.
13. A
straight line drawn from the vertex of an equilateral triangle,
inscribed in a circle to any point in the opposite circumference, is equal
to the two lines together, which are drawn from the extremities of the
base to the same point.
14. In any triangle, if perpendiculars be drawn from the angles to
meet in a point.
opposite sides, they will all
two points be taken in the diameter of a circle, equidistant
15. If
from the centre, the sum of the squares of the two lines drawn from
these points to any point in the circumference will be always the same.
1 6. In
any quadrilateral, the sura of the squares of the sides is equal
to the sum of the squares of the diagonals, and four times the square of
the line joining their middle points.
17. In any triangle, if the vertical
angle be bisected by a line meet-
ing the base, the rectangle under the sides containing the vertical angle
is equal to the
rectangle under the segments of the base, and the square
of the bisecting line.
 OF GEOMETRY. 59

18. If a triangle be inscribed in a circle, the rectangle under the

sides,containing the vertical angle, is equal to the rectangle under the
diameter of the circle, and the perpendicular from the vertical angle on
the base.
19. If a quadrilateral be inscribed in a circle, the sum of the rect-

angles of each pair of opposite sides is

equal to the rectangle under
the diagonals.
20. J f an arc of a circle be bisected, and its extremities and its middle

point be joined to any other point in the remaining part of the circum-
ference. Then the chord of half the arc is to the chord of the whole
arc, as the line drawn from the middle to the sum of the lines drawn
from the extremities of the arc to the point taken in the circumference.
21. Inscribe a square in a given triangle.
22. Prove that the side of a square is incommensurate with its

diagonal.
23. Given the base of a triangle, the vertical angle, and the sum of
its containing sides, to construct the triangle.

24. Given the base of a triangle, the vertical angle, and the differ-
ence of its
containing sides, to construct the triangle.
 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
OF

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.

PLANE TRIGONOMETRY is that branch of Mathematics by which, if

certain parts of a plane triangle be given, the other parts may be
computed.
As the sides and angles of triangles are quantities of different kinds,

they cannot be compared with each other ; but the relation between
the sides and the magnitude of the angles may be discovered by com-

paring the sides with certain lines drawn in and about a circle, on
which lines the arcs of the circle which measure the angles of the
triangles depend.

DEFINITIONS.
1. If two lines meet in the centre of a circle, the arc of the cir-
cumference intercepted between them is called the measure of the
angle
which they contain.
2. If the circumference of a circle be divided into 360 equal parts,
each of these parts is called a degree; if a degree be divided into 60
equal parts, each of these parts is called a minute ; and if a minute be
divided into 60 equal parts, each of these parts is called a second, &c.
And whatever number of degrees, minutes, seconds, &c. are contained
in any arc, the angle at the centre, which that arc measures, contains
the same number of degrees, minutes, seconds, &c.
Cor. 1 .
Any arc is to the whole circumference of which it is a part
as the number of degrees, &c. contained in the arc is to 360 degrees ;

and any angle is same proportion.

to four right angles in the
Cor. 2. Whatever be the radii with which the arcs are described
which measure any angle, the arcs contain the same number of de-
grees, &c. For the arcs are like parts of 360 degrees.
Def. 3. Degrees, minutes, seconds, &c. are usually designated by
the marks: , ', ", "',
&c. Thus 37 14' 20" 38'" is 37 degrees, 14

minutes, 20 seconds, and 38 thirds.

4. Two arcs whose sum is equal to a semicircle, or two angles
whose sum is equal to two right angles, are called supplements of each
other.
5. Two arcs whose sum is a quadrant, or two angles whose sum is a
right angle, are called complements of each other.
 PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. 61

6. The fine of an arc is a

perpendicular let fall from one of its
extremities upon the diameter which passes through the other ex-
tremity.
7. The versed sine of an arc is that portion of the diameter inter-

cepted between the sine and the circumference.

8. The suversed sine of an arc is the versed sine of its supplement.
9. The tangent of an arc is a perpendicular to the diameter at one

extremity of the arc, and terminated by the diameter produced, which

passes through the other extremity.
10. The secant of an arc is the straight line drawn from the centre
to the termination of the tangent.
Remark. The sine, tangent, secant, &c. of the complement of an arc,
are usually termed the cosine, cotangent, and cosecant of that arc.
To illustrate the above definitions, let A E be the diameter of a
circle Ai E K ; c i a perpendicular ra-
dius from the centre c ; A G and i H per-
pendiculars to A and c i, meeting c H
drawn from the centre in G and H. From
B, where c H meets the circumference,
draw B D and B F perpendicular to A c
and c i. Then the arcs A B and B i E,
and the angles A c B and B c E, are supplements of each other. The
arcs A B and B i, the angles A c B and B c I, are complements of each
other. B D is the sine of the arc A B, or of the arc E i B and it is :

also considered as the sine of either of the supplemental angles, A c B

or B c E, to the radius AC. A o is the tangent, and c G the secant
of the arc A B or the angle A c B. A D is the versed sine of the
arc A B, and E D its suversed sine. B P or c D is the sine of I B, or the
cosine of A B ; I H is the tangent, and c H the secant of I B ; or i H is
the cotangent, and c H the cosecant of A B. I F is the versed sine of

i B, or the coversed sine of A B. And in all cases the sine, cosine,

tangent, &c. of any arc is called the sine, cosine, tangent, &c. of the

angle measured by that arc.

For the sake of brevity, these technical terms in trigonometry are
usually contracted as follows :
Thus for Sine of an arc, as AB is
put Sin. A B.
Cosine do. Cos. A B.

Tangent do. Tan. A B.

Cotangent do. Cot. A H.

Secant do. Sec. A B.
Cosecant do. Cosec. A B.
do. Vert. A B.
Suversed sine do. Stivers. A B.

Coversed sine do. Covers. A B.

 62 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
From the above definitions we deduce the following obvious conse-
quences, viz. :

1st When an arc vanishes, or becomes nothing, its sine,

tangent,
and versed sine are nothing also and its secant and cosine are each ;

equal to the radius and its cotangent and cosecant are infinite.
;

2nd. The sine and the versed sine of a quadrant are each equal to the
radius, its cosine is nothing, and its secant and tangent are infinite.
The chord of an arc is twice the sine of half the arc.
3rd.
The radius B c, the sine B D, and the cosine c D, form a right-
4th.

angled triangle c B D. The secant c o, the tangent G A, and the radius

CA, form also a right-angled triangle co A, similar to CB D and the ;

cosecant H c, the radius c i, and the cotangent r H, form another

right-
angled triangle similar to c B D or c o A.
Hence c D* -(- D B* = c B* or cos8 + sin* = rad*. ;

c A 8 + A G* = c G 8 or rad* + tan 2 = sec 8 ; ,

c i* + i H* =cH 8
; or rad* + cot* = cosec 8
.

And CD:DB::CA:AG; or cos : sin : : rad : tan ; or tan . cos =

rad sin sin
rad . sin ;
or tan = .

= when the numerical value

cos. cos
of radius is one, or unity,
cF : FB : : c i : i H ; or sin : cos : : rad : cot ; or cot . sin =
rad cos
rad . cos ;
or cot =
sin
.

:
= cos , when rad is unity.
sin

CD:CB::CA:CG; or cos : rad : : rad : sec ; or cos . sec =

rad8 1
rad 1
;
or sec = = , when rad is unity.
cos cos
cF : c B : : c i : c H ; or sin : rad : : rad : cosec ; or sin . cosec =
2
rad
rad* ; or cosec = r- = 1
, when rad is unity,
sm sin

GA:AC::CI:IH; or tan : rad : : rad : cot ; or tan . cot =

*o f 1 2
rad 8 , whence cot = ; and tan =
7*f)(]^

; or tan = , and
tan cot cot

cot = , when rad is unity,

tan
5th. If A and B represent any two arcs, it
appears from the last co-

rollary that tan A cot A = tan B . . cot B. Whence cot A : cot B : :

tan B : fan A. And in a similar way we deduce cos A : cos B : :

sec B : A and sin A sin B

sec. ; cosec B cosec A. : : : :

6th. As A D D E = D B*, we have vers. suvers =: sin 8

. .

7th. The sine,

tangent, &c. of an arc, which is (he measure of any
given angle, as A B c, is to the sine, tangent, &c of any other arc, by
which the same angle ABC
may be measured, as the radius of the first
arc to the radius of the second.
 OF PLANE TUIGOXOMKTUY. 63

Let A c and uN each measure the angle B ; c D being the sine,

DA the versed sine, A E the tangent, and B r. the
secant of the arc AC; x o, o M, M p, and B p the n 'J^
sine, versed sine, tangent, and secant of the arc
M N. Then
DC, and A E, are parallel,
as o N, M p,
we have c D rad B N A E M p,
: No : : rad B c : ; :

or B x B P rad B A rad B M and B c : B D

: : : : ; : :

BN BO; or BA BD::BM Bo. Hence B A

: : : : BA B D : :

BM : B M BO; or BA : AD :: BM:MO; or BA:BM::AD:

M o.
8th. It is often convenient in trigonometrical investigations to use
sines, tangents, &c. to the arcs of a circle whose radius is unity, as
the resulting expressions are of a less complicated form. But such
expressions may easily be adapted to any other radius. For, in the
last figure, ifBC r, =
and D c r= sine to radius r ; then BN=1,
sin
BC (r) : c D (sin) J: B N (1) : N o = ,
the corresponding sine to
radius unity.

Hence, when any formula has been investigated on the supposition

that radius is unity, the formula may be adapted to
any other radius
sin tan sec .

r, by substituting , , ,
&c. for sine, tan, sec, &c. in the given
T V f
expression.
The numerical values of the sines, tangents, &c. of arcs*, computed
to a given radius, exhibit also the ratios of the sines, tangents, &c. of
those arcs, to any other radius. A table containing such numbers is

called a table of natural sines, tangents, &c. ; and a table exhibiting

the logarithms of those numbers is called a table of logarithmic sines,

tangents, &c.
Such logarithmic tables are generally computed to the large radius,
10000000000, that the logarithm of the smallest sine, tangent, &c.
likely to be required in computation may not have a negative index.
The logarithm of the radius in such tables is evidently 10, and the

logarithm of r* is 20, and the logarithmic sine and cosine of any arc
whatever is less than 10 but the logarithmic tangents, cotangents, ;

secants, andcosecants admit of all possible values from to infinity,

whatever be the numerical value of the radius.

ON THE SIGNS OF TRIGONOMETRICAL QUANTITIES.

WHEN geometrical quantities are expressed analytically, they are con-
sidered as measured from some given point or line, and as or ac- +
cording as they lie on one or the other side of that point or lint'.
64 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

Thus, in the last figure but one, the signs are estimated from the
diameter A E, and in the semicircle A i E they are considered as + ;

but as in the other semicircle E K A they fall on the other side of the
diameter A E,they are then considered as .

The cosines, being estimated from the centre c, are considered as +

in the first quadrant A i ; but as in the second quadrant i E, and the
third E K, they fall on the other side of the centre c, they are then con-
sidered as ; and again, in the fourth quadrant K A, they become +
as in the first quadrant.
r;ul . sin
As tan = ,
,

the tangent is + is the first quadrant, because sin

cos
and cos are then both positive. But
in the second quadrant cos is ,

and sin -f- ;

therefore tan is . In the third quadrant sin and cos are
both ; therefore tan is +j and in the fourth quadrant we have again
tan .

Since sec = , cosec = sin

,
and cot = , it follows that sec has
cos tan
the same sign as cos, cosec the same sign as sin, and cot the same sign
as tan.

PROPOSITION I.

The chord of 60 and the tangent of 45 are each equal to the

radius ; the sine of 30, the versed sine of 60, and the cosine of 60, are
each equal to half the radius; and the secant of 60 is equal to the
diameter, or to double the radius.
Let D be the centre of a circle,
A B an arc of 60, and A c an arc of
45. Draw the chord B A bisect the angle A B D with the line B E,
;

and draw the tangent A G, meeting the secants DBG and D c F in G

and F.
Now (Theo. 61. Geo.) A B the chord of 60 is equal to the radius ;

hence (Cor 1. Theo. 3. Geo.) B E bisects A D and is

at right angles to it. Therefore E A the versed sine
of 60, and D E the cosine of 60, or the sine of 30,
are each equal to half the radius. And, as B D is
double of D E, by similar triangles D G the secant
of 60 is double of D A the radius. Lastly, as the
angle D A F is a right angle, and the angle A D F is
45, or half a right angle, the angle A F D is also half
a right angle. Hence the angles A D F and A F D being equal, AF the

tangent of 45 is equal to A D the radius.

PROPOSITION II.

Tlie secant
equal sum of
of any arc is to the its tangent, and the
tangent of half its complement.
Let A B be any arc, A D its tangent, and c D its secant ; produce
 OF PLANE THIGONOMKTKY. 65

A D D E is equal to DC, and join c E. Then the

till

K is the complement of A c E; and as D c and D E

angle
are equal, a perpendicular from D on c E would bisect
the angle D, therefore the angle E is also the complement
of half the angle D. Hence A c E is equal to half ADC,
or to half the complement of A c D, and consequently
A E is the tangent of half the complement of A c D : therefore DA the

tangent of A B, and A E the tangent of half its complement, are to-

gether equal to D c, the secant of the same arc.
Remark. The learner is recommended to read Propositions V.,
VI., and VII. , before Proposition III.

PROPOSITION III.

If A and B represent any tioo angles,

then the following equations express the
relations between the sines and cosines of
A and B, and the sines and cosines of

(\ + B), viz.
Sin A + B = sin A . cos B -f- cos A . sin B. . . . 1

Sin A B = sin A . cos B cos A . sin B. . . .2

Cos A + B =
cos A cos B sin sin B . 3 A . . . . .

Cos A B =
cos A cos B + sin sin B. ..4 A . . .

For c = a cos B + b cos A .

(Trig. Prop. .
5.)
.*. c . sin c = a sin c cos B + b sin c cos A
. . . .

or c . sin c =
c sin A cos B + c sin B cos A
. . . .

.-. sin c or sin + = sin A

A B . cos B -f cos A . sin B .... I

.'. also sin A' B = sin A' . cos B cos A' . sin B
or sin A B = sin A . . cos B cos A . sin B .... "2
The accents being no longer requisite for distinction.

Cos A + B = sin (90 - A + B) = sin (90 A - B)

= sin 90 A . cos B - cos 90 A . sin B
or cos A -f- B = cos A . cos B sin A .sin B. . . . 3
cos A B = sin (90 A B) = sin (90 A + B)
= sin 90 A . cos B -f- cos 90 A . sin B
or cos A B = cos A cos B + si" A si'1 B. .4 . . .

By taking the sum and difference of equations (1) and (2), and
the sum and difference of equations (4) and (5) the following expres-
sions result, viz.
sin (A -f B) -f sin (A B) = 2 sin A . cos B
sin (A -r- B) sin (A B) = 2 cos A- . sin B
cos (A + B) + cos (A B) = 2cos A . cos B
cos (A - u)
- cos (A -f B) = 2 sin A sin
.
(2)
F
66 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
Now A is half the sum, and B half the difft- rence of (A + B) and
(A B) ; hence
B) if for (A 4- in Formulae we put A, and for 2,
(A B) we put B, instead of A in the same formulae we must put
(A + B), and for B we must put (A B) and thus are obtained
the following formulae :

sin A 4- sin = 2 sin $ (A 4- B

B ) cos -J (A B)
sin A sin = 2 cos (A + B)
B . sin (A B)
cos A + cos B = 2 cos (A 4- B) . cos (A B)
cos B cos A = 2 sin (A 4- B) . sin (A 4- B) (.'})

KB = in Formulae (3), the expressions give the following:

sin A 2 sin A cos ^ A = .

1 + cos A = 2 cos* A
1 cos A = 2 sin 8
A (4)
And hence,
sin (A 4- B) = 2 sin (A 4- B) . cos (A + B)
sin (A B) = 2 sin J (A B) . cos ^(A B)
cos ^ A = ij^ ( + cos A) 1

sin A = </(! cos A) (5 )

If in Formnlae (3), A = 90, the expressions give the following

formulae :

1 + sin = 2 sin B *
(45 4- $ B) =2 cos 2
(45 $ B)
1 - sin B = 2 cos
8
(45 + * B) = 2 sin 8
(45 $ B) (6)

Multiplying Formulae (3), we have

in

(sin A 4- sin B) (sin A sin n) 2 sin J (A

. = 4- B) cos ^(A + B) .

2 sin (A B) cos (A B) .

or, (sin A + sin B) .

(sin A sin B) = sin (A 4-s) . sin (A B) (For. (5))
and so also (cos A 4- cos B) .
(cos B cos A) = sin (A 4- B) . sin (A B)
and therefore,
(cos A 4- cos B) .
(cos B cos A)= (sin A 4- si n B) (s
' n A ~ si" B) (7)

By transposing in Formulae (2), we have

sin (A 4- B) = 2 sin A cos B . sin (A B)
sin (A 4- B) = 2 cos A sin B . 4- ein (A B) (8)
If in the first of these equations we take A = 30, and in the second
A = 60,
sin (30+ B) = cos B sin (30 B)
sin (60 4- B) = sin B 4- sin (60
- B) (9)

By these formulae when the sines and cosines have been computed
up to 30, they may readily be determined for the whole quadrant.

tan (A B) = -
sin

cos (A
(A
,
+
.
B)
B)
\
= -
A
sin

sin
-- A
.

.
cos B
cos B
+
4.
cos
cos
A
A
.

.
sin

sin
B
B
Dividing each term in the numerator and denominator by
cos A . cos B we get
 OF PLANE TRIGONOMETRY.

tan A tan n
tan (A B) =
1 4! A tan u
tan .

and if B = A 2 tan A
tan 2 A = .
1 tan 'A
If A = 45*
= - --
I tan B
tan (45 B)
1+ tan B

If in Formulae (3), s =
(A -f B)and D = \ (A B) then by divi-
sionwe obtain the following formulae :

sin A 4- sin B 2 sin s . cos D tan s tan ^ (A + B)

sin A
Cos A
G8 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
A + B, D E = (A B), MFi and M E D are measured by i (A + B), and
M F E and M D i
by (A B). i M is the sum and M E the difference of
the sines. MF is the sum and MI> the difference of the cosines.
The angle K being a right angle, the angle M isa right angle.
And i M tan i F M
or
sin A -f- sin B tan ^ (A B) +
M E tan M F E sin A sin B tan i (A B)
F M
~~
COt 1 F M COS A + COS B _
~~
COt $ (A + B)
M tan M 1 1>' cos B cos A tan (A B)
i M sin A 4- sin B

M F
= tan M F i, or
COS A + COS B
= tan $ (A + B)

M sin A -f- sin B

I
= cot M i D, or = cot i (A B;
MD COS B COS A
EM = sin A sin B
tan E FM, or =; tan $ (A B)
M F COS A + COS B
EM sin A sin B
= COt M E D, Or =: COt (A + BJ
MD COS B COS A

ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF TABLES OF NATURAL

SINES, TANGENTS, &c.

"We have seen above, that cos

"

^
=r ^ (1 + cos A) ; hence if A be an

arc whose cos is known, the cos of ,

its half, may be computed. Now
m
60 is an arc of that description, its cosine (Proposition 1. Trig.) being

to radius unity. Hence cos 30=^ (1-fcos 60) =^/$ (1 + ) -

In this way the cosine of 15, 7 30', &c. may be computed; till, after

twelve successive bisections, the cosine of 52'' 44'" 3'" 45 T will be

obtained. Then knowing the cos, we readily get the sine ; for sin* =
rad* cos
8
,
= rad + cos . rad cos ;
or sin =^ /1 -|- cos . 1 cos,
iv V
to radius unity. Thus therefore the sine of 52" 44'" 3 45 may be
found.
Now as the sines of very small arcs vary nearly as the arcs them-
selves do, we have by analogy, as 52" 44'" 3 iv 45" is to the sine of
iT V
52" 44'" 3 45 ,
so is 1' of arc to the sine of 1', and hence the sine of
1' may be computed.
Thus having the sine and cosine of ]', we obtain the sine of 2' from
Formula 4,
sin 2 A = 2 sin A . cos A,
or sin 2'= 2 sin 1' . cos. 1'.

For the sine of 3', and every succeeding minute, we have from
Formula 7,
 OF PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. G9

sin A + B = 2 sin A . cos B sin A B.

Which expression, if A be taken = 2', 3', 4', &c. and B = I', be-
comes
sin 3' = 2 sin 2' . cos 1' sin 1'

sin 4' = 2 sin 3' . cos 1' sin 2'

sin 5' = 2 sin 4' . cos 1' sin 3', &c.

Having computed the sines of a few minutes in this manner, the
correctness of the computation may be ascertained by the application
of Formula 6, viz.

sin A B : sin A sin B : : sin A + sin B : : sin A + B.

Here let A =r 3' and B r= 2?, and the expression is

sin 1' : sin 3' - sin 2' : : sin 3' + sin 2' : sin 5'.

If the sine of o', computed in this way, agree with the sine of the
same arc computed by the former, or any other independent method,
tiie result may be considered as correct.

By the method here described the sines of all arcs may be com-
puted, and their cosines may then be obtained by the formula, cos

as * /I + sin . 1 sin, their tangents by tan = their cotangents

V COS
,

bv cot = COS
-; , their secants by sec = 1
,
&c.
sin cos
Or the secants may be deduced from the tangents by Prop. II.

Trigonometry.

PROPOSITION V.

In any right-angled plane triangle, as the hypothenuse is to either of

the sides, so is the radius to the sine of the angle opposite to that side ;
and as eit/ier of the sides is to the other side, so is the radius to the

tangent of the angle opposite to that other side.

Let ABC
be a plane triangle right angled at A ; and from c as a 1

centre with any radius c D, let the arc D E be de-

scribed, meeting c B and c A in the points D and
E ;
and from D and E, let D p and E G be drawn
perpendicular to A c, then D P is the sine, and
E o the tangent of the arc E D, or of the angle c.
The triangles c P D, CEO, and CAB are similar, as they have
the common angle c, and each of the angles CPE, CEO, and CAB
is a right angle. Hence CB: BA::CD : DP; ores: HA:: rad :

sin c. And CA:AB::CE:EO; or c A : A B : : rad : tan .

Cor. 1. c B sin c rad . B A, and c A = . . tan c = ra . AB ; or

if rad be considered as unity, B A c B = . sin c, aim B A . c A .

tan c.
Cor. 2. c B : c A : : cD : c F ; or c B : c A : : rad : cos c. There-
fore c B . cos c = rad . c A ;
or c A = c B . cos c, radius being
unity.
70 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
Cor. 3. c A : c B : : c E : co ;
or c A : c B : : rad : sec c. Hence
cA . sec c =r rad . c B or c B
sec c, radius being unity.
;
= c A .

Cor. 4. To the hypothenuse as a radius, each of the other sides is

the >ine of its opposite angle ; and to one of the sides as a radius, the
other the tangent of its opposite angle, and the hypothenuse
is is the
secant of the same angle.

PROPOSITION VI.
Tlie sides of plane triangles are to each

other as the sines of the opposite angles.

From c, any angle of the triangle ABC,
draw c D, a perpendicular on the opposite
side, or that side produced.
Then . , . . Ac . sin A = C D)
and . . . . Bc . sin B = CD) ' (Prop. IV.)

. AC . sin A BC . sin B
Hence . . , . Ac : Bc : : sin B : sin A
AC sin B
or, = .
Bc sin A
PROPOSITION VII.
In every plane triangle if a perpendicular be drawn from any of
the angles on the opposite side, the segments of that side are to each
other as the cotangents of their adjacent angles.

For (see the last fig.) AD . tan A = DC)

(Prop. IV.)
and . . . . DB . tan B = DC)
.AD. tan A = DB . tan B
and , . . AD : DB : : tan B : tan A
but . . . tan B : tan A : : cot A : cot B
. AD : DB : : cot A : cot B.

PROPOSITION VIII.
The sum of any two sides of a triangle is to their difference, as the
tangent of half the sum of the angles opposite to those sides is to the

tangent of half their difference.

By (Prop. 5.), if
B c be denoted by a and A c by b,
a sin A

b sin B
a -f- b sinA + sin B
a b sn A sn B
a + b tan (A + B)
a- b tan (A B)
or . a -\- b a b :: tan J (A + B ) tan (A B)
tan x
Aole. Let - = i i jc rus ~ _

I
 OF PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. 71

a b 1 tan x
then . . .
- = -
a + o 1 -f- Ia "
''

or .... tan i (A
tan
f-i-
(A 4- B)
B)
'- = tan (45 - x)

hence . tan (A B) = tan (A +B) . tan (45 a:).

PROPOSITION IX.

If a perpendicular be drawn from any angle of a plane triangle to

the opposite side, or base, the sum of t/ie segments of the base is to the
KII m
of the ot/ier two sides, as the difference if those sides is to the
tlijt'i-rence of the segments of the base.
(See the first fig. in Prop. 6.)
(AC-T-CB) .
(AC = (AD+DB) .(AD DB).
CB) .
.(Cor. Theo. 47.)
or (AC+CB) .
(AC CB) = AB (AD DB) .

hence . . AB:AC-|-CB::AC CBIAD DB.

PROPOSITION X.
To find the cosine of any angle of a plane triangle when all its
sides are gin //.
Let ABC
(Trig. Prop. 6.) be any plane triangle, and c D a per-
pendicular upon A B, or upon A B produced. Then when the per-
pendicular falls within the triangle, we have (Geo. Prop. 46.)
AC* =
A B* 4- B c* -
2 A B . B D. But (Trig. Prop. 5. Cor. 2)
B D = BC . cos B, to radius unity. Hence AC" = AB* + BC*
2AB . BC . COS B ; Or 2 A B . B C . COS B = A B* + B C* AC*, whence
A B* B C* AC*
COS B = - -4-
.
2 AB BC .

If c D fall without the triangle, we have (Geo. Prop. 45.) AC* =

A B* + B C* + 2 A B B D. But B D
. = BC
COS C B D = B C COS ABC,
. .

whence A c* = A B8 4- B c* 2AB. BC. cos A B c, and therefore

A B8- + B C* - A C*
as before, cos A B c = -
, radius being unity ; and

A B* B C* A C*
A B c =rad. -
, -f-
cos , to any given radius.
2 A B . BC
Cor. If a, b, c represent the sides, and A, B, c the opposite angles of
a triangle, then from this proposition we liave the following general
expressions :

b* 4-c* a*
a* = 6* 4- c* 2bc t cos A ; whence cos A = 2bc
b* =a f
-4-c* 2ae. cos B whence cos B = a* + c* - b* '
;
2ac
c* = a* -f 4* 2ab . cos c ; whence cos c = a+& c
'

2ab
72 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

PROPOSITION XI.
To investigate the relation bftirnn the sides of a plane triangle, and
the sine, cosine, or tunyent, of half of any of its angles.

Adopting the same notation we have

a b* c* - 2 b c =
cos A + . . .
(Prop. X. Trig.)
= b* + c*-2bc + 2bc 2 be .cos A

r= b c -\- 2 be . I COS A

= b c -\- 4bc . sin 2

/. 4bc . sin* = a8 b c

= (a + b - c) .
( b + e)

b c . sin
.A =a+b c
.
a b
_
-\- c

= (s
- i) .
(s c), where s = ^ (a + b + c)

6) .
(s c)

Again a1 =r 6* + c* 2 b c cos A .

= b*+t? + 2bc 2bc 2 be. cos A

= b + c 2bc(l + cos A)

b + c 4bc. coss
iU

.-. 4 6 c cos .
8
=6+c a 8

2
= (4 + c + a) (6 + c .
a)

ic . cos
8
A
- = i+c+a^+c
^
a
.

b+c + a /b + c + a
2
= s .
(s a)

,. cos =
2

. A
sin

= 2
-= /(s
- b) .
(s
- c)
Hence tan -, which is

cosl s.(s-a)
36
 OF PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. 73

PROPOSITION XII.
l-*t>rmulte for computing the. third side of a triangle from two gin n
sides and the contained angle.

Again a* = 6* + e* 2 b c cos A . . .
(Prop. X. Trig.)
2bc-2bc-2bccosA
= b -V-c 2bc(l + cos A)

.. a = J(b + c + N) (b c .
-f- <^> N)
Again a* = 6* + c* 2 b c cos A .

= b* + 2bc + 2bc e* 2 be cos A.

= b c + 2bc .
(1 cos A)

=6 c + 4 6e . sin*

1 + --
4bc
~~~
. sin* \
I =b-c
__ g
.
(I + tan* N)

or a' b c. sec* N
a =6 e . sec N.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE IN THE THEORY OF

TRIGONOMETRY.
1. Shew that sin A . sec A = tan A ; cosec A . tan A = sec A and that
sec A cot A = . cosec A.
tan A
2. Prove that = sin A.
VI 4- tan* A

tan A B = sin (A + B)
3. . . . -f tan -^
'.
COS A . COS B

4. ... tan A + cot A

= sin A cos A. .

5 COt* A CCS* A = COt A .COS* A 1

6 sin (A + B) . cos A cos (A -f B) . sin A sin B.

7. Shew when A + B -f c = 180
that
tan A tan B tan c = tan A + tan B
. .
-f- tan c.
8. And when A + B + c r= 90
tan A tan B -f tan A tan c + tan B
. . . tan c = 1.

9. If m = tan A + sin A and n = tan A sin A, prove cos A = .

in +n
74

10.

1 1.
Prove

Given
sin

sin A
2A

=
= -
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF PLANE TRIQONOMETUY.

1
2 tan A
+ tan "A
sin 2 A, to find the value
ami cos 2 A= -
1

1
- A
A
-f tan*
of A ..... A
tan*
.

= 60.
12. If L . cos /=:///, and L cos /' ',
shew that cot $
. = (/ + /') =
m.m
13. Prove that tan 22$ =r -- -.

14. If s

15.
= half the sum of the sides b, of a
then, shew that 8 = a
cos A B cos A c

In any plane triangle ABC, prove

.
-- ,

sin A
.
c,

A
.
plane triangle ABC,

a + b + c=(a + b). cos c + (a + c) cos B + (b -\- c) cos A. . .

16. Also that

^ (a* + //+ c*) =
ab cos c + a c cos B + b c cos A.
. . .

1 7. Prove that in
any plane triangle ABC,
a+ b
_ cos (A B)
c sin ^ c
a b sin i (A B)
and
c cos % c
18. Shew that 1 - cos h . cos A'= sin* 4 (A + /*') + sin* (A A')
and that sin A
(A .
A') sin A'
sin" (A A'). = sin
2
+
19. Prove that the two angles of which the tangents are respectively
i and , are together 45. =
20. Shew that the area of any right-angled triangle = semi-perimeter
X (semi-perimeter hypothenuse).

21. If tan A = x-, then x = y sin 2A x cos 2 A, and y =

y.
y cos 2 A + x sin 2 A.

22. Prove that tan* (45 + i A) = + }

8
.'"
A
.

1 sin A
23. Prove that 2 cos 11 15'= ^2 + ^2 -f
 ( 75 )

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
OF

SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.

1. A SPHERE is a solid bounded by a curve surface, every point of

which is at the same distance from a point within, called the centre.
Cor. 1. A sphere may be conceived to be generated by the revolu-
tion of a semicircle about its diameter.
Cor. 2. The section of a sphere, by a plane passing through the

centre, is a circle ; for every straight line drawn in the plane, from the

centre to the surface of the sphere, is equal to the radius.

Cor. 3. All circles of a sphere whose planes pass through the centre
are equal ; and any two of them bisect each other.
2. The circles of a sphere whose planes pass through the centre are
called great circles ; and those whose planes do not pass through the
centre are called iess circles.
3. The pole of a circle isa point on the surface of the sphere equally
distant from every point in the circumference of the circle.
4. A
spherical angle is an angle on the surface of a sphere con-
tained by the arcs of two great circles at their point of intersection ;
and it is the same with the inclination of the planes of the circles, or
with the plane angle formed by the tangents of the arcs at the point of
intersection.
5. A
spherical triangle is a figure formed upon the surface of a
sphere by the intersection of three planes which meet in the centre of
the sphere.

PROPOSITION I.

Every section of a sphere by a plane is a circle.

If the plane pass through the centre, then, as every point in the sur-
face of the sphere is equidistant from its centre, the
section is a plane figure, every point of whose peri-

phery is equidistant from a certain point within it,

ami the figure is therefore a circle.

But plane do not pass through the centre,
if the

let c D F be the section, and c, i> any two points in

its periphery. Let A B be a perpendicular from the centre A on the
plane of the section, and join AC, A i>. Then the angles A B c, A B D
are right angles, A c is equal to A D, and the perpendicular A B com-
mon to both the right-anjzled triangles ABC, A B i> ; therefore the
76 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES
bases n c and u D are equal. Hence all lines drawn from B in the plane
cDE F, to the periphery of that plane, are equal ; and the figure is con-
sequently a circle.
PROPOSITION II.

The distance of a great circle from its pole is a quadrant.

Let D be the pole of the great circle A B c, and A D c a great circle

passing through D ; then A D c is a semi-circle

(Cor. 3. Defin. 1. Spherics) ; and as D is equidis-
tant from every part of the circumference ABC
(Defin. 8. Spherics), D A and D c are quadrants.
Cor. Every circle has two poles, one on each
side of its plane,and they are at the extremities
of a diameter perpendicular to that plane.

PROPOSITION III.
If two great circles, as B A, CA, intersect each other in A, on the
surface of a sphere whose centre is r>, and if EC be an arc of the great
circle whose pole is A, B c is the measure of the spherical angle B A c.

For join AD, B D, and c D, then as A is the pole of B c, A B and A c

are quadrants, and therefore the angles A D B and ADC
are right angles.
Hence the angle B D c is the inclination of the
planes of A B and A c, and it is therefore equal to the

spherical angle B A c. But B D c is measured by the

arc BC, therefore the spherical angle BA-C is also
measured by the arc B c.
Cor. 1. As A D is
perpendicular to DB and DC, it is perpendicular
to the plane BD c, therefore the planes A D B and
which pass ADC
through A D are also perpendicular to the plane B D c ; and conse-

quently the spherical angles ABC

and AC B are right angles. Hence
the great circles which pass through the pole of another great circle
cut it at right angles.
Cor. 2. Great circles whose planes are at right angles to the plane
of one and the same great circle, or which cut the same great circle at

right angles, meet in the poles of that circle.

Cor. 3. If the planes of two great circles be at right angles tp each
other, each of the circles passes through the poles of the other ; and if
the circumference of one great circle pass through the poles of another,
the planes of those circles are at right angles.

PROPOSITION IV.
In which are opposite the equal
isosceles spherical triangles, the angles
sides are equal ; and if two angles of a spherical triangle are equal,
the sides which are opposite those angles are equal.

Let ABC be an isosceles spherical triangle, AB and AC being the

 OF SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. 77

equal MUO-, and let be the centre of the sphere.

Let B E and c E be tangents to A B and A c, ami
B F and c K two tangents drawn from B and c in
the plane D B c, intersecting each other in F, and
jniu F K. Then as AB and AC are equal, their
tangents B E and c E are equal and they have, ;

therefore,the common secant D E ; and (Geo.

Theo. 65. Cor. 2.) BF is equal to F c, and F E is common to the

triangles B F E and c F E, the plane angle E B F is equal to the plane

angle E c F, or the spherical angles ABC and A c B are equal.
Again, the same construction being made, suppose the spherical
angles ABC and A c B, or the plane angles E B F and E c F, to be equal ;
then as D B is at right angles to B E and B F, it is at right angles to
the plane BEF; and therefore the plane BDC, which passes through
D B, is at right angles to the plane BEF. For a like reason, the plane
BDc is at right angles to the plane Ec F, and therefore F E, the com-
mon section of the planes E B F and E F c, is at right angles to the
plane DBC. (Geo. Prop. 89.) Hence EFB and EFC are right

angles, and consequently as the angles E B F and E c F are equal, and

the side B F equal to the side F c, the triangles and c E F are BEF
identical ; equal to c E, and as D B and D c are also
whence B E is

equal, and the angles D B E and D c E being right angles are equal,
the angle E D B is equal to the angle E D c ; therefore A B is equal
to AC.
PROPOSITION V.
The sum of any two sides of a spherical triangle is greater than the
third side; the difference of any two of them is less than the third;
and the sum of the three sides is less than the circumference of a great

For D be the centre of the sphere, join D to A, B and

let c. Then
the solid angle at D is contained by three plane
angles of which (Prop. 90. Geo.) the sum of any two
is
greater than the third, the difference of any two of
them is less than the third, and
(Prop. 91. Geo.) the
sum of all the three is less than four right angles.
Hence of the sides A B, A c and BC which measure the plane angles,
the sum of any two of them is greater than the third, the difference of

any two of them is less than the third, and the sum of all three
is less than the arc of a great circle, which is the measure of four

right angles.
PROPOSITION VI.
In a spherical triangle the greater side is opjwsite the greattr anyle,
and the greater angle ojtjxusite the great'tr .\ii/r.

Let ABC be a spherical triangle; if the angle n be greater than

78 Kl.KMENTARY PRINCIPLES

the angle A, the side Ac is

greater than
the side B c.
For let AB D, a part of ABC, be
equal to A, then A D is equal to B D.
(Spher. Prop. 4.) But (Spher. Prop. 5.)
the sum of B D and D c is greater than
A
B c ; therefore A c, which is equal to the sum of B D and D c, is greater
than B c.
Again, if A c be greater than B o, the angle A B c is greater than
the angle A.
For if ABc
is not
greater than A, it must either be equal to it, or
less. Ifwere equal, then A c would be eqtial to B c (Spher. Prop.
it

4.), which it is not. And if A B c were less than A, A c would be less

than B c, by the former part of this proposition, which it is not. Hence
as AB c is neither equal to nor less than A, it must be greater.

PROPOSITION VII.
Three great circles, whose poles are the angular points of a spherical

triangle, will, by their intersection, form another triangle whose angu-

lar points are the poles of the great circles, which, by their intersection,

form the sides of the first triangle ; and the sides of each of the tri-

angles are the supplements of the arcs which measure the angles of the
other.

In the annexed figure, if A, B, and c be the poles of D E, E F, and

F D respectively, then , E, and F are the
poles of AC, A B, and BC respectively; and
r> E, E F, and F D are
respectively the sup-
plements of the arcs which measure the angles
B A c, ABC, and A c B ; and AC, A B,
and B c be the supplements
will respectively
of the arcs which measure the angles D, E,
and F.

For let A B, A c, and B c be produced both ways, till they meet D E,

E F, and D F in o, H, i, K, L, and M. Then G H is the measure of the

angle B AC, K.I the measure of the angle ABC, and M L the measure
of the angle A c B (Spher. Prop. 3). And as A is the pole of D E,
the angle A H D is a right angle (Spher. Prop. 3. Cor. 1), and for a
like reason the angle c L D is a right angle ; hence (Prop. 3. Cor. 2.
Spherics) D is the pole of LH. In the same way it may be shown that
E is the pole of GK, and F the pole of MI; and consequently LH is
the measure of the angle D, G K the measure of the angle E, and M i

the measure of the angle F.

Now as D is the pole of L H, D H is a quadrant ; and as E is the pole
of G K, EG is a quadrant ;
therefore E G and H, or E D and G H to-
 OF SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. 79

gether, are equal to a semicircle. Hence D E is the supplement of

GH,
the measure of the angle BAG. And in like manner
may be shown
it

that EPthe supplement of K i, the

is measure of ABC; and D F the
supplement of M L, the measure of AC B.
Again, because A is the pole of D E, A o is a quadrant ; and because
B the pole of E F, B K. is a quadrant.
is Hence A a and B
K, or K G
and A B together, are equal to a semicircle ; or A B is the supplement
of G K, the measure of the angle E. And in the same way it may be
shown that Ac is the supplement of L H, the measure of D and B c the ;

supplement of M i, the measure of F.

PROPOSITION VIII.
The sum of the interior angles of a spherical triangle is greater than

two, and less than six right angles.

For (see last figure) the measures of the angles A, B, c, in the

triangle ABC, together with the three sides of the supplemental

triangle DBF, are equal to three semicircles. But the three sides
of the triangle D E F are less than two semicircles (Spher. Prop. 5.),
therefore the measures of the angles A, B, and c are greater than a
semicircle ; hence the angles A, B, and c are greater than two right
angles.
And as the interior angles of any triangle, together with the exterior,
are equal to six right angles, the interior angles alone must be less than
six right angles.

PROPOSITION IX.

If to the circumference of a great circle, from a point in the surface

of a sphere, which is not the pole of that circle, arcs of great circles be
drawn, the greatest of those arcs is that which passes through the pole
of the first-mentioned circle, and of the other arcs that which is nearer
to the greatest is greater than the more remote.
Let D be the pole of A G F B, c G and c F arcs of any other great
circles, drawn from c to A G F B.
The planes A D B and A F B are
perpendicular to each other (Prop.
3. Cor. 3. Spherics), and A B is a
diameter. From c in the plane
A D B draw c E perpendicular
to A B, join o E and F E and ;

C B is perpendicular to A E,
G E, and FE (Defin. 1. and 2.

Planes) ; and (Prop. 50. Geom.)

A K is greater than E o, and E G than F E. Therefore, the right-
plane triangles A EC, G EC, and F EC, having the common per-
80 1 I r-MKNTAUY PRINCIPLES

pendicular E c, the liypothenuse Ac greater than o c, and o c greater

is

tlian c P. Hence the arc ADC is

greater than the arc G c; and
G c is
greater than c F, which is more remote from A D c.

PROPOSITION X.
In right-angled spherical triangles the sides containing the right
angle are of the same affection as their opposite angles ; that is, if the
sides be greater or less than quadrants, the opposite angles are greater
or less than right angles ; and, conversely, if the angles be greater or
less than right angles, the opposite sides are greater or less than

quadrants.
Let ABC be a spherical triangle, right angled at A ; produce A c,
A B, they meet
till in G,
and bisect ABO and ACG
in E and p. Then F is the

pole of A B G, and E the

pole of A F G. Join c E,
then CE is a quadrant, and
the angle E c A a right
angle. Hence, when A B is

lessthan A E, or less than a

quadrant, the opposite angle B c A is less than the angle E c A, or less

than a right angle.

Again, A D c be a spherical triangle, right angled at A, having

let
AD greater than a quadrant, then the angle D c A is greater than the
angle E c A, or greater than a right angle.
In a similar manner may the converse be demonstrated.

PKOPOSITION XL
If the sides which contain the right angle of aright-angled spherical
triangle be of the same affection, the side opposite the right angle is less
than a quadrant ; but if they be of different affections, the side opposite
the right angle is greater than a quadrant.

For (see the last figure) when A c and A B are each less than a

quadrant, c B being farther from CFG than c E, is therefore less than

c E, or less than a quadrant. (Prop. 9. Spherics.) But if A D be
greater, and A c be less than a quadrant, then c D being nearer CFG
than c E, is greater than c E, or greater than a quadrant.
Again, in the right-angled triangle c G B, where c G and G B are
each greater than a quadrant, c B being farther from CFG than c E, is

le*s than c E, or less than a quadrant.

Cor. 1. Hence, conversely, if the liypothenuse of a right-angled

spherical triangle be greater than a quadrant, the sides are of different
 OF SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. 81

; and if the liypothenuse be less than a quadrant, the sides are

of the same affection.
Cor. 2. As the oblique angles of a right-angled spherical triangle
have the same affection with the opposite sides, those angles are of the
s:iine or different affections, according as the hypothenuse is less or

^renter than a quadrant.

Cor. 3. When a side and the adjacent angle are of the same affection,
the hypothenuse is less than a quadrant ; and when a side and the ad-

jacent angle are of different affections, the hypothenuse is

greater than
a quadrant.

PROPOSITION XII.
In any spherical triangle, if the perpendicular from one of the angles
upon the opposite side fall within the triangle, the other angles of the
triangle are of the same affection ; but if the perpendicularfall toit/iout
the triangle, the other angles are of different affections.

Let ABC be a triangle, and B D a perpendicular drawn from B on

\ . AC produced.
or
When B D falls within the triangle, the angles A and c of the right-
angled triangles A D B and B D c being of the same affection with B D,
are of the same affection with each other.
But when the perpendicular falls without the triangle, the angles
DAB and D c B, being of the same affection with B D, are of the same
affection with each other hence B A c (the supplement of D A B) and
;

c are of different affections.

PROPOSITION XIII.
any right-angled spherical triangle, the rectangle of radius and
///

lln-nine of either of the sides containing the right angle is equal to the

rectangle of the tangent of the other side, and the cotangent of the angl<-
opposite to that side.

Let A B c be a spherical triangle, right angled

at B ; and let D be the centre of the sphere.
From B, in the plane DAB, draw B E perpendi-
cular to D A ; and from K in the plane A C D,
draw K v also perpendicular to DA, meeting DC
produced in F, and join F it. Then as D E is
perpendicular to E F and EB at tlu-ir joint of
82 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

meeting, it is
perpendicular to the plane EBP (Geom. Prop. 82.),
therefore tlu> plane E B F is perpendicular to the plane A i> B,
which passes through D E. (Geom. Prop. 88.) And as the angle
c B A is a rightangle, the plane F D B is at right angles to the plune
A D B hence B
; F, the common section of the planes E B F and F D B,
is at
right angles to the plane (Geom. Prop. 89.) ; and conse- DAB
quently the angles F B D and F B E are right angles, and F B is there-
fore the tangent of B c. Now, in the right-angled plane triangle
EB F, we have E B : B i<- : : rad : tan BE F. But E B is sine of A B, and
the angle B E F is the angle made by the planes ADC and A D B, or it

is
equal to the spherical angle B A c. Hence
r . sin AB = tan B c . cot BA c.

And similarly we have r . sin Bc = tan AB : cot B c A.

PROPOSITION XIV.

In any right-angled spherical triangle, the rectangle of radius and

the sine of either of the sides containing the right angle is equal to the
rectangle of the sine of the angle opposite that side and the sine of the

hi/pothenuse.

From c (see the last figure) in the plane CD A, let CG be drawn

perpendicular to AD ;
and from G in the plane BDA let G H be drawn
also perpendicular to D B in H, and join CH.
D A, meeting
Then it
exactly, as in the last proposition, that c H G
may be shown
is a right-angled plane triangle, and that c H is the sine of B c ; and
the angle c GH is A c.
equal to the spherical angle B
Now G H we have
in the plane triangle c
r c H = c G sin c G n. . .

Or r sin B c = sin A c sin B A c. . .

And similarly r sin A B = sin A c sin B c A. . .

Remark. DG.DB = DE.DH; orr. cos c A = cos A B cos B c . ;

and c H cot c G H = G H, which is also = D H

. sin G D H, or .

sin c B cot c A B = cos c B sin A B.

. Or sin A B = tan B c cot B A c. . .

PROPOSITION XV.
In any right-angled spherical triangle ABC (B being the right angle)
the following equations obtain.

Viz. 1. r . sin AB= tan Bc . cot A

2. r . sin A B =. sin Ac . sin c
3. r . sin = tan
Bc AB . cot c
4. r . sin = sin AC
Bc . sin A
5. r . cos A c = cot A . cot c
G. r . cos A c = cos A B . cos B c
 OF 8PIIERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. 83

7. r . CQS A = tan AB . cot Ac

8. r . cos A =r cos B c . sin c
9. r . cos c = tan Bc . cot Ac
10. r . cos c = cos AB . sin A
The four of these equations are demonstrated in the two pre-
first

ceding propositions. To show the truth of the other equations, let

D F be the great circle of which A is the pole, and produce BC till it
meets produce A c and A B also till they meet D F in E and
DF in F ;

D. Then B and D are right angles, F is the pole of A B

as the angles ;

B D, the measure of the angle F, is the complement of A B ED, ;

the measure of the angle A, is the complement of E F E c is the ;

complement of AC; CF the complement of BC; the angle ECF is

is
equal to the vertical angle ACB; and the angle CEF is a right
angle.
Now by Propositions 13 and 14, in the right-angled triangle CEF,
we have
r . sin c E = tan EF . cot ECF; or r . cos Ac r= cot A . cot ACB.
(Equation 5.)
r . sin c E = sin cF . sin cF E ; or r . cos Ac = cos B c . cos A u.

(Equation 6.)
r . sin EF = tan c E . cot F ; or r' . cos A = cot Ac . tan A n.

(Equation 7.)
r . sin EF = sin c F . sin FcE ; or r . cos A := cos B c . sin ACB.
(Equation 8 )
And
by taking c as the pole of a great circle, and producing B c
AC, and completing the figure as above, the ninth and tenth may
be deduced exactly in the same manner as the seventh and eighth
have been.
SCHOLIUM.
In recollecting the different equations, there may be sometimes
a risk of confounding one of them with another and an expedient ;

which may aid in recollecting the equation which

appropriate to the is

solution of any case that may be proposed, must be considered as very

desirable.
Baron Napier, a Scotch nobleman, the celebrated inventor of loga-
rithms, had the fortune to observe that, by a particular classification of
the parts of a right-angled triangle, all the equations might be included
in two, easy of recollection, and simple in their application.
These equations of Napier (commonly called Napier's Rules for
the Circular Parts) may be thus explained.
a right-angled spherical triangle, the riyht angle be disregarded,
If, in
there remain for consideration only five other parts viz., the
- :

which include the right angle, the hypothenuse, and the oblique angles.
Now the .-ides which include the right angle, the complement of the
G 2
84 ELKMKXTAKY 1MUXC1PLES

hypotlienuse, and tlie complements of the oblique angles, are called,

in Napier's Rules, the Jive circular parti of a right-angled triangle ;

and if of these circular parts one of them be considered as the middle

part, then the two parts immediately adjacent to it on the right and left
are called the adjoining extremes, and the two remaining parts, each of
which is separated from the middle part by an adjacent one, are called
opposite extremes.
Thus in the spherical triangle ABC, right angled at B, if A B be
considered as the middle part, the complement of A,
and the side B c are the adjoining extremes ; and the
complements of A c, and the angle c, are the opposite
extremes. If the complement of A be considered as
the middle part, A B and the complement of A c are
the adjoining extremes; and BC and the complement
of c are the opposite extremes. If the complement of A c be con-
sidered as the middle part, the complements of the angles A and c
are the adjoining extremes, and the sides A B and B c are the opposite
extremes.
With these explanations of the terms, Napier's Rules for the solution
of the different cases of right-angled spherical triangles are
1 The rectangle of radius and the sine of the middle part is equal
.

to the
rectangle of the tangents of the adjoining extremes.
2. The rectangle of radius and the sine of the middle part is equal
to the rectangle of the cosines of the opposite extremes.
If each of the circular parts be taken middle one, in succession as the
we shall find that these two equations produce
the ten equations for all

right-angled spherical triangles demonstrated above. Thus, considering

A B as the middle part, BC and the complement of A are the adjoining
extremes ; and the complements of AC and c are the opposite extremes.
And the first of Napier's Rules gives
r . sin AB = tan Bc . tan complement A, or tan Bc . cot A. (Equa-
tion 1.)
The second of Napier's Rules gives
r sin A B = cos complement A c
. . cos complement c, or sin AC .

sin c. (Equation 2.)

If the complement of c be the middle part, we have by Napier
r sin complement c
. tan B c tan complement A c = .

or r . cos c =
tan B c cot A c. (Equation 9.) .

and r complement c =r cos A B cos complement A

. sin .

or r cos A B sin A.
. cos c =
(Equation 10.) .

And in this manner may each of the above ten equations be shown
to be the same with those
produced by Napier's Rules, ;md the equa-
tions of Napier are therefore identical with those which have been di-

rectly demonstrated.
 OF SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. 85

PHOPOSITION XVI.
iy tpkerical tri<tn<jl<' the sines of the sides are proportional to
the sines of their opposite angles.
In the right-angled spherical triangle ABC (see the last figure, we
have (Prop. 15.) r sin A B sin A c sin B c A and r . sin B c
. sin = . =
A c . sin B A c ; hence r sin A B r sin B c sin A c . sin B c A
. : . : :

: A c sin B A c or sin A B sin B c sin B c A sin B A c.

-in .
; : : :

But if the triangle A B c be not right angled, let A D be a great circle

drawn from A perpendicular to B c, or B c A
Then in the right-angled tri-
produced.
= /-/\ A\
angle A D B we have r sin A D sin A B . .
/ \^ ,/ I ^
sin B and in the right-angled triangle A D
; < , C R c

we have r sin A D = sin A c sin c hence

. .
;

.-in A a sin B = sin A c

. sin c or sin A B .
; : sin AC:: sin c : sin B.
sin A B sin c
or
sin A c sin B

PROPOSITION XVII.
//* any spherical triangle, as ABC
(see the last figure), if AD be a
perpendicular from A on B c, or on Reproduced, the following rela-
tions obtain.

COS AB _ COS B D COS B sin BAD sill BD COt B

cos AC cos Dc
'
'"cose rift CAD* "sin DC cote
cos BAD cot AB tan BD tan BAD
4
cos CAD cot Ac tan Dc tan CAD
For r . cos AB = cos A D . cos BD I

and

whence by

Again
r .

r .
cos Ac

division

cos B
=

= cos A D
cos AD
COS
COS
AB
AC
.
. cos

sins A v\
= - .......
D cj

COS B D
COS
>

DC
. . .
Equat. 6. Prop. 15.

(1)

and r . cos c = cos A D . sin c AD

I
|
. .
Equat. 8. Prop. 15.

BAD
whence by division
cos B
cos c
= sin

sin
-
cA D
-
....... (2)

Also
so r . sn
sin B D = an
tan AD . B
cot BI
=
- Equat. Prop. lo.
> 1.
and r . sin D c an
tan AD . c
cot cf

.-ill B D COt B
\\lierictfnvdi\ision =
sin D c cot c

and
And

whence by
r. cos BAD =
AD. cot A B)
r.co*CAD=tanAD.cotAcf
divi
tan

-
COS B A
COS CAD
D
= COt-- ....
AB
COt A C
(4)
SG KI.KMEXTARY PRINCIPLES

Lastly r sin A D rr
. tan DB . cot B AD i

r.sm A D= DC \ . . .Equat. 3. Prop. 15.

and tan .cote ADl
therefore tan D B . cot BAD = tan i> c . cot CAD
whence
tan i) B
= cot CAD
BAD
=
cot tan BAD
foi
tan Dc tan CAD

PROPOSITION XVIII.
To investigate the trigonometrical relation between the sides of a

spherical triangle and its angles.

Let A, B, c (see the be the angles of a spherical triangle
last figure)

a, b, c,the opposite sides and the perpendicular A D p, also let =

c D = m, then B D a <^* . = m
Then sin m= sin b . sin D A c)
and cos c = cosp . sin D A cj}
. . . . (Prop. 15.)

sin m= sin b
therefore by division ,
or sin m . cos = sin b . cos c . . .
( 1 )
cos c cosp
Now cos (a ^ m) = cos a . cos m -f- sin a . sin m ;
and multiplying this

by cosp . .cos (a<^ m) .

cosp = cos a. cos m .cosp -j-
sin a . sin m.cosp
but
cos(aeyot) cos />= cos c ; cos
.
CQS/>=COS b, and sin m cos/>=sin b cos c
m . . .

therefore cos c = cos a cos b + sin a sin b cos c

. . .

also cos a = cos b . cos c + sin b . sin c . cos A

and cos b = cos a . cos c + sin a . sin c . cos B

cos a Cos b. cose cos b cos a. cos c

Hence cos A = : ; ; cos B = :

a
: ;
sin b . sin c sin . sin c
a cos b
COS C = cosesin cos
a sin b
:

.
:
.

Also denoting /. D A c by M and /. B A D by (A M) we have,

cos = cos D c sin c M .

and cos b = cos D c cosp .

.'. cos M cosp = sin c cos b

. . . .
(2)
Now sin (A M) = sin A . cos M cos A . sin M
sin (A M) cosp = sin A cos M cos p
. cos A . . . sin M . cos p
or cos B =r sin A sin c cos b cos A cos c . . .

also cos A = sin B . sin c . cos a cos B . cos c

and cos c = sin A . sin B cos c . cos A . cos B

and hence cos b-=.

COS B + COS A .COS C
:

MII A . sin
:

c
; cos a = COS Asin+ BCOSsinB ACOS r .

.
:
.

. cos c r=
COS C +
;
COS A COS B .

till A . sill B
 OF SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. 87

PROPOSITION XIX.
To investigate the trigonometrical relation between the sides of a
sfiln rical triangle and the half of any of
its angles.

By Prop. 18 .... cos a = cos b . cos c + sin b . sin c . cos A

whence o
cos a = cos b . cos c sin b . sin c + sin b . sin c -f sin b . sin c . cos A
or cos a = cos (b + c) + sin b sin c (1 + cos A) . .

= cos (4 -f c) + 2 sin b. sine, cos* (1)

2

Hence 2 sin i . sin c . cos

2
= cos (6 + c) cos a
21

,
a -f 6
- + e . i+ c a
.sin

Dividing by 2 and putting s for ,

we have

sin b . sin c . cos* = sin s . sin (s a)

,A sins
s sin (s a)
Hence cos
*J
= :
.

cin/icirt^* ; :
= sins. sm(s a '). cosec o cosec c .

sin b . sin c
A
or cos =r /sin s . sin (s a) . cosec b . cosec c

Again cos arrcos b cos c + sin b . . sin c sin b . sin e + sin6 . sin c . cos A
or cos a =r cos (b c) sin b . sin c ( 1 cos A)

= cos (4 c) 2 sin b . sine . sin* ^

(2)

Hence 2 sin b . sin c . sin* - =cos (b c) cos a

2
b c
.sin
.
a+ -c
-- - b

\ *
-- c\
= 2sin(fa + -b+c .

/
- l.sinf
.

\
- --
/a + b+c
-
*
b)

= 2 sin (s c) sin (8 .
b)
From which as before we obtain

sin - = A/ sin (s c) . sin (s b) . cosec b . cosec c

A
sm
Since
A
COS-

tlierefore tan - = i / sin (s />) . sin (s c) cosec B . cosec (s )

88 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

PROPOSITION XX.
When two sides of a spherical triangle and their contained angle
are given to investigate formula for computing the remaining side.

By Form. ( 1
) Prop. 1 9 ... cos a =r cos (b + c) -f2 sin b . sin c . cos*--
m

therefore 1 cos a = 1 cos (b + c) 2 sin b sin c . . cos* -

or 2 sin* = 2 sin* 2 sin b . sin c . cos

*

or sin"
a
= sin*
b
-
+c sin b sine
sn . cos
8 -

if if 2

Let sin 6 . sin c . cos*

-^-
= sin* N (1)
fli

then

sin*
m
-
=sin
+
--- sm*N
z
c
=
/
f

\
sin --
&+c
2
|-sin N
\

J \
).(
/
sin
b+c
2
-- sin
.

N
J

in
2 - = sin( - j- N j.sin (
-
)... (Trig. Form. 3. Prop. 3.)
\ * / \ * /

Hence
a
--= / / b + c
. \ . /b + c \
h N
sin
2 v
.
/sin
v 2 )
.sin
\ *
HI.
)
Again by Form. (2). Prop. 19
cos a cos (b e) 2 sin b . sin c . sin*
y

therefore 1 + cos a = + 1 cos (b e) 2 sin b . sin c . sin

8

Si

A b C A
or 2 cos8 = 2 cos8 2 sin & sin c . . sin*
26 A

dividing by 2 and making cos

2
M= sin b . sin c . sin
2
,
we have
m
.a- b c
cos* = cos* cos* M
/ b - c b-c \
= ( cos r- cos M \ f cos . ( cos M I

\ .*
j
/ > * /
- c\
+ sin b-c\
b
= / sin
I
.

. M -
^
,

i.l
f sin M
.

sin
,

- 1

\ / \ * /
\

= A //
/ 6cA
-- ---2 c \
^
Hence cos
Z \
in I

\
M -|
-
2/\ j
. sin I i
J
1 .
 OF SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. 89

PROPOSITION XXI.
The sides of a spherical triangle being girc/i, to find the segment*
of side made by a perpendicular from the opposite angle.
a
In the fig. to Prop. 16, let A c b, A B =e, D c m, and B D u ; = = =
then by equal. (1), Prop. 17.
cos c cos m
cos b cos n
cos e 4- cos b cos m -\- cos n
and therefore
cos e cos b cos m cos 7*

cot i (A + e) cot ^ ( + *)

tan (6 c) tan i ( w)
and cot J (b -\- c) . cot i (6
/). cot (n /) c) =
cot ^ ( +
i and n
Hence, if the sides are given, may be computed, and then
all the angle of the triangle may be found by the formulae for right-

angled spherical triangles.

PROPOSITION XXII.
Two sides and
the contained angle of a spherical triangle being
given, to compute the remaining angles.

By Prop. 18, cos A = cos a sin bcossin

b cos c
c
and cos B =
.
cos b cos a. cos c
sin a
:
.

. . sine
or, reducing these fractious to a common denominator
sin a . cos a sin a cos b . cos c
cos A = sin a . sin b .
.

sin c
sin b . cos b sin b . cos a . cos c
and cos B
sin a . sin b . sin c
and adding
sin a. cos a + sin b.cosb cos c (sin a. cos 6 + cos a. sin b)
COS A + COS B = r ; ; :
sin a sin b sin c . .

(sin 2a + sin 2 6) cos c . sin (a + i)

sin a sin b sin c
. .

_ sin (a -f 6) . cos (a 6) sin (a + &) cos c

sin a . sin // . sin c

_ sin (a + 4) cos (a b) cos c

sin c sin a . sin b

= sin(+_A) 2s n
.

(Prop. 19)
8111 C
Therefore *\n c (cos A + cos B) = sin (a 4- 4) . 2 sin* c . . .
(1 )

Again, since
sin A sin a
- = and
sin B
=:
sin A
therefore
sin A + sin B = sin a 4- sin b
, , .
mi < sine MII <
sine MII< sine
or sine (sin A -f sin B) = (sin a -f sin b) . sin r . .
(2)
90 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.

staiilarly sin c (sin A sin B) = (sin a sin i) .sine . . .

(3)
Now dividing (2) by (1)
sin A + sin B _ (sin a + sin b) sin c
.

cos A 4- cos B sin (a + />)

. 2 sin* c
2 sin ^ c a
r' ~ 22 sin
sin (a -f b) cos j^ (a .
6) . .

HaT+A). cos * (a + b) . L'MM \ . sin '.

.

-
cos
= cos TV 77
i (a +
~
(a--b)
/>)
cot i c '

or, tan ^ (A + B) = sec (a +

b) . cos ^ ( i) cot J c . . . (4) .

dividing equat. (3) by equal. (1) and reducing as above, we

By
obtain tan (A B) cosec (a =
i) sin (a +
6) . cot ^ c . . . (5) .

By equations (4) and (5), when two sides and the contained angle
are given, the remaining angles may be found.
If in the triangle supplemental to ABC, (180 a), (180
- I),
and 180 c), be substituted respectively for A, B, and c, we should
have tan ^ (a + b) sec (A + B) cos (A B) . tan c. . . (6)
and tan (a b) = cosec (A (7)+ B) sin J.
( A B) . tan c. . .

By equations (6) and (7), when a side and two adjoining angles are
given, the sides opposite those angles may be found.
In applying these formulae it is to be observed that ^ (a b) and +
^ (A + B) are always of the same affection ; and that (a >) and
(A B) are always acute.

PROPOSITION XXIII.
When two sides of a spherical triangle and the contained angle are
given, to find the segments of the given angle made by a perpendi-
cular from it on the opposite side.

Let 2 A =
the given angle, x =
half the difference of its segments,
and let b, c be the containing sides.
Then A + x and A x will represent the required segments.

Now - --
+
= -
cos (A
^
cos (A x)
x)- cot c
cot b
r .... (Form. 4. Prop. 17.)

therefore
cos (A x) cos (A + x) ~~
cot c cot b
cos (A x) + cos (A -f- x) cot c + cot b
sin A . sin x sin (b c)
or
cos A . cos x sin (b + c)
whence tan x = cosec (b + f) sin (b c) . cot A
Hence x is known, and therefore A x is known also.
CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF THE MARINER'S SCALE.
THE scale commonly used by mariners is two feet in length, and on one
.-iilti of it aredrawn several scales of equal parts, lines of natural sines,

tangents, chords, &c. ; and on the other side scales of the logarithmic
relations of the numbers representing these lines.
The line marked Rum, or Rhumbs, exhibits the relative lengths of
the chords to every point and quarter-point of the mariner's compass,
or to every tJiirty- second part of the quadrant.
The lines of chords, sines, tangents, and secants exhibit the relative

lengths of these lines to every degree of the quadrant and the chord of ;

GO D is the radius of the circle to which each of the scales is adapted.

The line of semitangents contains merely the tangents of half the
arcs marked 011the line. Thus the semitangent of 20 is the tangent
of 10, &c.
On another part of the scale, a line of chords is generally given to a
longer radius, accompanied with a line of rhumbs to the same radius.
To this line of chords a line marked M. LON.
also adapted, showing
is

the number of miles on any which corresponds to

parallel of latitude
a degree of the terrestrial equator. Thus, opposite 40 on the line of
chords stands nearly 46 on the line M. Lon. ; which denotes that, on
the parallel of 40, 46 miles correspond to a degree of longitude.
The
other parts of this side of the scale are generally filled up with
lines of equal parts, of various lengths, marked L, P, Lea, and C ; but
the principal and most useful of these lines are two diagonal scales, of
which the lengths of the largest divisions are an inch and half an inch
respectively.
The manner of using these diagonal scales will be readily understood
from an example.
Let it be required to take the number 438 from a diagonal scale.
Extend the compasses from 4 on the larger divisions to the third of
the smaller ones move one point of the compasses along the vertical
;

line 4, and the other on the oblique line running from the third smaller
division till
they both come to the eighth parallel line ; and the dis-
tance between the points of the compasses will be the measure of the

required number on that scale.

The application of logarithms to a scale was first made by Mr.
Edmund Gunter, and hence that side which is logarithmically divided
lied Gunter's Scale. The first two Hues, marked S. RHUMB and
I
RHUMB,
. are divided according to the logarithmic relations of the
.-iiics and tangents, to every point and quarter-point of the compass ;

and the lines marked SIN and TAN are in fact the same lines as those

marked S. lim MIJ and T. HiiUMB, but divided to degrees.

92 CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF

The tangents of arcs greater than half a right angle are placed
an.l numbered backward on the same line with the tangents of their

rud cot
complements. For as = rad
-, therefore log rad log tan =
tan

log cot log rad. Now the tangent of half a right angle is equal to
the radius; therefore the distance on the logarithmic scale, from the

tangent of any less angle than half a right angle to the tangent of half
a right angle, is the same as tlyj distance from the tangent of half a

right angle to the tangent of the complement of the proposed angle.

The tangents, therefore, which increase towards the left must be used
as if they were placed on the scale continued towards the right from

tangent 45, or 4 points. The line marked Num. exhibits the relations
between the logarithms of all numbers, of which the greatest does not
exceed 100 times the least. As the difference between the logarithms
of 1 and 10 is the same as the difference between the logarithms 10
and 100, this scale is divided into two parts, which are perfectly equal,
and similarly divided. Thus log 2'1 log 1 log 21
- log =
10; therefore, the distance from the beginning to 2 1 is the same as
-

that from 10, the middle of the scale, to 2, and one smaller division
towards the right, or 21. If the 1 on the left hand be considered
as 10, the 10 in the middle will represent 100, and the 10 on the right
1000. on the right be considered as *1, the 10 in the middle
If the 1

will represent l,and the 10 on the right will represent 10; and in
each case the intermediate divisions and parts of divisions have cor-
responding values.
The line of VERSED SINES is not
exactly what its title might import ;
it contains the logarithms of half the versed sines of the supplements
of the arcs marked on it. Its chief use is to determine, by an instru-
mental operation, the angles of a plane or a spherical angle when the
sides of it are given.
In the construction of the line of the logarithms of numbers, a line
equal to the distance from 1 to 10 is taken, and decimally divided and ;

thiswhole line being considered as representing the logarithm of 10,

those parts of it from 1, which correspond to the logarithms of the in-

creasing integers, and the leading decimal parts, are taken and trans-
ferred to the scale. The various other logarithmic lines on this side of
the scale are taken from the same decimal scale of equal parts that the
line of the logarithms of numbers is formed from.
In constructing the line of sines, the difference between 10, the log
sine of 90,and the logarithmic sine of any other angle, is taken from
the decimal scale, and applied from 90 towards the left and in con- ;

structing the line of tangents, the difference between 10, the log tangent
'

and the log tangent of any other angle, is taken from the decimal
">
 THE MAKINi I.E. C3

>eale, and applied from 45 towards the left ; and the degrees are then
marked at the points corresponding to them.
The line marked rcrxrd tiiws is formed by subtracting the logarithm
of 2 from the log suversed sine of the given arc, and taking the re-
mainder, fbr the parts of the required scale, from the same line of equal
parts that the other scales are formed from.
The line marked Mer. exhibits the length of the meridian from the

equator, according to Mercator's projection of the globe, in which pro-

jeetion the meridians are all parallel lines. The line below it, marked

i:.
parts, or equal parts, shows the parts of the meridian, whose projec-
tion is shown in the line above. These two lines are used jointly in
forming a Mercator's chart the line of equal parts being used to lay
;

down the equator and the parallels of latitude, and the line of Mi-r.

parts to project the meridians but the lines are too small to be of much
:

use in the practice of drawing charts.

The lines on the scale afford a ready method of obtaining, in a rough
way, a fourth proportional to three given numbers. And when, through
the uncertainty of the data, a rough estimate of the result is all that
can be obtained ; or when, from the nature of the case, a very accurate
result would be of no practical benefit, such results as can be obtained
from the scale may be as useful as those deduced by methods which
admit of greater precision.
The following general rule may be given for finding a fourth pro-

portional by the scale.

If the and second terms are of the same denomination, extend
first

from the term to the second, and that extent applied in the same
first

direction will reach, on the proper line, from the third term to the re-

quired fourth proportional ; or, if the first term and the third are of the
same denomination, extend from the first term to the third, and that
extent applied in the same direction will reach, on the appropriate line,
from the second term to the fourth proportional.
Note. The tangents of arcs above 45, which increase on the scale
towards the left, must, in estimating the direction, be considered as con-
tiimiTTg to increase from 45 towards the right.
Let be required, by way of example, to find a fourth proportional
it

to 34, 58, and 49.

Kxtend towards the right on the line of numbers from 34 to 58, and
that extent applied from 49, also towards the right, on the same line,

will reach to 83*6. the required fourth proportional.

Again, let it be required to find the arc whose sine is a fourth pro-

portional to 484, 367, and sine of 51. Extend towards the left fnun
484 to 367 on the line of numbers, and that extent applied on the line
of sines towards the left will reach from ol to 36 6', the arc whose
sine is the required fourth proportional.
1>4 CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF

Let us again inquire what that arc is, whose tangent is a fourth pro-
portional to the sine of 26, the sine of 78, and the tangent of 40".
Extend towards the right on the line of sines from 26 to 78% and
that extent applied from 40 on the line of tangents towards the right,
will reachbeyond the limits of the line. To find how much it reaches
beyond the line, with the same extent in the compasses place one foot
of them at 45, then the other will extend towards the left as much
beyond 40 as in the former case the extent went beyond the end of the
line, and the distance between this point and 40" applied from 45
towards the left will reach to 61 54', the arc whose tangent is the re-
quired fourth proportional.
The use of the line of versed sines may be thus explained. We have
found in plane trigonometry that s being half the sum of the sides of a
triangle, of which the three sides are a, b, and c, and the angles oppo-
site those sides A, B, and c, respectively, then
1 cos A+ suvers A rad . 8 . s - a
'
2 2 b.c
And, adopting a like notation, we have in any spherical triangle,
1 + cos A suvers A rad .sin s sin s
_ _______
_T_-.-- _-r
. a
sin b sin c .

Now the first of these equations,

'^ may be resolved into
u * c
the two following analogies, viz.
. be
8 : b :: c: ;
3
b c rad a A
and
,

s
: s a : : rad :
. s

b.c
. s
= suvers
2
. . ., . rad . sin s . sin s a
And the second equation, :
; may be resolved
sin b . sin <

into the two following analogies, viz.

sin b . sin c
rad : sin b : : sin c : :

rad
sin b . sin c rad sin s sin s a suvers A
and
rad
: sin s : :
,

sin s - a :
- .

b
.
- = .

sin . sin c
Hence to find, by the scale, any angle of a plane triangle whose sides
are given, we have this rule.
Extend on the line of numbers from half the sum of the three sides
to one of the sides containing the required
angle, and that extent will
reach, in the same direction, from the other side about the required
angle to a fourth number. Extend from this fourth number to the
difference between half the sum of the sides and the side opposite the
required angle, and the extent will reach from on the line of versed
sines to the required
angle.
 THE MARINER'S SCAM:. 95

And to find any angle of a spherical triangle whose three sides are
. have this rule.

IXtcnd on the line of sines from 90 to either of the sides about the
required angle, and this extent will reach, in the same direction, on the
line of sines from the other side about the required angle to a fourth
arc. Extend on the same line from this fourth arc to half the sum of
the three sides of the triangle, and this extent applied in the same

direction,and on the same line, will reach from the difference between
half the sum of the three sides and the side opposite the required angle,
to another point on the line, below which, on the line of versed sines,
will stand the required angle.

Example 1. Given the three sides of a plane triangle 1267, 849, and
729, to find the angle opposite the greatest side.
1267
849
729
2)2845
1422 Half the sum of the three sides.

155 Difference between the half sum and the greatest side.

Extend then from 1422 to 849, and that extent will reach in the
same direction from 729 to 435. Extend from 435 to 155, and that
extent will reach from on the line of versed sines, to about 106^,
the required angle.

Example 2. Given the three sides of a spherical triangle 43 14',

37 28', and 51 2(X, to find the angle opposite the least side._
37* 28'
43 14
51 20

2)132
66 1 Half the sum of the three sides.

28 33 Difference between the half sum and the least side.

Extend on the line of sines from 90 to 51 20', and that extt-nt

will reach in the same direction from 43 14' to 32 207 on the line of
bines.

Extend from 32 20* to 66 1', and that extent will reach in the
same direction from 28* 33' to about 54$ on the line of sines, below
which on the line of versed sines stands nearly 50}, the require!
angle.
Example Let it be required to
3. find the greatest angle of a
spherical triangle whose three sides are 1 14 ib', 121 6', and 88 4'.
96 PRACTICAL APPLICATION

114 28'
121 6
88 4

2)323 38
161 49 Half the sum of the three sides.

40 43 Difference between half the sum and the greatest side.

Extend on the line of sines from 90 to 65 32', tlic ,w////>/r///r/</ of

114 28', and that extent will reach in the same direction from 88 4'
to about 65^ on the line of sines. Extend from 65 to 18 11', the

supplement of 161 49', and that extent will reach, in the same

direction, from 40 43' to about 13 on the line of sines, below

which stands, on the line of versed sines, nearly 123, the required
an<?le.

APPLICATION OF TRIGONOMETRY TO THE NUMERICAL COMPU-

TATION OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF RIGHT-ANGLED PLANE
TRIANGLES.

THAT all parts of a right-angled plane triangle may become

the
determinate, three parts of it must be given ; and, at least, one of these
parts must be a side. Now the right angle is always a given quantity,
therefore either two of the sides, or a side and one of the acute angles,
must be given, before the other parts can be computed.
In Prop. 5 of the theory of Trigonometry, the following proportions
have been deduced, which are sufficient for the solution of any case that
can arise from considering different parts of the triangle as given.
1. Any side of a triangle is to the sine of its opposite angle as any
other side to the sine of its opposite angle ; and, conversely, the sine
is

of any angle is to its opposite side as the sine of any other angle is to
its opposite side.
Either of the sides containing the right angle is to radius as tl:e
2.
other side is to tangent of its opposite angle and, conversely, radius
;

is to either of the sides about the

right angle as the tangent of the
angle opposite the other side is to that other side.
3. Either of the sides containing the
right angle is to radius as the
hypothenuse is to the secant of the acute angle adjacent to that side ;

and, conversely, radius is to either of the sides containing the right

angle as the secant of the acute angle adjacent to that side is to the
hypothenuse.
Remark. As each of the acute angles is the complement of the other,
Ihe cosine, cotangent, or cosecant of either of the angles may be sub-
 ol 1'I.ANE TRIGONOMETRY. 97

stitute<l, iii the above proportions, for the sine, tangent, or secant of
the otlu-r.

The proportions will in general be most conveniently solved by

logarithms ; the logarithm of the first term taken from the sum of the

logarithms of the second and third will leave the logarithm of the re-
quired result.
To the above proportions the following useful properties of right-
angled plane triangles may be added.
1. The number representing the hypothenuse is equal to the square
root of the sum of the squares of the numbers representing the other
two sides (Geo. Theo. 44).
2. The number
representing either of the sides is equal to the square
root of the product of the sum and the difference of the numbers repre-

senting the hypothenuse and the other side (Geo. Theo. 44. Cor.):

EXAMPLE I.

In the right-angle triangle ABC, given the hypothenuse A c 840 '4,

and the L A 38 16', to find the other parts.

BY CONSTRUCTION.
Draw the horizontal line A B, and make the angle A equal to about
38 J, on A c from a scale of equal parts lay off 840*4,
and from c let fall on A B the perpendicular B c then ;

A B and B c, measured on the scale of equal parts from

which A c was taken, will be found respectively to be A
^
about 660 and 520.
BY CALCULATION.
The angle c being the complement of the angle A, is 51 44'.

To find A B. To find B c.
As radius 10-000000 As radius 10-000000
: A c 840-4 2-924486 : A c 840-4 2-924486
: : cos /. A 38 16' . . 9-894945 : :sine /_ A 38 16' . . 9-791917
12819431 12-716403
: A B 659-8 2-819431 BC 520-5 2-716403

BY GUNTER'S SCALE.
Extend on the line of sines, from rad or sine 90, to 38 16'; that
extent applied on the line of numbers, from 840*4 towards the left,
will reach to BC, 520-5. Again extend on the line of sines from rad
to 51 44', the complement of the angle A, and that extent applied on
the line of numbers, from 840*4 towards the left, will reach to
AB,
659*8.
ii
98 PRACTICAL APPLICATION

BY INSPECTION.
In Table 2, under 38, and opposite 210, the fourth part of A c, in
the column of disl., we have 165*5, for the fourth part of A B, in the
column of lat., and 129'3 for the fourth part of B c, in the column
of dep.
And under 39 and opposite 210, we have 163 '2 and 132-2 for the
fourth part of A B and B c respectively. Hence
with the angle A 38 the fourth part of A B is 165-5 and of B c 129-3
39 162-2 132-2
Difference for one degree 2 3 +2-9
Now the difference between 38 and the given angle is nearly a

quarter of a degree. Hence -j- is nearly equal to 165-5

-
,
or

B C 1

to 165-5 -6, or to 164-9; or A B = 659'6 nearly. And is nearly

2*9
equal to 129'3 + ,
or to 129-3 + -7, or to 130; or BC = 520-0

nearly.
EXAMPLE II.
In the right-angle triangle ABC (see the last figure), given the
base A B 1214, and the angle A 51 40' 30" to find the other parts.

BY CONSTRUCTION.
Draw the horizontal line A B, and make it of the proposed length
from any convenient scale of equal parts. Make the angle A of the
given magnitude, and draw B c perpendicular to A B, meeting A c in c.
Then A c, measured on the scale of equal parts from which A B was
taken, will be found 1958, and B c, measured on the same scale, will
be found 1536 nearly.

BY CALCULATION.
To find A. c. To find BC.
As radius lO'OOOOOO As radius .......... 10-OOOOOO
: A B 1214 3-084219 :ABl214 ......... 3-084219
: :sec L A 51 40' 30" 10-207523 ::tan i_ A5l40'30" 10-102119
13-291742 J3-186338
: AC 1957-7 3-291742 BC 1535-8. 3*186338
As cos A 51 40* 30" . 9-792477 As cos A 51 40' 30" . 9-792477
:AB 1214 3'084219 : AB 1214 ......... 3-084219
: : rad . . 10-000000 : : sin Z. A 51 4(X 30" 9'894596
13084219 12-978815
: AC 1957-7 . 3-291742 BC 1535-8 3-186338
 OF PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. 99

Br GUNTER'S SCALE.
nd on the line of sines from 38
19* 30", the complement of the

angle A, to radius, or sine of 90 that extent applied on the line of

;

numbers from 1214 towards the right will reach to A c 1958. Again,
extend from radius, or 45 on the line of tangents, to 51 40' SO7 '; that
extent applied on the line of numbers from 1214 towards the right will
reach to B c 1536.

Br INSPECTION.
"With the angle A considered as 51, at the bottom of Table 2, and
121*4, the tenth part of A B, in the column of lot. we have in the
columns of dist. and dep. about 193, and 150 for the corresponding
parts of A c and B c. And taking 52 for the angle A, we have 197
and 155*2 nearly, for the tenth parts of A c and BC.
Hence with the angle A 51 we have A c 193 and B c 150
52 197 155-2

Difference for one degree + 4 -J- 5*2

Now 40' 30" being about of a degree, we have the tenth part of
AC = 193 + \ of 4 nearly, = 193 + 2*6 nearly =
195-6 nearly;
whence A c = 1956 nearly. And the tenth part of B c = 150 + $ of
5-2 = 150 + 3-4= 153*4; whence 1534 nearly.BC=
EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.
Let ABC (Fig. p. 97) represent any plane triangle, right angled
at B.
1. Given AC 73-26, L A 49 12' 20", required the other parts?

Answer, L c 40 47' 40", B c 55 -46, and A B 47*87.

2. Given A B 469-34, and Z. A 51 26' 17", to find the other parts ?
Answer, L c 38 33' 43", B c 588*7, and A c 752'9.
3. Given AB 493, and Z. c 20 14', required the remaining parts?
Answer, Z. A 69 46', BC 1338, and AC 1425.
4. Let A B = 331, L A =
49 14', what are the other parts?
Answer, A c 506-9, B c 383-9, and Z. c 40 46'.

5. If Ac = 45, and Z c = 37 what are the remaining parts ?

22',

Answer, A B 27'31, BC 35-76, and Z. A 52 38*.

6. Given A c 4264'3, anti f_ A 56 29' 13", to find the remaining parts ?
Answer, A B 2354*4, B c 3555'4, and Z 33 30* 47".
7. If A B =
8372 1, and B c =
69473, what are the other parts ?
7
Answer, A c 8400-9, Z c 85 15 and Z A 4' 45'. ,

8. If A B be 63-4, and A c be 85*72, what are the other parts ?

Answer, BC 57'7, Z. c 47 42', and Z. A 42 18'.
9. Given A c 7269, and A B 3162, to find the other parts?
Answer, BC 6545*2, Z. c 25 47' 7", and Z A 64 12' 53".
II L>
100 PRACTICAL APPLICATION

10. If AB = 621-3, and A c = 918*4, what are the remaining parts ?

Answer, L A 47 26, L c 42 34', and B c 676-3.
11. If A c =4184, and A B =
2632, what are the remaining parts?
Answer, BC 3252-4, L A 51 1' 8", and L c 38 58' 52".
12. If A B =732-1, and L A, 60 10' =
what are the other parts?
Answer, AC 1471-6, BC 1276-59, and L c 29 50'.
13. Let A c be 225, and B c be 90-37, required the other parts?
Answer, A B 206, L A 23 41', and /. c66 19'.

14. Given _ A 70 and A B 67289, to find the remaining parts ?

4' 38",

Answer, BC 185653, A c 197471, and L c 19 55' 22".

15. Given Zc 88 4' 56", and AC 7396 2, to find the remaining parts?
Answer, B c 247-5, A B 7392, and^l A 1 55' 4".
16. Given AC 631-25, B c 74-9, to find the other parts?
Answer, A 626-8, ^A6 48' 52", and^c 83 11' 8".

APPLICATION OF TRIGONOMETRY TO THE NUMERICAL COMPU-

TATION OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF OBLIQUE-ANGLED
PLANE TRIANGLES.
THAT the different parts of an oblique-angled plane triangle may be

computed, all the sides, two angles and a side, or two sides and an
angle, must be given. Now when two of the angles are given, the third,
which is the supplement of their sum, is known : hence, in that case,
all the angles, and a side opposite to one of them, are given, to deter-

mine the other two sides. When one of the angles is given, the sup-
plement of it, which is the sum of the other two, is known therefore, ;

when one of these other angles is determined, the remaining angle is

obtained at once.
The
formulae which have been demonstrated in the theory of trigo-

nometry furnish the following rules for the solution of the different
cases.
1. When two sides and an angle opposite to one of them, or two

angles and a side, are given.

As any side of a triangle is to the sine of its opposite angle, so is

any other side of the triangle to the sine of its opposite angle ; and as
the sine of any angle of a triangle is to its opposite side, so is the sine
of any other angle of the triangle to its opposite side.
Note. When in the first of the foregoing proportions the less of the
given sides is opposite to the given angle, the angle determined from
the proportion may be either acute or obtuse, and the problem solved
is then said to be ambiguous. But as the angles of every triangle are
.acute, which are opposite the least two of the sides, when the greater
 OF PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. 101

of the given sidesis opposite the

given angle, the angle determined from
the proportion must be acute, and therefore in that case the problem is
not ambiguous.
2. When two sides and the contained angle are given.
If a perpendicular be demitted from the extremity of one of the given
sides, upon the other, or the other produced, the solution of the problem

may be effected by computing the parts of the two right-angled tri-

angles, which will be formed by the perpendicular and the sides of the
triangle ; and the computation will be facilitated by applying this pro-
perty of oblique-angled triangles, demonstrated as Prop. 7, Trigono-
metry viz., the segments of the base are to each other as the cotangents
of their adjoining angles. Or the angles opposite the given sides may
be determined as follows.
As the sum of the given sides is to their difference, so is the tangent
of half the sum of their opposite angles to the tangent of half the dif-
ference of the same angles. (Trig. Prop. 8.)
And this half difference of the angles added to half theirsum gives
the angle opposite the greater side, and subtracted, leaves the angle

opposite to the less side.

Then, the angles being known, the required side is obtained by the
appropriate analogy in the first case.

3. When the three sides are given to find the angles.

Rule 1. As the base, or longest side, is to the sum of the other two

sides, so is the difference of those sides to the difference of the segments

of the base, made by a perpendicular from the opposite angle (Trig.
Prop. 9). Then the half difference, added to half the base, gives the
segment of it
adjacent to the greater of the other two sides ; and sub-
tracted, leaves the segment of it adjacent to the less side.
The triangle is thus divided into two right-angled triangles, in each
of which the hypothenuse and one of the other sides are given; whence
the angles may be computed by the preceding rules.
But the angles may be otherwise determined from the sides by the
following rules, deduced from the formulae, at page 72.
Rule 2. From half the sum of the three sides of the triangle subtract
the side opposite the required angle ; then to the logarithms of the
half si mi and remainder add 20, and from that sum subtract the sum of
the logarithms of the sides including the required angle, and half the
remainder will be the logarithm cosine of half the required angle.

Rule 3. From half the sum of the three sides of the triangle subtract
each of the sides incliulini; the required angle; then to the logarithms
of the two remainders mid 20, and from the sum subtract the sum of
the logarithms of the sides containing the angle, and half the remainder
will be the logarithnt sine of half the rr<jnirl mujh'.
As a small arc can be found more correctly by even proportion from
102 PRACTICAL APPLICATION

its sine than its cosine, and an arc near the termination of the
quadrant
can be found more correctly from its cosine than it* sine, the former
of the rules for determining half the angle of a triangle may be ap-
plied in preference, when the half angle to be computed exceeds half a
right angle, and the latter when the required half angle is less than half
a rigiit angle.
EXAMPLE I.

In the triangle ABC, given A B 376, the angle A 48" 3', and the
angle B 40 14', to find the other parts.
C
The angle c, being the supplement of the sum of A and
B, is 91 43'.

A B
To find A c. To find BC.
As sine 91 43' 9-999805 As sin c 91 43' 9-999805
: AB 376 2-575188 :AB376 2-575188
::sinB40 14'.. 9-810167 :: sin A 48 3' 9-871414
12-385355 12-446602
: AC 243 2-385550 : B c 279-8 2-446797

EXAMPLE II.

Given two sides of a triangle 654 and 460, and the angle opposite to
the less of these sides 35 12', to find the other parts.

BY CONSTRUCTION.
Make B A c and A c equal to the longer of
equal to the given angle,
the given sides. With c as a centre, and the length of
the shorter of the given sides as a radius, cut A D B in B
and D ; join CD, c B ; then both the triangles ACS,
A c D,correspond with the given data this being what :

has been noticed as the ambiguous case in the solution DEB

of oblique-angled plane triangles.
BY CALCULATION.
c D being equal to c B, the angles CDS and c B D are equal : hence
the angle A c D, which is the difference of the
angles c D B and c A B, is
the difference of the angles c B D and CAB; and the angle AcB is the

supplement of the sum of A and B.

To find the angle B.

As B c 460 2-662758
sin A 35
: 12' 9-760748
A c 654
: : 2-815578
12-576326
: sin B 55 2' 9-913568
 OF PLANK TRIGONOMETRY. 103

Angle B 55 2*, supplement 124 58' = angle ADC

angle A 35 12'

sum 90 14, supplement 89 46 = angle AcB

differ 19 50, angle ACD

To find A B. To find A D.
As sin B 55 2' 9-913568 As sin ADC 124 58'. 9-913568
AC 654
: 2-815575 AC 654
: 2-815575
: : sin A c B 89 46'. . 9-999996 : : sin ACD 19 50' . , 9-530565
12-815571 12-346140
: A B 798 2-902003 : A D 270-8 2-432572

EXAMPLE III.

In the triangle ABC are given A B 848, Ac 534, and the in-
cluded angle A 31 17', to find the other

parts.
Let c D (see the first of the annexed
figures) be a perpendicular from c upon
A B, then in the right-angled triangle ADC
we have

To find A D. To find angle B.

As radius 10-000000 As AD 456-4.. 2-659309

:AC 534 2-727541 : D B 391 -6... 2-592843
:: cos A 31* 17'.. 9-931768 :: cot A 31 17' 10-216374

: A D 456-4 2-659309 12 809217

AB 848-0 cot B 35 18'. .10-149908
BD 391-6 A 31 17'

66 35, sup 113 25' /, ACB

To find B c. 9r, A c B and ABC may be found thus.

As sin B 35 18' .. 9-761821 ASAB + AC 1382 3-140508

: A c 2-727541 :AB-AC 314 2-496930
: : sin A 31 17'... 9-715394
::tan
ACB+ABC 21 i' 10-552859
12-442935 2
13-049789
479-9 . . 2-68 11 IT ACB ABC ,

: tan , 39 3$ 9.909281
A.C B 113 25 sum
ABC 35 18 diff.

Having the angles, B c may be found as above.

104 PHACTICAI, APPLICATION

EXAMPLE IV.
In the triangle ABC (see the first figure on the last page) are given
A B 757, A c 586, and B c 649, to find the angles.
first Method of Solution.
As A B 757 2-879096
:sc + Acl235 3-091667
::sc-Ac63. 1-799341
4-891008
: BD - AD 102-781 . 2-011912

,.
= BD-fAD BD AD =
Whence B D ^
2
+ 429'89

BD + AD BD AD
and A D = i
= 327-11

To find the angle A. To find the angle B.

AC 586 2-767898 As BC649 2-812245
: rad 10-000000 : rad 10-000000
:: AD 327-11 2-514693 : : D B 429-89 2-633356
: cos A 56 4' 5" . 9-746795 : cos B 48 31' 5" . 9-821 111

And /. A cB is the supplement of A + B, or 75 24' 50".

l_ A. found by the Second Rule. '_

B found by the Third Rule.
AB 757 log 2-879096 A B 757 log 2-879096
BC 649 BC 649 log 2-812245
AC 586 log 2-767898 AC 586 5-691341
7
2)1992 ~5 646994
2)1992
996 log 2-998259 ~996
347 log 2-540329 239 log 2-378398
constant log 20- 347 2-540329
log
25-538588 constant logr 20-

2)19-891594 24-918727

28 2' 3" cos 9-945797 2)19-227386

2 24 15' 32" sin 9 613693

56 4 6 L A
48 31 4 L B

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

Let ABC (see figure p. 102) represent any oblique-angled triangle.
1. Given A B 697, A 81" 30' 10", and
L B 40 30' 44", to find L
the other parts ?

Answer, A c 534, B c 813, and L c 57 59' 6".

 OF PLANE TRIGONOMETRY. 105

2. If A c = 720-8, L A = 70 5' 22", and L B = 59 35' 36", re-

quired the other parts ?

Answer, A B 643-2, BC 785-8, and L c50 19* 2".

3. Given A B 896-2, B c 328-4, and L c 113 45' 20", to find the
other parts?
Answer, A c 712, /_ A 19 35' 46", and L B46 38' 54".
4. Given A c 4627, BC 5169, and L A 70 25' 12", to find the other
parts ?

Answer, A B 4328, _ B 57 29' 55", and L c 52 4' 53".

5. Given A B 6-216, B c 7'853, and L A 77 34" 40", to find the other
parts?
Answer, A c 6-319, L B 51 47' 50", and L c 50 37' 30".
6. Given A c 627, A B 430, and L c 42 53' 38", to find the other
parts?
Answer, L A 54 8' 26", or 40 4' 18", L B 82 57' 56", or
97 2' 4'', and B c 512, or 406'7.
7. Given A B 718, B c 629, and L A 29 52' 34", to find the other

parts?
Answer, L c 34 39' 11", or 145 20 49", L B 115 28' 15",
7

or 4 46' 37", and AC 1140, or 105-1.

8. Given A c 484-2, A B 968-4, and/1 A 75 31' 21", to find the other

parts?
Answer, B c 968-4, L B 28 57' 18", and /. c 75 31' 21".
9. Given A B 1234'5, BC 620-8, and L B 138 39' 8", to find the
other parts ?

Answer A c 1749*3, Z. A 13 33' 34", and L c 27 47' 18".

10. Given A c 72-48, B c 60-2, and L c 31 1' lO'', to find the other

parts? Answer, A B 37 '4, L A 56 2' 45", and /. B 92 56' 5".

11. Given A B 912-4, B c 6397, and A c 428-5, to find the angles ?

Answer, L A 39 5' 36", L B 24 59 8", and L c 115 55' 16".

12. Given A B 793-8, BC481-6, and A c 500-0, to find the angles?

Answer, L A 35 15' 32", L B36 49' 18", and L c 107 55' 10".
13. Given A B 92-6, sc46-3, and AC 71 '2, to find the angles?

Answer, L A 29 17' 22", L B 48 47' 30", and L c 101 55' 8".

14. Given A B 728-1, BC 614-7, and AC 583-8, to find the angles?

Answer, L A 54 32' 52", L B 50 40' 58", and L c 74 46' 10".

15. Given A B 363-4, B c 148-4, and L B 102 18' 27", to find the
other parts?
Answer, L A 20 9' 17", A c 420-8, and L c 57 32* 16".
16. Given A B 632, B c 494, and L A 20 16', to find the other parts,
c being acute ?

Answer, L c26 18' 19", L B 133 25' 41", and AC 1035-72.

17. Given A B 2163, BC 1672, andz.c 112 19 22", to find the other

parts ? Answer, A c 877-2 L B 22 2> 16", and L A 45 39* 22".

1UG OF HEIGHTS

18. Given A B 428, YC 49 16", and AC + BC 918, to find the other

parts, _ B being obtuse ?

Answer, L A 38 44' 48", _ B 91 59' 12", A c 564*49, and

B c 353-5.
19. Given A c 126, L B 29 46', and A B - B c 43, to find the other
parts ?

Answer, j_ A 55 51' 32", L c 94 22' 28", A B 253-05, and

B c 210-05.
20. Given A B 821-9, A c 640-3, and L A 80 24', to find the other

parts?
Answer, /. B 41 26' 21", _ c 58 9* 39", and B c 953-928.
21. Given AC 29674, BC 31283, and _ c 121 5' 38", to find the
other parts ?

Answer, L A 30 18' 25", L B 28 35' 57", and A B 53084-5.

APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF TRIGONOMETRY TO THE

DETERMINATION OF THE HEIGHTS AND DISTANCES OF RE-
MOTE OR INACCESSIBLE OBJECTS.
IN this useful application of trigonometry, a base line is always sup-
posed to be measured, or given in length ; and by means of a quadrant,

sextant, circle, theodolite, or some other instrument for measuring

angles, such angles are measured in connection with the base line, and
the objects whose heights or distances it is proposed to determine, as
enable us to compute, from the principles of trigonometry, what those
heights or distances are.
Sometimes, particularly in marine surveying, horizontal angles are
determined by the compass but the varying effect of surrounding
;

bodies on the needle, even in situations little removed from each other,
and the general construction of the instrument itself, render it unfit to
be applied in the determination of angles where anything like precision
is required.
The following examples present sufficient variety to guide the stu-
dent in determining what will be the most eligible mode of proceeding
in any case that is likely to occur in practice.

EXAMPLE I.

Wanting to know the distance of an inaccessible object c (see figure,

p. 102), I measured a base A B of 486 yards. At A, I found the angle

CAB subtended by the object, and the other end of the line, to be
88 1 2' ; and at B the angle c B A was observed to be 54 48' required :

the distance of the object from each of the stations A and B?

The sum of the angles A and B is 143, which, taken from 180, leave
37 for the angle c. Hence,
 AND DISTANCES. 107

sin L c 37 9 779463 sio L c 37 9-779463

:AB486yards 2-686636 :A B 486 yards . . . 2-686636
: : sin L A 88 12' . 9-999786 ::sin L B 54 48' . 9-912299
12-686422 12-598935
: B c 807-2 yards . . 2-906959 : A c 659-9 yards . . 2/819472

EXAMPLE II.

Being desirous of finding the distance between two distant objects,

c and D, I measured a base A B 384 yards, on the same horizontal
plane with the objects c and D. At A, I found the angle DAB =
48 12', and CAB =
89 18'; at B the angle ABC was 46 14', and
A B D 87 4' : it is
required from these data to compute the distance
between c and D?
From the angle CAB take the angle DAB, the remainder, 41 6',
is the angle CAD. To
add the angle the angle DBA c D
DAB, and 44 44', the supplement of the sum, is the
angle A D B. In the same way the angle ACS, which is
the supplement of the sum of c A B and c B A, is found to
be 44 28'.

Hence, in the triangles ABC and A B D, we have,

sin A c B 44 28' ... 9-845405 sin A D B 44 44' . . 9-847454
: A B 384 yards . . . 2-584331 : A B 384 yards . . . 2-584331
:: sin A Bc46 14'. 9-858635 : :sin A B D 87 4' . 9-999431

12-442966 12-583762
: A c 395 9 yards . . 2-597561 : A D 544-9 yards . . 2-736308

Then, in the triangle CAD, we have given the sides c A and A D,

and the included angle CAD, to find c D ; to compute which we pro-
ceed thus :

The supplement of _ c AD is the sum of the angles A c D and ADC

AC D + ADC
hence = 69 27', and, by proportion, we have,
As A D + Ac 940-8 2-973497
:AD AC 149 2-173186
ACD + A DC
10426108
:: tan 69 27'

12-599294
ACD A Dc
: tan 22 54 9-625797

ACD um 92 21

ADc diff. 46 33
108 OF HEIGHTS

As sin A c D 46 33 9-860922
:AC 2-597561
:: sin CAD 41 6' 9-817813
12-415374
: c D 358-5 yards 2-554452

EXAMPLE III.
To determine the altitude of a lighthouse, I observed the elevation
of its top above the level sand on the seashore to be 15 32' 18",
and measuring directly from it
along the sand 638 yards, I then
found its elevation to be 9 56' 26" required the height of the
;

lighthouse ?
Let c D represent the height of the lighthouse above the level of
the sand, and let B be the first station, and A the
second: then the angle is 15 32' 18", and CBD
the angle CAB is 9 56' 26" ; therefore the angle
A c B, which is the difference of the angles CBD
and c A B, is 5 35' 52". Hence
sin Ac B 5 35' 52" . . 8-989201 radius 10-000000
: AB 638 2-804821 : BC 1129-06 3-052727
:: sin L A 9 56' 26" 9-237107 :: sin CBD 15 32' 18" 9-427945

12-041928 12-480672
: BC 1129-06 yards 3-052727 : DC 302-46 yards .. 2-480672

EXAMPLE IV.
Wanting to know the height of a steeple, I measured 210 feet from
the bottom of it, and then found the elevation of its top above the level
of my instrument to be 33 28' 40" required its height, the instrument :

standing five feet above the ground ?

Let c E represent the steeple, D E the ground, and A D the instru-
ment. Draw A B parallel to D E, then A B and
D E will be equal, and B E will be equal to A D,
the height of the instrument.
Now, in the right-angled triangle ABC,
there are given AB, 210 feet, and the angle
B AC 33 28' 40". Hence
As radius 10-000000
:AB 210 feet 2-322219
: : tan B A c 33 28' 40" . . 9-820417
12-142636
: BC 138-38 2-142636
BE 5

The required height. . . 143-38 feet.

 AND DISTANCES. 109

EXAMPLE V.
Coming from sea, at the point D, I observed two headlands, A and B,
and inland at c a steeple, which appeared between the headlands. I
found from a map that the headlands were 5*35 miles from each other,
that the distance from A to the steeple was 2'8 miles, and from B to the
steeple 3-47 miles ; and I found with a sextant that the angle ADC
was 12 15', and the angle BDC 15 30': required my distance from
each of the headlands, and from the steeple?

BY CONSTRUCTION.
On A c describe the segment of a circle, to contain the angle ADC
(Prob. 13, Geo.) ; and on B c describe the
segment of a circle to contain the angle BDC;
and these circles will intersect in D, the place
of the ship.
BY CALCULATION.
Let A D B be the segment of a circle de-
scribed on A B to contain the sum of the two

given angles. Join D c, and let it meet the

circumference of the circle in E, and join A E,
BE. Then the angles EAB, EDB, being in the same segment, are
equal to each other; and so, for the same reason, are the angles ABE
and A D E. Hence, in the triangle ABE, all the angles and the side
AB are given to find the side A E ; and as all the sides of the triangle
ABC are given, the angle B A c may be computed ; and the difference
of the angles B A c and B A E is the angle c A E, which, therefore, be-
comes known.
Now, in the triangle c A E, the two sides A c and A E, and the in-

cluded angle c A E being known, the angle c may be determined and ;

hence, as the angle A D c is given, the angle c A D is known ; and con-

sequently BAD, the difference of c A D and CAB, is known. Hence
allthe angles of the triangle ADC and the side A c are given, whence
A D and c D become known and A B being known, as well as the
;

angles B A D, B D A, of the triangle A B D, the side B D is also deter-

mined.
The computation at length is as follows :

To find A E.

L BAB 15 30' As sin A E B 152 15' 9-668027

l_ EBA 12 15 : A B 5-35 -728354
27 45 :: sin ABE 12 15' 9-326700
180 10-055054
AEB 152 15 : A B 2-438 387027
HO OF HEIGHTS

To find the angle B A c.

B c 3-47
AB 5-35 log -728354
AC 2-80 log -447158

2)11-62 1-175512
5-81 log -764176
2-34 log -369216
20
Ti 7 l33392
2)19-957880
17 41' 58" cos 9-978940
2
BAc 35 23 56
L EAB 15 30

Z. EA c 19 53 56
180

2)160 6 4
80 3 2
AEC + ACE

To find the angles A E c and ACE.

ASAC+AE 5-238 -719165
: AC - A E -362 1-558709
AE ACE
;:tan t 80 3' 2" 10-755928

10-314637
A EC AC E
tan 21 30 12 9-595472
_._

L ECA 101 33 14 sum

L ACE or AC D 58 32 50 diff.

/ CDA 12 15

70 47 50 supplement 109 12' 10" L CAD

35 23 56 L cAB
73 48 14 Z BAD
To find A D.
As sin A D c 12 15' 9-326700
:AC 2-8 -447158
: : sin A c D 58 32' 50''. . 9 930985
10-378143
: AE 1 1-26 miles. . 1-051443
 AND DISTANCES. Ill

To find c D. To find B D.
sin ADC 12 15" 9-326700 sin A DB 27 45' 9668027
: AC 2-8 -447158 : A B 5-35 0-728354
:. sine AD 109 12' 10" 9-975138 :: sin BAD 73 48' 14" 9-982412
10-422296 To-7 10766
: i> 12-46 miles 1-095596 : B D 11*03 miles 1-042739

EXAMPLES VI.
The elevation of a spire at one station was 23 50' 1 7'', and the
horizontal angle at this station between the spire and another station
was 93 4' 20" ; the horizontal angle at the latter station between the

spire and the first station was 54 28' 36", and the distance between the
two stations 416 feet; required the height of the spire?
Let c D be the spire, A the first station, and B the second ; then the
vertical angle c AD is23 50' 17", and as the hori-
zontal angles CAB and c B A are 93 4' 20", and
54 28' 36" respectively, the angle A c B, the sup-
plement of their sum, is 32 27' 4".

To find A. c. To find D c.

sin B c A 32 27' 4" . . 9-729634 radius 10-000000

: >i'le AB416 2-619093 : side AC 631 2-800019
: : sin A B c 54 28' 36" 9-910560 : : tan D A c 23 50* 17" 9-645270
12-529653 side D c 278-8 2-445289
side AC 631 2-800019

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

1. Required the height of a wall, whose angle of elevation is ob-
served, at the distance of 463 feet, to be 16 21'.
Answer, 135-8 feet.
2. The angle of elevation of a hill
is, 18', and
near its bottom, 31
214 yards farther off, 26 18'; required the perpendicular height of
the hill, and the distance of the perpendicular from the first station ?
Answer, the height of the hill is 565-2, and the distance of the per-
pendicular from the first station is 929*6.
The wall of a tower which is 149*5 feet in height, makes, \vitli a
3.
line drawn from the top of it to a distant object on the horizontal
plane, an angle of 57 21' what is the distance of the object from the
;

bottom of the tower ? Answer, 233-3 feet.

4. From the top of the tower, whose height was 138 feet, I took the

angles of depression of two objects which stood in a direct line from

the bottom of tiio fowcr, and upon the same horizontal plane with if.
112 OF HEIGHTS

The depression of the nearer object was found to be 48 10', and that
of the farther 18 52' ;
what was the distance of each from the bottom
of the tower ?

Answer, distance of the nearest 123'5, and of the farthest 403 8

feet.

5. Being on the side of a river, and wishing to know the distance

of a house on the other side, I measured 312 yards in a right line by
the side of the. river, and then found that the two angles, one at each
end of this line, subtended by the other end and the house, were
31 15' and 86 27' what was the distance between each end of the
line and the house? Answer, 35T7 and 182-8 yards.
6. Having measured a base of 260 yards in a straight line, close by
one side of a found that the two angles, one at each end of the
river, I

line, subtended by the other end and a tree close to the opposite bank,
were 40 and 80, what was the breadth of the river ?
Answer, 190-1 yards.
7. From
a ship a headland was seen, bearing N E N ; the vessel
then stood away N w
i w 20 miles, and the same headland was ob-
served to bear from her E J N ; required the distance of the headland
from the ship at each station ?
Answer, distance at the first station 19 09, and at the second 26-96
miles.
8. A cape
was observed to bear from us N w, and another headland
to bear NNE
E standing away E N E ^ E 23 miles, we found the first
;

bore from us w N w, and the second N b w ^ w, required the bearing

and distance of the cape from the headland ?
Answer, s 87 40' w, 42-33 miles.
9. From an eminence of 268 feet in perpendicular height, the angle
of depression of the top of a steeple which stood on the same horizontal
plane was found to be 40 3', and of the bottom 56 18' ; what was the
height of the steeple? Answer, 117*8 feet.

10. "Wanting to know

the distance between two objects which were

separated by a morass, I measured the distance from each to a point

where I could see them both ; the distances were 1840 and 1428
yards, and the angle which, at that point, the objects subtended, was
36 18' 24" ; required their distance? Answer, 1090-85 yards.
11. From the top of a mountain, 3 miles in height, the visible
horizon appeared depressed 2 13' 27" ; required the diameter of the
earth, and the distance of the boundary of the visible horizon?
Answer, diameter of the earth 7958 miles, distance of horizon
154-54 miles.
12. A
statue 12 feet high stands on the top of a column, whose

height is 48 feet above the level of the eye at what distance from the
;

base of the column, on the same horizontal plane, will the statue
 PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. 113

appear muliT the greatest possible vertical angle, and wliat will that
anu'le be? Answer, distance 53*6656 feet, angle 6 22' 46".
13. Wanting the distance of two objects, A and B, from
to know
each other, and from another object D, all in the same horizontal plane,
in n A produced on the side of A, a
point c was taken, and c D being
measured was found to be 549*36 yards, and the angle c 57 : at D,
14, and the angle B D A 41 30'.
the angle c D A was observed to be
D from each other ?
Required the distances of A, B, and
Answer, A B 349*52, A D 487*27, and BD 498*69 yards.

APPLICATION OF THE FORMULA INVESTIGATED IN THE ELE-

MENTARY PRINCIPLES OF SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY TO
THE NUMERICAL COMPUTATION OF THE MEASURES OF THE
SIDES AND ANGLES OF RIGHT-ANGLED SPHERICAL TRIAN-
GLES.
SPHERICAL, triangles present six parts for consideration, three sides
and three angles but in right-angled triangles the measure of the right
;

angle can never be the subject of inquiry therefore the sides, the
:

hypothenuse, and the two oblique angles, are all the parts of the tri-
angle to which it is
necessary to advert ; and any two of these being
given, the others may be computed.
Now if three of these five parts be taken, one of the three will either
lie between the other two, or be separated from them by the two re-

maining parts of the triangle. This part is called the middle part ;
and, when adjacent to the other two parts, they are called, with
it is

respect to it, the adjoining extremes ; otherwise, they are called the
opposite extremes.
With this understanding respecting the denominations of the dif-

ferent parts, as middle or extreme, let the sides about the right angle,
the complement of the hypothenuse, and the complements of the oblique

angles, be considered as the five circular parts ; then the two following-
equations, called NAPIER'S RULES FOII THE CIRCULAR PARTS, obtain

universally, and they are sufficient for the solution of any case that
can arise from considering different parts of the triangle as given.
1. Radius X sine
of the middle part =
rectangle of the tangents of
tin
adjoining extremes.
2. Raditis x sine of the middle part rectangle of (he cosines of
the opposite extremes.
In the solution of problems there will in every case be two parts

given and one required ; hence, in applying these equations, of the

three quantities concerned take that as the middle part which is either

adjacent to the other two, or is separated from them both by the re-

i
1 14 PRACTICAL APPLICATION

maining parts of the triangle, and observe whether the other parts
accord-
become adjoining oropposite extremes, and form the equation
ingly. Tiaii-i'>rm the equation into a proportion (Geo. Prop. 72), so
that the required term may be the last ; and, on solving this proportion,
the required term will be obtained.
For example, in the triangle ABC let the hypothenuse A c ami t he-

angle A be given to find the other parts.

To find B c.

Here of the three parts AC, {_ A, and B c, A c cannot be the middle

part, for the angle
A would then be an adjoining ex-
treme, and B c, being separated from A c by the angle

c, would be an opposite extreme. Neither can the

angle A be the middle part for AC would be an ad-;

joining extreme, and B c, being separated from the angle A by the side
A B, would be opposite extreme B c is therefore the middle part and
:
;

A c and the angle A are the opposite extremes.

But, in forming the equations, the complements of /_ A and A c are
used.

Hence, from Equation 2, we have

rad . sin Bc = sin A . sin Ac ;

and this equation, resolved into a proportion, gives

rad : sin Ac : : sin A : sin B c.

To find A B.

Here /.A isthe middle part, and AC and A B are adjoining ex-
tremes ;
but as in forming the equations the complements of /. A umi
A c are used, we have from the first equation
rad . cos A = tan A B cot . Ac :

and consequently cot A c : rad : : cos A : tan A B.

To find the angle c.

Here A c is A and c being adjacent

the middle part, and the angles
to A c,
are adjoining extremes with respect to it. But in forming^the
equation, the complements of all the three parts here concerned are
used. Hence Equation 1gives
rad cot A . cot c ;
. cos A c =
and the equation being resolved into a proportion we have
cot A : rad : : cos Ac : cot c.
Todetermine whether the different parts of right-angled spherical
triangles are obtuse or acute, we have the following rules.
1. The sides about the
right angle are of the same affection with
their opposite angles, and the
oblique angles are of the same affection
with their opposite sides.
2. When the sides about the right
angle are of the same affection,
 OF SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. 115

tin-
bypothenuM N acute; but when the sides about the right angle tin-
of different affections, the hypothenuse is obtuse.
3. And hence also when the oblique angles are of the same affection,
flic
hypothenuse is acute but when they are of different affections, the
;

liypothenuse is obtuse.
As an example of the application of these rules, let us suppose that,
in the last
figure, A c and the angle A are both given obtuse. Then
B c, being of the same affection as the angle A, is also obtuse ; and as
A c is obtuse, the sides A B and B c are of different affections conse- :

quently as B c is obtuse, A B is acute and hence its opposite angle c is

;

acute also.

EXAMPLE I.

In the right-angled spherical triangle ABC (see the last figure)

given A B 46 18' 23", and the angle A 34 27' 39", to find the other
|>arts ?

Here, as the angle A is acute, B c is acute ; and as A B is acute, AB

and B c are of the same affection : therefore A c and angle c are
acute.
To compute A c we have, r cos A =
tan A B . cot Ac ;

r COS A COt A B . COS A

or cot AC = .

= .
AB tan r
To compute B c, we have, r sin A B = tan B c cot A . .
;

or, tan B c =
r sin A B

cot A
= tan A rsin A B
. .

To compute c, we have, r cos c = cos A B sin A . .

;

cos A B sin A
or, cos c = .

r
9-980189 cot A B 46 18' 23" sin 9-859165
9-916198 cos A 34 27 39 tan 9-836497
9-896387 cot AC 51 46 15
B c 29 33 29 tan 9-695662
A B cos 9 839354
A sin 9-752695
c 66 59' 26" cos 9 592049

EXAMPLE II.

In the right-angled spherical triangle (see the last figure) ABC

f'm -n \ u 29 41' 32", and Bo 1 Hi" 30' 43", to find the other parts?

Here as A B and B c are of different affections, Ac is obtuse; and

the angle c, being of the same affection with A B, is acute ; and the
angle A, being of the same affection with B c, is obtuse.

i2
 11C PRACTICAL APPLICATION

To compute A c \ve have, r . cos Ac = cos A B . cos B c ;

cos A B cos B c
or, cos Ac = .

.
r
To compute we have r sin A B = tan B c
A, . . cot A ;

AB
or. cot A =
tan B c
= cot B c sin A B
r . sin .

r
To compute c, we have r sin B c = tan A B . . cot c ;

cot A B sin B c
or, cot c = .

9-938870 cos A B 29 41' 32" sin 9-694904

9 649708 cos B c 116 30 43 cot 9-697962
9-588573 cos AC 112 48 58
A 103 52 47 cot 9-392866

AB cot 10-243966
BC sin 9-951746
c 32 30' 22" cot 10195712

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

1. In the right-angled spherical triangle ABC, given AB
118 21' 4", and /. A 23 40' 12", to find the other parts ?

Answer, A c 116 17' 55", L c 100 59' 26", and B c 21 5' 42".
2. In the right-angled spherical
triangle ABC, given A B
53 14' 20", and L A 91 25' 53", to find the other parts ?

Answer, AC 91 4' 9", L c 53 15' 8", and B c 91 47' 11".

3. In the right-angled spherical triangle ABC, given A B
48 BC 59 38' 27", to find the other parts?
24' 16", and

Answer, AC 70 23' 42", L A 66 20' 40", and L c 52 32' 55".

4. In the right-angled spherical triangle ABC, given A B
151 23' 9", and B c 16 35' 14", to find the other parts?
Answer, A c 147 16' 51", L c 117 37' 21", and L A 31 52' 50".
5. In the right-angled spherical triangle ABC, given AB
73 4' 31", and A c 86 12' 15", to find the other parts?
Answer, B c 76 51' 20", L A 77 24' 23", and L c 73 29' 40".
6. In the right-angled spherical triangle ABC, given A c
1 18 32' 12", and A B 47 26' 35", to find the other parts?
Answer, B c 134 56' 20", L A 126 19' 2", and /. c 56 58' 44".
7. In the right-angled spherical triangle ABC, given A B
138 25' 34", and A c 49 27' 16", to find the other parts ?
Answer, B c 150 20' 8", L A 139 21' 36", and L c 119 9' 34".
8. In the right-angled spherical triangle ABC, given AC
68 14' 20", and /. c 70 21' 15", to find the other parts?
Answer, B c 40 6' 19", A B 61 0' 22", and L A 43 55' 2".
 c>l >I>HKItK AI, THIGOXO.MF.TKY. 117

''. Iii the right-angled spherical triangle ABC, given AC

53 25' 31", and L A 124 26' T', to find the other parts?

Answer, B c 138 31' 13", A B 142 41' 19", and L c 130 59' 38".
10. right-angled spherical triangle ABC, given AC
In the
102 15' 27", and B c 49 13' 18", to find the other parts?
AIKWCT, A B 108 58' 9", A 50 4V 47", and L c 104 35' 21".
L
11. In the right-angled spherical triangle ABC, given _ c
38 14' 3", and L A
59 20' 7", to find the other parts?
Answer, B c 34 30' 11", A * 24 3' 2", and AC 41 11' 17".
12. In the right-angled spherical triangle ABC, given _ c
171 4', L
and A 92 6', to the other parts ?
Answer, AC 76 30' 37", A B 171 18' 56", and BC 103 38' 57".
13. In the right-angled spherical triangle ABC, given AC
61 3' 22", and 49 L A 28' 12", to find the other parts?

Answer, A B 49 36' 6", L c 60 29' 19", and B c 41 41' 32".

1 4. In the
right-angled spherical triangle ABC, given AB
29 12' 50", and L c 37 26' 21", to find the other parts?

Answer, ambiguous ; _ A 65 27' 58", or its supplement, Ac

53 24' 13", or its supplement, B c 46 55' 2", or its supplement.
1 5. In the right-angled spherical triangle ABC, given AB
54 21' 35", and /. c 61 2' 15", to find the other parts?
Answer, ambiguous; BC 129 28' 28", or its supplement, AC
1 1 1 44' 34", or its supplement, and L A 123 47' 44", or its supplement.

APPLICATION OF THE FORMULAE FOR RIGHT-ANGLED SPHERI-

CAL TRIANGLES TO THE SOLUTION OF CASES RELATIVE TO
QUADRANTAL TRIANGLES.
A quadrantal triangle is a spherical triangle, one of whose sides is

a nadrant.
(f

Let A B c or A B' c be a quadrantal triangle, A c being the quad-

rantal side, on c B' or c B produced, let c D be taken equal to a
quadrant, and A D be an arc of a great circle
let

passing A and D. Then the angles c A D,

througli
c D A (or B D A), and B' D A are right angles, and
A D is the measure of the angle c. The angles DAB,
D A B', are respectively complements of c A B, CAB';
and c B, c B' are also respectively complements of
B i'. B' D. Hence the different parts of the quadrantal
triangles B'AC, BAC, may be determined from the
corresponding parts of the right-angled triangles A D B,
A D B'.
EXAMI'LK I.

In the triangle A B'C given A c 90, the angle CAB' 112 2' 9", and
A B' 67 3' 14", to find the other parts?
118 PRACTICAL APPLICATION

Let c D be a quadrant, then as c A D is a right angle, DAB' is

22 2' 9". Hence D B' is acute and as A ;

B' is acute, the angle B' and
A D, the measure of the angle c, are also acute.
To compute A D, the measure of c,
cos DAB', tan A B'.
r . cos D A B' = cot A B . tan AD; or, tan AD =

To compute D B', the complement of B' c,

sin A B' sin DA B'
r . sin D B' = sin *. B . sm D A B ;
or sm i> B = -
.

To find B' we have r . cos A B' = cot DAB', cot B' ;

cos A B' tan DAB'

or, cot B = .

r
.

10-373285 tan A B' 67 3' 14" sin 9-964199

9-967057 cos D A B' 22 2 9 sin 9-574246
10-340342 tan AD 65 27 9
DB' 20 12 44 sin 9-538445
90
B'C 110 12 44
AB' 67 3' 14" cos 9-590915
DAB' 22 2 9 tan 9 607191
B 81 15 8 cot 9-198106

EXAMPLE II.
given AC 90, A
In the triangle A B'C, B' 79 18' 40", and CB'
123 16' 3", to find the other parts?
Let c D be a quadrant, then D B', the complement of c B', is

33 16' 3".

To find B', we have, r . cos B' = cot A B' . tan D B' ;

cot A B' tan D B'

or. cos B = -- r
.

To find A D, the measure of c, we have, r . cos A B'=COS A D . cos D B' ;

cos A B' . sec D B'

or, cos AD = .

r
To find DA B', we have, r . sin D B' = sin A B' . sin D A B' ;

sin D B' . cosec A B'

or, sm D A B = .

9-275889 cot AB' 79 18' 40" cos 9-268288

tan DB' 33 16
9- 8 16946 3 sec 10-077732

9-092835 cos B' 82 53 12

AD 77 11 cos 9-346020
DB' sin 9-739216
DAB' cosec 10-007602

DAB' 33 56' 2" sin 9746818

90
CAB' 123 56 2
 OF SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. 119

K \.\MPLES FOR EXERCISE IN THE SOLUTION or QUADRANTAL

TRIANGLES.
1. In tin-
quadrantal triangle ABC (see the last jiy are), A c being
tlu- qnatlnuital side, given A B 67 3' and {_ A 49 18', to find the other

parts?
Answer, {_ c 60 48' 54", BC 53 5' 46", and L B 108 32' 27".
2. Given _ A 118 40' 36", and B'C 113; 2' 28", to find the other

parts?
Answer, A B' 54 38' 57", L c 51 2' 35", and L*' 72 26' 21".
3. Given /. c 69 13' 46", L A 72 12' 4", to find the other parts?
Answer, A B70 8' 39", Bc73 17' 29", and L B96 13' 23".
4. Given BC 86 14' 40", and L A 37 12'*20", to find the other
parts?
Answer, A B 4 43' 2", L B 142 42' 2", and L c 2 51' 23".
5. Given L c 60 41' 30", and BC 78 12' 19", to find the other
parts ?

Answer, A B 61 22' 7", L A 76 31' 59", and L B 96 32' 45".

6. Given B' c 118 32' 16", and AB' 67 48' 40", to find the other

parts?
Answer, L c 64 32' 21", /. A 121 3' 40", and L B' 77 11' 6".
7. Given BC 58 3' 42", and AB 61 4' 19", to find the other parts ?
Answer, L c 55 15' 0", L B 110 9' 10", and L A 52 48' 46".
8. Given L B 104 41' 17", and BC 73 21' 6", to find the other
parts?
Answer, Z. A 67 56' 13", L c47 32' 39", and A B 49 42' 18".
9. Given L A 21 39" 48", and L c 53 26' 45", to find the other
parts?
Answer, i_ B 123 36' 32", B c 26 18' 40", and A B 74 41' 35".
10. Given L B 94 29' 54", and Bc5631' 26", to find the other
parts?
Answer, L A 56 15' 29", L c 81 53' 0", and A B 83 14' 11".

APPLICATION OF TRIGONOMETRICAL FORMULAE TO THE NU-

MERICAL COMPUTATION OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF
OBLIQUE-ANGLED SPHERICAL TRIANGLES.
ALL the cases of oblique-angled spherical triangles may be solved
by
the formulae for right-angled ones, except when the three sides are

given to find the angles, or the three angles given to find the sides.
For the solution of these two cases, we have the following rules.
!:?<> rn.uTiCAL APPUCATION

To find any angle of a spherical triangle when the three side* arc gin n .

RULE 1. From half the sum of the three sides subtract the side
opposite to the required angle, then add together the log cosecants of
the other two sides (rejecting 10 from each of their indexes), and the

log sines of the half sum, and remainder: half the sum of these four
logarithms will be the log cosine of half the required angle.
RULE 2. From half the sum of the three sides, subtract each of the
sides containing the required angle, then add together the log cosecants
of these two sides (rejecting 10 from each of their indexes) and the
log sines of the two remainders half the sum of these four logarithms
;

will be the log sine of half the required angle.

Remark. When the required angle is large, the first of these rules
may be used in preference, and the second when the angle is small.

When the three angles are given to find the sides.

RULE. Take the supplements of the measures of the given angles,

as the sides of another triangle, and find the angles of that triangle by
either of the preceding rules ; and the supplement of the measures of
these angles will be the sides of the proposed triangle, the greater side

being opposite the greater angle.

When a side and two of the angles, or an angle and two of the sides,
are given tojind the other parts.

RULE. Let a perpendicular be drawn from an extremity of a given

side, and opposite a given angle, or its supplement there will then be
;

formed two right-angled trinagles, the parts of which may be com-

puted by Napier's Rules.

The following proportions however, which were deduced at Prop.
16 and 17, Elements of Spherics, will often be found useful.
1 . The sines of the sides of spherical triangles are proportional to

the sines of their opposite angles.

2. The sines of the segments of the base, made9 by a perpendicular
from the opposite angle, are proportional to the cotangents of their

adjacent angles.
3. The cosines of the segments of the base are proportional to the

cosines of the adjacent sides of the triangle.

4. The tangents of the segments of the base are proportional to tin-

tangents of the opposite segments of the vertical angles.

5. The cosines of the angles at the base are proportional to the sines

of the corresponding segments of the vertical angles.

6. TJie cosines of the segments of the vertical angles are proportional
to the cotangents of the adjoining sides of the triangle.
 OK snu:i:u AI. TKK.ONOMI/I u -> . 1 j 1

ll'/tcti tiro suits (iff <l the included aitylrarr yimi, (lie at /ur
n/iijhs
iiidif In' ronrciiiciitlti found from the following ndi-.

Add together the cotangent of half the given angle, the secant of
Lilt' the sum of the given sides, and the cosine of half their difference,
and the sum, rejecting 20 from the index, is the tangent of half the
sum of the required angles. Again, add together the cotangent of half
the given angle, the cosecant of half the sum of the given sides, and the
MHO of half.their difference, and the sum, rejecting 20 from the index,
is tlie
tangent of half the difference of the required angles. And half
the difference added to half the sum gives the greater, and subtracted,
leaver the less of the required angles. (Prop. 22, Spherics.')
\]'ln>i tiro
angles and an adjacent side are given to find the other
sides, the folia iriny rule mat/ be employed with advantage.
Add together the tangent of half the given side, the secant of half
the sum of the given angles, and the cosine of half their difference, and
the sum, rejecting 20 from the index, is the tangent of half the sum of
the required sides. Again, add together the tangent of half the given
side, the cosecant of half the sum of the given angles, and the sine of
half their difference, and the sum, rejecting 20 from the index, is the

tangent of half the difference of the required sides. Then, knowing

the half sum and the half difference, the sides themselves are known,
the greater side being opposite the greater angle. (Prop. 22,
Spherics.)
Note. Half the sum of the sides is of the same affection as half the
sum of the opposite angles ; and half the difference of the sides, as well
as half the difference of the angles, is always acute.

When two sides and the contained angle are given to find the third

by direct computation.
side,
First method. Call half the sum of the sides arc 1. Add together
twice the cosine of half the given angle, and the sines of the sides

containing it, and half the sum, rejecting tens from the index, will be
the sine of arc 2. Add together the sines of the sum and the differ-
ence of arcs 1 and 2, and half the sum will be the sine of half the
required side.
Second method. Call half the difference of the sides arc 1. Add
together twice the sine of half the given angle, and the sines of the
-iiics
containing it, and half the surn, rejecting tens from the index,
will be the cosine of arc 2. Add together the sines of the sum, and
the difference of arcs 1 and 2, and half the sum will be the cosine of
half the required side.
EXAMPLES.
1. In the triangle A BC, given A n 59 16' 23", BC 70 4' 18", and
AC 63 21' 27", to find the other parts?
122 I'K.UTICAL APPLICATION

/i A. fount! liii the first Rule. /.B found by the second Rtde.
BC 70 4' 18" A c 63 21' 27"
AB 59 16 23 cosec -065697 AB 59 16 23 cosec -065697
AC 63 21 27 cosec -048749 B c 70 4 18 cosec -026817
2)192 42 8 2)192 42 8
96 21 4 sin 9-997326 96 21 4
26 16 46 sin 9646158 37 4 41 sin 9-780247

2)19-757930
26 16 46 sin 9-64(il',s

40 49 10 cos 9-878965 2)19-518919

2 35 4 49 sin~~9-7o94.')9

81 38 20 A 2
/.
70 9 38

Z.C found by the first Rule.

AB 59 16' 23"
BC 70 4 18 cosec -026817
AC 63 21 27 cosec '048749
2)192 42 8
96 21 4 sin 9-997326
37 4 41 sin 9-780247
2(19-853139
32 23 17 cos 9-926569
2
64 46 34zc

2. In the triangle ABC, given B c 91 3' 26", A B 40 36' 37", and

Z. B 58 31', to find the other parts ?
Let A D (see the first of the adjoining figures) be a circle drawn
perpendicular from A upon B c.
Then in the right - angled tri-
angle BAD are given A B and
Z. B to find the other parts. Now
as A B and Z. B are both given
acute, B D, DA, and /.BAD are all
acute.
To find B p, we have, r cos B . = tan B D . cot AB ;

cos B tan A B
or, tan B D = .

r
To find B A D, we have, r . cos AB = cot B . cot BAD;
cos AB tan B sec AB cot B
or, cot BAD = .

,
or tan B AD =:
.
 OF SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. 123

To find AC, we have, cos A B cos D c . = cos AC . cos BD; or,

COS A C = COS A BCOS D C SCC B D.
. .

To find c A D, we have, tan c A D = tan D c tan DAB. cot B D.

.

To find c, we have, cot c sin B D . = cot B sin D c or,

. ;

nit c = cot B . sin D c . cosec B D ; or, tan c = tan B cosec D c sin B D.

. .

9-717879 cos B 58 31' 0" tan 10-212964

9 933190 tan AB 40 36 47 cos 9-880330
8H651069 tan B D 24 7 19 10-093294 cot 38 53' 24" BAD
B c 91 3 26
p c 66 56 7

As A D and D c are both acute, A c, A c D, and D A c are also acute.

9-880330 cos A B 40 36' 47"

9-593032 cos D c 66 56 7 tan 10-370786
10-039683 sec B D 24 7 19 cot 10-348934
9-513045 cos A c 70 58 54
BAD 38 53 34 tan 9-906706
CAD 76 42 6 tan 15-626426
BAC115 35 40=BAD + DAC
BD cosec 10-388617
DC sin 9963817
B cot 9-787036
c 38 57' 15" cot 10-139470

To find the angles A and c by the first JKule, page 121.

BC 91 3' 26"
BA 40 36 37
Sum 131 40 3
Diff. 50 26 49
Half sum 65 50 1-5
Halfdiff. 25 13 24-5
Half /. B 29 15 30
*A + c . A -
c
lo compute and .

& a
29 15' 30" cot 10-251643 cot 10-251643
65 50 1-5 sec 10-387867 cosec 10-039833
2o 13 24-5 cos 9-956482 sin 9'629562

75 46 27-2 tan 10-595992

39 49 11-5 tan 9-921038

Sum 115 35 38-7 L A

Diff. 35 57 15-7 L c.
 rii.VCTICAL APPLICATION

A C found dircct/i/ b>j tlir 7-7/>/ Jttde, JKHJC 121.

29 15' 30" 2 cos 19-881456

i
BC 91 3 2rt

A B 40 36 37
Sum 131 40 3
Half sum 65 50 1

44 43 58
 OF SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY. 12")

9. Given BC 74 16', {_ u 46 34', and _ c 81 20', to find the other

parts?
Answer, AC 44 34' 42", L A 84 46' 35", and A B 72 50' 43".
10. Given L c 77 22' 21", _ A 71 33' 30", and _ B 57 53' 55",
to find the sides ?

Answer, A B 61 14', BC 58 27', and A c 49 33'.

1 1. Given A.B 80 12' 21", BC 50 36' 39", and L B 68 40' 26", to
lintl the other'parts?

Answer, AC 67 21' 40", L A 51 15' 50", and L c 95 58' 1".

12. Given A c 100 21' 30", BC 97 18' 22", and L B 100 28' 48",
to find the other parts ?

Answer, A B 19 22' 2", L c 19 21' 33", and /. A 82 31' 14".

13. Given L A 59 29' 6", L B 54 39' 32", and A B 68 32' 46", to
find the other parts ?

Answer, L c 92 6' 11", A c 49 26' 18", and BC 53 21' 17".

14. The perpendicular c D falling within the triangle, given AD
6 25' 33", B D 42 54' 46", and /_ A 82 33' 53", to find the other

angles and the sides ?

Answer, L B 51 33' 4", BC 56 13' 24", and A c 41 2' 0".
15. The
perpendicular falling without the triangle, given AD
CD
27 36' 3", BD 79 49' 3", and c D 15 407 21", to find the sides and

angles of the triangle ABC?

Answer, L A 148 48' 6", Z B 15 54' 38", L c 24 32' 52",
A B 52 13', B c 80 12', and AC 31 26'.
16. Given A B 110, B c 116, and AC 1 16, to find the angles?
7

Answer, _ A 134 9' 5", L B 134 9' 5", and _ c 131 23' 4S '.
17. Given A B 53 16' 32", B c 48 26' 39", and AC 51 36' 30",
to find the
angles ?
Answer, L A 62 18' 11", L B 68 1' 55", and /. c 71 30' 37".
18. Given A B 86 12' 52", B c 79 3ff 21", and AC 58 39' 16", to
find the angles ?

Answer, L A 80 107 10", L B 58 48' 36", and L c 91 52' 42".

 ( 12G )

ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

NAVIGATION.

NAVIGATION is the art of conducting a ship from one place to

another.
That may be rightly understood, or practised with advan-
this art

tage, it is
necessary that the navigator should be acquainted with the
form of the earth, the relative situation of the lines conceived to be
drawn upon its surface, and be furnished with correct charts of such
parts of it as he may have occasion to visit, as well as with tables, in
which the situations of the most remarkable sea-coasts, islands, rocks,
shoals, &c. are accurately described and he must also understand the
;

use and application of such instruments as are necessary to determine

the direction in which the ship is steered, and the distance which she
sails and be further possessed of sufficient mathematical skill to
;

deduce, from the data which these instruments furnish, the situation of
the ship at any time, and to find the direction and distance of any

place to which it may be required that the ship should be taken.

That the earth, in its general figure, is a round body is evident from
various considerations. If it were flat, then in clear weather, though
distant objects upon its surface might appear small, they would still be
within the limit of view; but it is uniformly observed, in every part of
the earth, that to whatever quarter a ship sails, after she has proceeded
a few miles to sea, she is gradually lost sight of, appearing as it were
to sink in the waters, or to be hidden behind their convexity ; the
lower parts disappearing first, and the higher in succession. Now the
figure of the object on which this appearance uniformly takes place
must necessarily be round.
In lunar eclipses, which are caused by the moon's passing through
the shadow of the earth, it is always observed that the
bounding line
of the shadow on the face of the moon is a curve line the earth there- ;

fore, which shadow, must be a round body.

casts that To these and
many other considerations it may be added, that several celebrated
navigators, by proceeding forward always, or nearly as circumstances
admitted, in the same direction, have actually arrived at the place
which they sailed from, and have thus sailed round, or circumnavigated
the earth.
But though the figure of the earth is
nearly spherical, it is not
 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF NAVIGATION. . 127

tit/ so. It revolves round one of its diameters once in a day ; and
this revolution produces an effect upon its
figure, which, in nice obser-
vations, becomes very apparent. // is flattened towards the extremities

of' f/n' <>f rotation, but so slightly, that in computing the place of
a.i'i.f

a ship from the distance which she lias gone, and the direction in which
^lie lias sailed, the earth may be safely considered as a sphere.

The diameter round which it revolves is called the axis, and the
extremities of that diameter the poles of the earth. That to which we
in Europe are nearest is called the north pole, and the other the south

pole.
Great circles 'passing through the poles are called meridians; the
great circle, equidistant from both poles, and which therefore cuts the
meridians at right angles, is called the equator, the equinoctial, or the
line; and less circles, whose planes are parallel to the plane of the

equator, are called parallels of latitude. The meridian passing over

any place is called the meridian of that place; and the portion of a
meridian intercepted between a place and the equator is called
the latitude of that place ; and it receives the denomination of north
or south, according as the place is on the north or south side of the

equator.
It
is
customary to call the meridian of some remarkable place the
firstmeridian, and the angle included between the first and any other
meridian is called the longitude of that other meridian, or of any place
over which the meridian passes. And as the angle included between
two great circles is measured by the arc which they intercept on
another great circle, whose pole is at the point of their intersection, the
linttji titdc of a place may also be defined to be the arc of the equator
i nt i rrt-ftti'd between the first meridian and the meridian of that place ;

and considered as east or west, according as the place is situated

it is

towards the east or west of the first meridian. English geographers

and seamen refer to the meridian of the Royal Observatory at Green-
wich as the first meridian, Frenchmen of the Observatory at
to that

Tin-is &c.
The difference of latitude between any two places is an arc of a
meridian intercepted between the parallels of latitude on which the
places are situated ; and the difference of their longitudes is the angle
at the pole included between their meridians, or the arc of the equator
\ those meridians intercept.
liich

Hence when the latitudes or the longitudes of two places are of the
same denomination, the difference of their latitudes, or of their longi-

tudes, will be found by subtracting the lo.-s i'mm the greater ; but when
they are of different denominations, by taking their Mini.
A
curve that cuts every meridian which it meets at the same angle,
is called a rhumb line ; the angle which the rhumb line makes with the
128 ELEMENTARY I'H I NCI 1'LKS

meridian is cal It (I the course between any two places through \\hieh
the rhumb pus>es ;
ami the arc of a rhumb line intercepted between two
places is called their nautical distance.
The meridian made is an arc of the paral-
distance which a ship has
lel on which the ship intercepted between the meridian left
is,
and the
meridian arrived at ; and the departure which a ship makes in sailing
upon a rhumb line, is the sum of all the intermediate meridian dis-
tances, computed on the supposition that the distance is divided into

indefinitely small equal parts.

The parallel of latitude which is 23 28' north of the equator is

called the tropic of cancer; and that which is 23 28' south of the

equator is called the tropic of Capricorn. The parallel of latitude

which is 23 28' from the north pole is called the arctic circle ; and
that which same distance from the south pole is called the
is at the
antarctic circle. These four circles divide the surface of the earth into
five parts, called zones. The part included between the tropics is
called the torrid or burning zone, from the intense heat produced by
the vertical action of the sun's rays. Those included between the poles
and the arctic and antarctic circles are called frigid or frozen zones,
from the great cold arising from the periodical absence of the sun, and
the obliquity with which his rays at all times meet the surface of those

parts of the earth. The two remaining parts are called temperate
zones, from their enjoying the advantages of an intermediate state, be-
tween the extremes of heat and cold which prevail in the torrid and
frigid zones.
The equator bisects the torrid zone, and also divides the whole sur-
face of the earth into two equal parts ;
that in which the north pole is

situated being called the northern hemisphere, and the other the southern
hemisphere.
"With respect to the magnitude of the earth, it has been found, by
various admeasurements, that it is nearly equal to a sphere of 7916

English miles in diameter, or 24,869 miles in circumference. Hence

a geographical or a nautical mile, which is the 21600th of 360, is

nearly 6079 English feet.

For the sake of illustration, let us suppose that in the annexed

figure, the north pole, T K Q the equator, or a
P is
great circle, every
part of which is a quadrant distant
from P ;
P T, p
p K, &c. great ir,

circles passing through p, and of

course cutting the equator at right
angles ; A i, b B, R s, &c. arcs of
smaller circles parallel to the equa-
tor,and therefore cutting the meri-
dians at right angles ; A E a curve
 OF NAVIGATION. 129

cutting every meridian which it meets, as p K, p L, p M, &c., at the

same angle. Then F H, PK, &c. produced till
they meet at the op-
posite pole, are called meridians ; A i, b B, B s, &c. continued round
the globe, are called parallels of latitude ; A E is called the rhumb-
line passing through A and E ; the length of A K is called the nautical
distance from A to E and the angle b A B, or any of its equals, c BC,
;

</CD, &c. is called the course from A to E. Let G be the situation

of Greenwich, then c H is the latitude of Greenwich, G p its colatitude,
AK the latitude of the point A, or of any place on the parallel A j i

F K, or its equal E o, is the latitude of F, or of E, or of any place on

the parallel F E ; F A or E i is the difference of latitude of the points A

and E, or of the parallels A i and E F, or of any places on those parallels.
As pG H is the first meridian, the longitude of G, or of any place
on the meridian FGII, is
nothing; the arc TH, or the angle T P H,
\\liich TH measures, is the longitude of the meridian PT, or of any

place on that meridian ; the arc H K, or the angle H p K, is the longi-

tude of A, or of F, or of any place on the meridian P K ; the arc H o,
or the angle H P o, is the longitude of the points o, i, s, and E, or of

any place on the meridian p o ; the arc K o, which is the difference

of H o and H K, is the difference of the longitudes of the meridians
p K and P o, or of any two places on those meridians ; and T o, the
sum of T H and H o, is the difference of longitude of the meridians P T
and P o.

If a ship sail from A to E, E F is her meridian distance : but if she

sail from E to A, A i is her meridian distance.

If A B, B c, c D, &c. be conceived to be equal, and indefinitely small,

and their number indefinitely great, then the triangles A B b, B c c, &c.
may be considered as indefinitely small right-angled plane triangles.
And as the angles BA^, CBC, &c. are equal, and the right angles
Ab B, BC c, fec. are equal, the remaining angles A B b, B c c, &c. are

equal ; and as the sides A B, B c, &c. are also equal, these elementary

triangles A B b, B c c, cot/, &c. are all identical triangles ; therefore

AE is the same multiple of A B, that the sum of A b, BC, c d, &c. is of
A b and that the sum of B l>. c c, D <l. &c. is of B b. But the sum of
;

A b, BC, cd, &c. is equal to the whole difference of latitude A F, or E i,

and the sum of B 6, cc, D d, &c. is what is called the departure. Hence
as A B b is a right-angled plane triangle, a straight line equal to A E,
and a straight line equal to A F, will form two sides of a right-angled

plane triangle, of which the third side will be equal to the sum B b,
c r, D <f, &c., and the angle included by the lines equal to A E and A F
will be equal to the angle B A b, made by the rhumb line with the
meridian on the globe.
Therefore, when any two of these four elements are given, viz. the
difference of latitude, course, nautical distance, and departure, the
130 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

other two may be found by the resolution of a right-angled plane

triangle ; of which the hypothenuse is the distance, the side opposite
the course the departure, and the remaining side the difference of
latitude.

It may be observed here, that when the rhumb line on which a

ship sails coincides with a meridian, the difference of hitilmli- /.v the
nautical distance, and the ship changes her latiti/t/c only, not her

longitude ; and when the rhumb line cuts the meridians at right.an
the nautical distance is equal to the meridian distance, ami the >hip

changes her longitude only, and not her latitude ; but in ecrrij nthrr
direction of the rhumb line, both the latitude and longitude will be
changed. We have seen, however, that computations made on the
supposition that the earth is a plane, the meridians parallel straight
lines, and the rhumb lines in consequence also straight lines, give cor-
rect results, so far as difference of latitude course, departure, and
nautical distance are concerned. This is called PLANE SAILING, and
its usefulnesshence very obvious. But we have now to consider how
is

the longitude of a ship may be computed when she sails a given distance
from a known place and on a given rhumb line or generally to show ;

how a ship's change of longitude is connected with her change of place

on the globe.
We shall begin with the most simple case of the general problem,
which a ship sails on a parallel of lati-
viz. that in

tude, or when she changes her longitude only. Let

p A and P B be two meridians, A B the arc of the
equator which they intercept, or the difference of
their longitudes let the planes of the meridians in-
;

tersect each other in P c (c being the centre of the

globe), and let ACS be the plane of the equator,
and DUE, FIG.
the planes of any two parallels of
latitude, of which the parts corresponding to the difference of
longitude
A B, are D E and F o respectively. Then as D H and n E are respec-
tively parallel to AC and BC
(for each of these lines is perpendicular
to PC), the angle DH E
-equal to the angle ACB, and consequently
is

the arc DE is the same portion of the whole parallel of which it is a

part, that the arc A B is of the equator.

Hence DH, the radius of the parallel, is to D E, as AC, the radius of
the equator, or the radius of the globe is to A B. But D H is the sine
of D P, or cosine of D A, the latitude of the parallel ; therefore as the
cosine of any given latitude is to any portion of a parallel in that lati-

tude, so is radius to the corresponding arc of the equator, or the differ-

ence of longitude.
But in any right-angled plane triangle, the base is to the hypothenuse
as the cosine of the acute
angle at the base is to radius ; therefore if
 OF NAVIGATION. . 131

base of a right-angled plane triangle be measured by

at the

^iven latitude, and the length of the base be equal to any given
portion of a parallel in that latitude, the hypothenuse will be equal to
the arc of the equator, or the difference of longitude,
corresponding to
thr uivcu meridian distance, or the given arc of the parallel.
.iin,
it'may be shown, in the same way, that n H is to D E as F I
i< t> i <
; or as the cosine of any latitude is to any portion of the
is the cosine of
jKirallel in that latitude, so any other latitude to the
eorreeponding portion of its parallel. Hence, if two right-angled plane
triangles have a common hypothenuse, equal to the difference of
longitude of any two meridians, and the angles at the base of the
triangles be respectively measured by any given latitudes, their bases
will represent the arcs of two parallels which correspond, in their

respective latitudes, to the proposed difference of longitude.

The above are the elementary principles of what is called PARALLEL
SAILING ; we have next to consider how the difference of longitude
may be determined, when a ship sails upon an oblique rhumb.
For this purpose, let us recur to the figure on page 128. In that
figure, the elementary and equal parts of the departure B b, c c, D </,
&c., are severally less than the corresponding parts of the parallel A I,
but greater than those of the parts which correspond to them on the
parallel F K. If, however, R 8 be the arc of the middle parallel
between F E and A i, the elementary parts of the departure on one

side of R s will exceed the corresponding parts of that line, by nearly

as much as the elementary parts of the departure on the other side of
R s are less than the corresponding parts of that line. Hence, R 8,
the meridian distance in the middle latitude, is nearly equal to the

departure, or the sum of the elementary meridian distances that arise

in sailing on an oblique rhumb. Therefore, considering the departure
as a meridian distance on the middle parallel, between the latitude
left awl the latitude arrived at, the difference of longitude
may be
computed in the same manner as in parallel sailing.
For if the angle at the base of a right-angled plane triangle be
measured by the middle latitude, and the base be equal to the depart-
ure, the hypothenuse will be nearly equal to the difference of longitude ;
not exactly equal; for though, in places near the equator, or indeed,
for such short distances as an ordinary day's run in any situation,
except in very high latitudes, the meridian distance in the middle
parallel may, without any important sacrifice of accuracy, be taken for
the departure, they are in no case exarthi </////.
This method of connecting the change in longitude with a ship's
change of place, ia called MIDDLE LATITUDE SAILING.
To exhibit more plainly the practical application of what lias been
K L'
132 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

here said, let D E .(see the last figure), a given

meridian distance, in a given latitude A D, be repre-
sented by the line A B in the annexed figure ; then
if the angle B A c in the annexed figure be mea-
sured by the latitude A D, in the former one, A c A B
in this figure will be equal to A B, the difference of

longitude, in the other figure.

Again, if AE (see figure, page 128) be represented by B in this

figure, and A F in that figure by

D c in this, then the
angle BCD will be a right angle, and B c the departure,
which be correctly equal to the sum of B b, c c, &c.,
will

(fig., page 128) and nearly equal

to R s, in that figure,
the meridian distance in the middle latitude. If, there-
B c A, the angle c B A
fore, in the right-angled triangle
be measured by the middle latitude, or the latitude of
the parallelR s then A B, the hypothenuse in this figure,
:

M'illbe nearly equal to K o (figure, page 128), the difference of longi-

tude which the ship has made in sailing from A to E. If, therefore,
in these two connected right-angled triangles, D c be the difference of

latitude, B D the nautical distance, and c B A the middle latitude ;

then c DBthe course, c B the departure, or the meridian distance

is

in the middle latitude nearly, and A B the difference of

longitude
nearly.
The of the leading problems in navigation being thus in
solution

practice reduced to the computation of the different parts of two right-

angled plane triangles, as DBC, BCA, having the meridian distance

in the common side, and forming together one
middle latitude for a
triangle, as AB
the different parts of those triangles may be deter-
r>,

mined from each other by trigonometry, inspection, or otherwise ; but

there are one or two useful relations among the parts of the triangles,
to which it
may be well to draw the student's particular attention.
1. In the oblique-angled triangle AB D,
sin A BD : : : sin D : : A B.
Butthe angle A is the complement of the angle ABC, the middle
latitude, therefore this proportion is
cos . mid lat : dist : : sin . course : diff long.

2. In the right-angled triangles D c B and BCA. (Trig. Prop. 5)

DC. tan B i> c = c B rad .

and B A cos c B A c B rad = .

Therefore Dc I ; 1 1 1 I : I M I ; A . COS C BA
or DC BA : : cos c BA : tan B Dc
'

thatis, diff lat

diff long cos mid lat
: tan course. ; :

These two proportions

may be varied according to the data which
may be given.
 OF NAVIGATION'.

Thm is however another, and a

very ingenious method, by which
tin- connection between a ship's change in longitude and her change
of place may, be determined, called, from its inventor, MERCA TOR'S
^ \ii.iv.. Jn this method the globe is conceived to be so projected
on a plane that the meridians are parallel lines, and the elementary
parts of the meridians and parallels bear, in all latitudes, the same
proportion to each other that they do upon the globe.
Now, as the meridians are all great circles, and the parallels are all
small circles of the globe, it is evident that,
except at the equator, no
given part of a meridian can be equal to a like part of its parallel ;
and as the parallels diminish towards the poles, their like parts will
also diminish and, consequently, any given portion of a meridian will
;

<liH'er more from a

like portion of a parallel, according as the parallel
is a greater distance from the equator.
at

But as in Mercator's projection of the globe the meridians are

parallel to each other, the distance of any two meridians will in all
latitudes be the same, and equal also to the difference of longitude of
those meridians. Hence, as the parallels are less than the equator, but
in the projection they are all made equal to it, they are all in the pro-

jection increased beyond their relative magnitudes on the globe ; those

which are least in themselves, or whose latitudes are greatest, being
increased most. If, therefore, the elementary parts of the meridians

bear the same proportion to the like parts of their parallels in the pro-
jection, that they do to each other on the globe, the elementary parts
of the meridian must, in the projection, be increased in the same pro-
portion as those of the parallels are and as the parallels distant from
;

the equator are most increased, the elementary parts of the projected
meridian must increase more and more as they are at a greater distance
from the equator.
Toinvestigate the proportion in which this increase must take
place, we have already seen that, cosine latitude : radius, or
radius : sect lat : any portion of a parallel : a like portion of the
:

equator. But the equator and meridian are equal circles, therefore
radius sect lat :
:
any portion of the parallel : a like portion of the
:

meridian.
Now, in Mercator's projection the parallels are all equal to the

equator, or to the meridian on the globe ; therefore, in this projection,

radius : sect lat : : an elementary part of a meridian on the globe : the

length of tliat elementary part in the projection. Or if we take radius

equal to unity, and consider 1' as an elementary portion of the me-
ridian, we have rad (1) sect
: lat : : 1' : the length of 1' in the projec-
tion. Hence, the length of 1' in the projection in any latitude is

to the natural secant of that latitude, the radius being unity.

134 ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES

Therefore, in lat 1', I

1

of lat = sec 1' in the projection

2', = sec 2'

3', = sec 3', &c.
And consequently sec 1' + sec 2' + sec 3' is the distance of the
third minute of the meridian from the equator in the projection and ;

this sum, which is found in Table 3, is called the meridional parts

of 3'.
In this manner may the meridional parts corresponding to every
portion of the meridian be computed ; but the smaller the part is
which is taken as the elementary part of the meridian, so much the
more exactly will the length of the parts of it in the projection be

obtained. Instead of taking 1' as the elementary part, we might have

taken 1", and the method of computation would have been precisely
the same. The calculation of course would have been lengthened ;

but even in the latitude of 70 the length of the projected meridian

from the equator would not have differed much more than half a
minute from that by the calculation having 1' for its base.

By the following formula, deduced by the differential calculus, the

meridional parts corresponding to any latitude may be readily com-
puted by common logarithms.
Let / r= co-lat and m= meridional parts required, then
log m= log {log cot 1,1 10}
-
3-8984895 +
Example. Let the latitude be 54 20'; then ^1= 17 50', and
rejecting 10 from the log cot of 17 50', we have -492540.
Then -492540 ... log .. f- 69244]

3^898489
m= 3899 . . . 3-590930
Now, as in this projection the meridians are
parallel straight lines,
therhumb lines, which cut the meridians all at the same
angle on
the globe, will all be straight lines cutting them at the same
angles in
the projection that they do upon the globe ; and the distance between

any two places on the globe will be to the projected as the distance,
difference of latitude of the places on the globe is to the projected or
meridional difference of latitude ;
and the difference of latitude on the
globe will be to the departure as the projected or meridional difference
of latitude is to the difference of longitude.
For let the annexed figure be the Mercator's
projection of that part of the figure, p. 128, G'
which is marked by like letters without dashes ; K
then the elementary triangles A b B, B c c,
all

&^ in that figure are

respectively similar to
eacn other ; and, by the nature of the
projec-
tion, they are also similar to the corresponding H' K'L'M'N'O'
 <>I NAVIGATION. 135

tii;ui_rles A'&'B', B' - in this figure; and as the elementary

s A It is, sec, &c. may be collectively represented by a
similar right-angled plane triangle, whose perpendicular is equal to
\i. hypotliemise to A E, and base to 6fi cc, &c. ; therefore the +
projected may be represented also by
triangles A' b' B', B'C'C', &c.
a plane triangle, similar to that by which those on the globe arc
represented, having A' F', the projected difference of latitude, for its
perpendicular, F' E' or B' b' -f c' c\ &c. the difference of longitude for
its base, projected distance for
A' E' the its
hypothenuse, and the
angle F' A' E' equal to the course.

If, therefore, in the annexed figure, ABC and A D E be two right-

angled triangles, and A B be the difference of latitude,
the common angle A the course, and A D the meri-
dional difference of latitude ; then B c will be the

departure or the sum of the elementary meridian dis-

tances, A c the nautical distance, and D E the difference
of longitude, all exactly. Hence, from such part of
these triangles as may be given in any case proposed for solution, the
others may be obtained by computation, inspection, or otherwise.
The following obvious proportions will be found useful in practice.
1 . A B Bc AD DE : : : :

2. AD : DE : : rad : tan _ A
That is diff lat :
dep : : mer diff lat : diff long.

And mer diff lat : diff long : : rad : tan . course.

"We proceed now to investigate another method of finding the course
and distance, first published by Mr. B. Workman. This method is in
all cases accurate, and may be used in preference to the other methods

wlu-n the course is

large.
Let / =
the proper diff lat, /' the mer diff lat, L the diff long, = =
m= the lat in which the meridian dist is exactly equal to the depar-

ture, and c = the course. Then, by the principles of middle latitude,

cos m . L rad i.
= -
.

=
and Mercator s sailing, , each being tan c. Hence

cos = -j^.
The difference between m, and the middle latitude,

is
given in the table at the beginning of the practical article on Middle
Latitude and Mercator's Sailing.

Again, by mid lat sailing, dep = - - and by plane sailing

HMI
dial sin c _.
dep = .

r
>> hence sin c : cos m : : L : dist.

From the preceding elementary view of the principles of navigation.

it will be seen that the whole business of practical computation resolves
itst-lf into the solution of plane triangles ; and that therefore navigation
136 ON THE COMPASS

may be considered as only a particular application of plane trigo-

nometry.
Great Circle Sailing, or sailing on the arc of a great circle, has

hitherto been considered as of little use in practice when vessels are

moved by the action of the wind on the sails; but since the introduc-
tion of steam as a moving power in long voyages, it
perhaps claims a
little more attention.

To persons acquainted with spherics the subject presents no difficulty,

as will be seen by the following observations :
r G, the meridian of Greenwich.
A, place sailed from.
B, place bound to.

p, pole.

perpendicular on dist A B.
p i>,

With the co-lats P A and p B, and

the diff of long A p B, find the
distance A B, and the angle A, the initial course.
Find D P from sin D p =
sin p A sin A, and D p A from cos D r A
. =
tan D P. cot P A.
Hence the long of D p is known, and consequently the diff of long
between D P and any other meridian, where it is proposed to change
the course, is known also.
Let P a: be one of those meridians, then the lat of x is found from
tan lat x = cos D p x tan lat D,
.

And thus may lat and long of as many points on

be determined the
the great circle as necessary and the ship steered from
may be thought
one point to another in succession will be kept near enough the arc of
a great circle for all practical purposes.
As many points in the great circle as may be thought necessary may
be readily found by a terrestrial globe.

ON THE INSTRUMENTS BY WHICH A SHIP'S COURSE AND DIS-

TANCE ARE DETERMINED AT SEA.
THE course of a ship, or the angle which the rhumb line on which she
sails makes with the meridian, is determined by an instrument called
THE COMPASS ; which is merely a circular card suspended horizontally
on a point, and having a magnetised bar of hardened steel, called THE
NEEDLE, for one of its diameters.
The circumference of the card is generally divided into thirty-two
equal parts, called points ; and each of those divisions is again subdi-
vided into four parts, called quarter points.
A point of the compass being therefore the 32nd part of the circum-
ference of a circle, is
equal to 11 15'. But in some compasses, for
 AND THE NEEDLE. 137

azimuth compasses, the

delicate observations, particularly those called
rim of the card divided into degrees.
is

The magnetised needle has the peculiar property of pointing always

in a particular direction, generally not far from the direction of the

meridian.
That point of the card which coincides with the northerly end of the
needleis called the
magnetic north, and the opposite point the magnetic
south ; and, looking towards the north end of the needle, the middle
point on the right, between the north and south, is called the east, and
the opposite point the west. These four are called cardinal points, and
the others are named according to their situation with respect to these
cardinal points, as in the annexed figure.
* * ">.

\ '& \^*_

The following Table shows the degrees, &c., corresponding to every

quarter point of the compass.
138 ON THE COMPASS

The situation of the needle with respect to the meridian is not the
same at every place, nor always the same at the same place. At
is it

present at London the north end of the needle points about L'3 1,

towards the west of the true north point of the horizon, but at tin-
North Cape it
points only about 1 towards the west, while in some
parts of Davis's Straits its direction ismore than <>\ points towards the
west, and near Cape Horn it points about 22 towards the east of the
true north.

Again, in the year 1580, the direction of the needle, at London, was
about one point towards the east of the north, while, as has been
already observed, it at present points about 23 towards the west.
But in the West Indies, for a very long period, the deviation of the
needle has undergone but a very trifling variation.
Delicate observations appear to indicate that itis again at London

retrograding towards the east ; and Mr. BARLOW, in his valuable

" on
Essay Magnetic Attractions," observes that all the phenomena
attending the progressive change of the needle's deviation from the
meridian may be accounted for by conceiving the magnetic pole to
revolve in a parallel of latitude from east to west ; but that every place
appears to have its individual pole.

The deviation of the needle, or, as it is called, the variation of the

compass, may however be determined at any time (as will afterwards
be shown) by astronomical observations the points of the horizon,
;

which correspond to the several points of the compass, may therefore

easily befound by allowing for the variation, when it is known.

Thus, if it be found that the north end of the needle points to the

NKW point of the horizon, the compass is then said to have two points
westerly variation, and the NNE point of the compass will coincide with
the meridian, the east point of the compass with the ENE point of the
horizon, &c.
But if the north point of the compass points to the NE by N point of
the horizon, the compass is said to have three points easterly variation,
and the NW by N point of the compass will coincide with the meridian,
the east point of the compass with SE by E point of the horizon, &c.
If, therefore, a ship is steered NW by a compass which has two points

westerly variation, the angle which her way makes with the true
meridian will be six points, or the ship's true course will be WNW.
Hence, when the compass course is given to determine the true
course, allow the variation, if it be westerly, to the left of the compass
course; and, if easterly, to the right of the compass course. On the
contrary, when the true course is known, and the corresponding course
is required
by a compass whose variation is given, allow the variation,
when it is west, to the right of the true course, and when east to the
 AND THE LOO. 139

left of the true course, and tin- point thus determined is the required

compass course.
\Yhen a needle which is balanced
horizontally on a point is mag-
m -lised, not only acquires the property of pointing in a particular
it

horizontal direction, but it loses its balance, or becomes inclined to the

horizon ; and it requires an additional weight to be applied to the
elevated end of the needle to restore it to its horizontal position. This
inclination of the needle to the horizon is called the
dip; and as it is
different in different situations, a magnetised needle which is horizontal
in one place may not be horizontal in another. The weight, therefore,
which a counterpoise to the dip in one place may not be so in another;
is

and on this account needles properly fitted up for mariners' compasses

have a sliding weight applied to them, to adjust them to the horizontal

position at any time.

The needle, with its apparatus, is
generally placed in a brass case,
which being slung in gimbals, the card is always at liberty to assume a
horizontal position and in the inside of the case there are two black
:

vertical lines,which with respect to the card are diametrically opposite

to each other. The imaginary horizontal line joining these two vertical
ones ought to be exactly in the vertical plane cutting the ship from
stem to stern and the point of the card which coincides with the ver-
;

tical line towards the stem of the vessel indicates the direction of the

ship's head, or shows her apparent course by the compass.

No be allowed to be near the compass.
iron whatever should

Indeed, has been

it lately noticed that the whole mass of iron in a ship
often exerts a perceptible influence on the direction of the needle,
which varies according to the situation of the ship's head with respect
to the magnetic meridian. We shall afterwards advert more particu-
larly to this local attraction, when we consider the methods by which
the variation of the compass may be found astronomically.
A
ship's rate of sailing is estimated by heaving into the sea a piece
of wood called THE LOG, so loaded with lead that it will just swim.
The log is then conceived to remain stationary in the water, and a line
is attached to it, called the LOG LINE, which at its other end is wound
round a The reel being turned, the part of the line that is with-
reel.
drawn by the log in a given time is the distance which the ship
front it

runs from the log during that interval and hence, by proi>ortion, her
;

distance for any other time may be obtained, while her rate of sailing
continues the same.
The log is made in the form of a sector of a circle, ami the lead with
which it is loaded is
applied to the arc ; the central point is therefore
vertical in the water.
The line is so attached to it that the flat side of the log is
kept
towards the ship, that the resistance of the water against tiie face of
140 ON THE LOG.

the log may prevent it, as much as possible, from

being dragged after
the ship by the weight of the line or the friction of the reel.
The time which is usually occupied in determining a ship's rate is
half a minute, and the experiment for the purpose is generally made at
the end of every hour, but in common merchantmen at the end of
every
second hour. As the time of operating is half a minute, or the 120th

part of an hour, if the line were divided into 120ths of a nautical mile,
whatever number of those parts a ship might run in half a minute, she
would, at the same rate of sailing, run exactly a like number of miles in
an hour. The 120th part of a mile is by seamen called a knot, and
the knot is generally subdivided into smaller parts, called fathoms.
Sometimes (and it is the most convenient method of division) the knot
isdivided into ten parts ; more frequently perhaps into eight ; but in
either case the subdivision is called a fathom. In ships where no
great accuracy in navigation is attempted, the knot is subdivided into
four parts, and sometimes only into two.
Weshall, however, consider a fathom as the tenth part of a knot ;
and as a nautical mile (p. 128) is 6079 feet, the 120th part of this, or
the length of a knot, will be 50 66 feet, or nearly 50 feet 8 inches.
-

Hence a fathom ought to be 5 feet and eight tenths of an inch nearly.

In practice, however, 50 feet is generally considered as sufficient for the
length of a knot, for the log is always in some degree drawn towards
the ship, and therefore the distance given by a correct line is always
less than the true distance. The operation for estimating the rate is

calledby seamen heaving the log.

The time is measured by a sand-glass, which ought of course to run
out in 30 seconds. A
quantity of the line, called the stray line, is
allowed to run out before the glass turned, that the log may be
is

without the reach of the ship's wake. When

the glass is run out, the

knots, and parts of a knot between the ship and the mark at the end of
the stray line, indicate the distance which the ship has run from the

log in the interval of time measured by the sand-glass ; hence her

hourly rate of sailing is known.
The time which the sand-glass takes in running out, and the length
of the knots of the log line, should frequently be examined for the ;

time by the sand-glass is materially affected by the state of the atmos-

phere, and the log line is liable to contract from the action of the water;
and it
may happen that the whole line, or different parts of it, may
accidentally be stretched.
If either the glass or the line, or both, be found erroneous, the error
must be ascertained, and the true distance may then be found by a
simple formula, which may be thus investigated.
Let k =. the true length of a knot, and m
r= the measured length
of one t ; the seconds in the same part of an hour that A is of a mile,
 GEOGRAPHICAL PROBLKM-. 141

s =
the seconds run by the glass, and d = the distance as determined

by these erroneous instruments.

Then k : m : : d :
-r-, the true distance if the log line only were
/v

dm t dm
erroneous ; and s : t : :
j
:
,
a general expression for the true
'
* nS
distance \\lu-n the log line and the
glass are both erroneous.
If* =
t, or if the log line only is erroneous, the general expression

becomes
-j- as before; and if m =r k, or the glass only is erroneous,
At

the expression is
S
. If t = 30 seconds, and k = 50 feet, we have
t <l m
= 30 d m 3 d m
-7 = -
,
.

the true distance when both the log line

k s i>0s 5s
and the glass are erroneous.
If m 50 feet, or if the glass only is erroneous, this expression is
30 d
;
and if s = 30, or if the line only is erroneous, the expression is

dm
50'
If/, It, and s were given to find a corresponding value of m, we
s k 5s
have t:t :: h: m= = .

/ 3

PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF

NAVIGATION.
To find the difference of latitude or the difference of longitude between
an if two places whose latitudes and longitudes are given.
RULE. When the given latitudes are of the same denomination, sub-
tract the lessfrom the greater: but when they are of different deno-
minations, add them together and the sum or the remainder will be ;

the difference of latitude.

The difference of longitude is found in the same manner, observing,
however, that the difference of longitude signifies the less arc of the
equator intercepted between two meridians and that, therefore, when ;

the longitudes are of different denominations, and their sum exceeds

180, that the sum must be subtracted from 360 to find the difference
of longitude.
EXAMPLES.
Required the and difference of longitude
difference of latitude
between the Lizard Point and the Peak of Pico?
Lizard Point lat 49 58' N
Pico lat 38 26 N
difflat 11 32 = 692 mill-.
142 GEOGRAPHICAL PROBLEMS.

Lizard Point long 5 11' w

Pico long ..28 28 w
diff long 23 17 = 1397 miles.
Required the difference of latitude and difference of longitude be-
tween Halifax and the Cape of Good Hope '!

Halifax lat 44 40' u

Cape of Good Hope lat 34 23 s

diff lat 79 3 = 4743

Halifax long 63 38' w
Cape of Good Hope long. ... 18 24 E

diff long 82 2 = 4922 miles.

Required the difference of latitude and difference of longitude between
Cape Horn and South Cape, Van Diemen's Land ?
Cape Horn lat 55 58' s

South Cape lat 43 37 s

diff lat 12 21 = 741 miles.

Cape Horn long 67 1 1' w
South Cape long 146 49 E

214
360

diff
long 146
= 8760 miles.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

Required the difference of latitude and difference of longitude between
the following places ?

1 . Between Cape Amber, in Madagascar, and Bombay ?

Answer, diff lat 1851, and diff long 1422 miles.
2. Between Dondre Head, in Ceylon, and Socotra ?
Answer, diff lat 407, and diff long 1645 miles.

3. Between Savannah and Cape Clear ?

Answer, diff lat 1165, and diff long 4288 miles.
4. Between Cape Padaran and Cayenne ?
Answer, diff lat 670, and diff long 3898 inilrs.

5. Between Algiers and Genoa?

Answer, diff lat 457, and diff long 351 miles.

To find the latitude and longitude at which a ship has arrived, when
those of the place which she
left, and the difference of
latitude and lon-

gitude which she has made, are given.

ROLE. If the latitude left and the difference of latitude are of the
same denomination, add them together ; but if they are of different
 GEOGRAPHICAL PROBLEMS. 143

denominations, take their difference ; and the sum or the remainder

is the latitude arrived at, and of the same denomination with the

greater.
lii-mark. As no place can be farther distant from the equator than
the poles, the latitude cannot exceed 90.
The longitude arrived at is found in the same manner as the lati-

tude ; but as the longitude reckoned both east and west, if the longi-
is

tiule left and the difference of longitude are of the same denomination,
and their sum exceeds 180, the difference between the sum and 360'
is the
longitude arrived at, and of a contrary denomination to the lon-
gitude left.

EXAMPLES.
If a ship from Cape Finisterre towards the south-west till her diff
sail

of lat is 140, and her diff of long 118 miles, required her latitude and
longitude in ?

Cape Finisterre lat 42 54' N Long left 9 16' w

diff lat 140 = 2 20 s diff long 118= 1 58 w
lat in 40 34 N long in 11 14 w
If a ship sail from lat 50 18' s, long 178 21' E, towards the SE till
her diff lat is 638 and her diff long 400 miles, required her latitude and
longitude in ?
Lat left 50 18' s Long left 178 21' E
diff lat 638 = 10 38 s diff long 400 = 6 40 E

lat in 60 56 s 185 1

3GO

long in 174 59

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

In the following examples the latitude and longitude arrived at are
required.
Answer.
Lat left. Long left. Diff lat.
Miles.
1. 48 2' s 16 34' w 149 N
2. 55 18 N 2 18 E
3. 48 30 N 30 6 w
4. 00
5. 64 2 N 3 13 w
6. 39 37 8 28 17

To know i/i what quarter of the horizon the course between any tu-<>

places lies.

RULE. If the place bound to lias greater north latitude, or less south
latitude, than tli- place to be sailed from, the course will be northerly ;
144 ON CORRECTING THE COURSE AND DISTANCE.

otherwise it will be southerly. And if the place bound to has greater

east longitude, or less west longitude, than the place to be sailed from,
the course will be easterly ; otherwise it will be westerly. These direc-
tions combined will indicate the quarter in which the course lies.

EXAMPLE.
what quarter of the horizon will the course lie from lat 28 N,
Ill

long 16 w, to lat 35 N, long 2 w ?

Here the place bound to has greater north lat than the place to be
sailed from the course, therefore, is nortJierly.
;
And as the place
bound to has less west long than the place to be sailed from, the course
is also easterly. The courseis therefore between the north and east, or

in the north-east quarter of the horizon.

In what quarter of the compass will the course lie in sailing from the
first to the second of each of the following places?
1 . From Aberdeen to Rotterdam ? Answer, in the SE quarter.
2. From the Lizard to Halifax ? Answer, in the sw quarter.
3. From Cape of Good Hope (Africa) to Van Dienien's Land ?
the

Answer, in the SE quarter.

4. From Cape Horn to St. Helena? Answer, in the NE quarter.
5. From Lisbon to Cape Farewell (Greenland)?
Answer, in the NW quarter.
6. From the Cape of Good Hope (Africa) to Rio Janeiro?
Answer, in the NW quarter.
To correctthe distance given by the log and half-minute glass, for
errors in the line and glass.
GENERAL RULE. Multiply the given distance by six times the mea-
sured length of a knot, and divide the product by ten times the seconds
which the glass takes in running out, and the quotient will in any case
be the true distance.

EXAMPLES.
A ship runs it is found on examination that the
126 miles, but length
of the knots on the log line is 52 feet, and that the glass runs out in 27
seconds required the true distance ?
:

126
6 x 52 = 312

252
126
378

39312
= 145-6
27 X 10 = 270
 ON CORRECTING TUB COURSE AND DISTANCE. 145

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

In the following examples the true distance is required.

1.
140 OF LEEWAY.

EXAMPLE.
If a ship be steered NNW by a compass which has 1| points west-
erly variation, required her true course?
Answer, 1 $ points allowed to the left of NNW gives NW N for
the true course.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

In the following examples the true courses are required.
Ans\rer.
Compass Course. Variation, Points. True Course.
1. SSEjE 21 W SEbE
2. E$ N 3 E ESE J 8
3. Nwbw 3J E Nbwjw
4. wsw^s 4w sbw^w
5. ssw
6. N 5 E NE b E
7. Eb S 2 E SE f E
8. s60E 18 w s78E
9. w24w 36 E N12E
10. s!6w 40 E s56w

OF LEEWAY.
THE angle included between the direction of the fore and aft line of
a ship, and that in which she moves through the water, is called the
leeway.
When the wind
on the right-hand side of a ship, she is paid to
is

be on the starboard tack and when on the left-hand side, she is said
;

to be on the larboard tack ; and when she sails as near the wind as
she will lie, she is said to be close-hauled. Few large vessels will lie
within less than six points of the wind, though small ones will some-
times lie within about five points, or even less : but, under such
circumstances, the real course of a ship is seldom precisely in the
direction of her head for a considerable portion of the force of the
;

wind is then exerted in driving her to leeward, and hence her course
through the water in general found to be leeward of that on which
is

she is steered
by the compass. Therefore, to determine the point
towards which a ship is actually moving, the leeway must be allowed
from the wind, or towards the right of her apparent course, when she
is on the larboard tack but towards the left when she is on the star-
;

board tack.
It is evident that the track which a ship leaves on the water, or
the wake, as the track is called, will lie
diroctly opposite to the point
towards which she is
moving, whatever way her head may lie. If,
therefore, the figure of a compass were drawn in any convenient situa-
tion, so that its meridian were parallel to the fore and aft line of
 OF LEEWAY. 147

the ship, the angle included between the meridian of this compass and
tliat
point of it which was directed towards the wake, would be the
leeway and in some such manner as this, it
;
is desirable that the lee-

way should be determined when practicable.

Tin- quantity of
leeway which a ship will make varies, however,
under different circumstances. If all other circumstances be the same,
a light ship will make more leeway than a laden one. It is seldom
that ships on the same course make precisely the same leeway ;
t\v<>

and not unfrequently happens that the same ship makes a different
it

leeway on each tack. It is the duty of the officer of the watch to

exercise his best skill in determining, or estimating, how much this
deviation from the apparent course amounts to ; and in the dark the
chief reliance must be placed on the judgment of the experienced
mariner.
In estimating the leeway, there are certain rules by which mariners
are often guided ; and though they can only be considered as affording
a general approximation to the truth, and often a very distant approxi-

mation, they are here given : but no opportunity should be neglected

to determine this- important element by observation.

General Rules for estimating the Leeway token a Ship is close-hauled.

1 "When the water

. is smooth, all sails set, and the wind moderate,
allow no leeway.
If there be a strong breeze, the leeway may amount to 1 point.
2. When top-gallant sails are handed, the
leeway may be from 1

point to 1J point.
3. Under close- reefed -top-sails, the allowance may be from 2 to 3

points.
4. With top -sails handed, from 3 to 4 points.
5. Under courses, from 4 to 6 points, according to circumstances.
6. Under reefed courses, possibly 6 points.
7. Under storm stay-sails, possibly 7 points.
8. Under bare poles, from 7 to 8 points.
It has not been attempted in the above rules, and indeed it is im-
possible, to state precisely what the allowance
ought to for leeway
be under all or any circumstances. This, in any given case, must be
left to the judgment of the mariner, whose knowledge must extend to

a number of minutiee bearing upon the question, before he will affirm

that, after exercising his best skill, he has satisfied himself that his
estimate is right.
But supposing
the leeway to be known, the course steered must be
corrected for ; and the following examples are given as exercises in
it

correcting the courses both for leeway and variation, the true course
being required.
1/2
 PLANE SAILING.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

Tack.
 PLANE SAILING. 149
-

Br CONSTRUCTION.
Draw the vertical line A B, to represent the meridian ;
from the line
of rhumbs take the angle is \ <=:!.', points, the given A
course and from a scale of equal parts take A c
; 148 =
the given distance; from c on AB draw the
milt's, ./-
perpendicular c B, then A B will be the difference of y/
latitude,and B c the required departure ; and mea- /
sured on the scale from which A c was taken, A B will
be found 114-4, and BC ***
93-9.

BY INSPECTION.

With /_ A, 3 points, !in Table 1, and AC 148 miles in the dist

column, A B is found 114*4 in the lat column, and BC 93 '9 in the dep
column.

BY GUNTER'S SCALE.

Extend from 8 to 3^ points, the course, on the line s R, and that

extent will reach from 148, the dist, towards the left on the line of

numbers, to the departure 93 '9. Again, extend on the line s B from

8 to 4J- points (the complement of 3$ points), and that extent will
reach from 148 towards the left on the line of numbers to 114 '4, the
difference of latitude.

BY CALCULATION.
radius 10-000000 radius 10-000000
: AC 148 miles 2-170262 : A c 148 miles 2-170262
:: cos L A3 points. 9'888185 : : sin _ A 3^ points . 9'802359
:: ABdiff lat 114-4 . 2-058447 : BC dep 93'89 . . . 1-972621

Lat of Cape St. Vincent 37 3' N

Difflat 1 54 s

Lat in . . 35 9 N

2. If a ship sail from the Cape of Good Hope southwestward, till

she arrive in latitude 36 34' s, and it be found that upon the whole she
has made 75 miles of departure, required the course and distance which
she has made?
Lat of Cape of Good Hope. . 34 23' s
Lat in . . . 36 34 8 .

lift' hit.. 2 11 8= 131 miles.

150 PLANE SAILING.

BY CONSTRUCTION.
Draw A B and B c (see the last figure) perpendicular to each other,
make A B = 131, and B c = 75, from a scale of equal parts, and join
AC ; then the _ A, the course, will bo found =
30, and AC, the dist-
ance, = 151 miles.

BY INSPECTION.
In Table 2, with A B 131, in the lat column, and B c 75, in the dep

column, /. A is found at the top of the table 30 nearly, and A c in =

the dist column 151.

BY GUNTER'S SCALE.
Extend from thediff lat 131, to the dep 75, on the line of numbers ;

that extent will reach on the line of tangents from 45, or radius, to
about 30, the course. Again, extend from radius 90 on the line of
sines, to 60, the complement of the course ; and that extent will reach
from 131, the diff lat towards the right, on the line of numbers, to
151, the distance.

BY CALCULATION.
AB131. 2-117211 radius . . 10-000000
: radius 10-000000 :ABl31 2'117271
::Bc75 1-875061 : : sec L A 10-061525
tan Z. A 29 47' 9 '757790 A c 150-9 12-178796

Hence the course is s 29 47' w, and the distance 150-9 miles.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

1. If a ship NW i w 315 miles, required her de-
sail from Oporto,
parture, and the latitude she has arrived at ?

Answer, dep 233 '4 miles w, and lat 44 41' N.

2. If a ship sail from lat 55 1' N, ssbs, till her departure is 45

miles, required the distance she has sailed, and her latitude?
Answer, dist 81 miles, and lat 53 54' N.
3. A ship from lat 36 12' N, sails southwestward till she arrives in
lat 35 1' N, having made 76 miles of departure, required her course
and distance ? Answer, course s 46 57' w, and dist 104 miles.
4. A ship from lat 40 5' N, sails sw s till she arrives in lat 36 7' N,
required her distance ad departure ?
Answer, dist 307-9 miles, and dep 195 '3 miles w.
5. A ship
from Funchal, in Madeira, sails between the south and
west, till her diff lat is 114, and her dep 97 miles, required her course,
distance, and latitude ?
Answer, course 8 40 24' w, dist 149-7 miles, and lat 30 43' N.
 PLANE SAILING. 151

6. A
ship sails from the Cape of Good Hope southeastward till she
arrives in lat 40 10' s, having run 700 miles, required her course and

<lf|>;irture?

Answer, course 8 60 17' E, and dep 608 miles E.

7. If a ship sail NNW f w, 123 miles, from lat 18 2' N, required her
departure aiul latitude arrived at ?

Answer, lat 19 47' N, and dep 63 '2 miles w.

If a ship from Halifax sail SE ^ E
8. till her dep is 128 milts, re-

quired her latitude and distance ?

Answer, lat 42 55' N, and distance 165*6 miles.
9. If a ship sail from Cape Finisterre ssw w, 234 miles, required
her latitude and departure ?

Answer, lat 39 33' N, and dep 120 3 miles w.

10. If a ship from lat 50 16' N, sail southeastward till her distance
is 137, and her departure 112 miles, required her course and latitude

come to? Answer, course s 54 50' E, and lat 48 57' N.

11. If a ship sail NW b w w from lat 30 14' N till her departure is
204 miles, required her latitude, and the distance she has sailed ?
Answer, distance 231 '4 miles, and lat 32 3' N.
12. A ship from lat 12 J7' N sails NK i N 201 miles, required her
latitude and departure?
Answer, lat 14 46' N, and dep 135 miles E.
13. A ship sails from the
North Cape, in Lapland, 200 miles, and it
is then found that she is to the westward of the Capo, and 125 miles

south of it, required her course, latitude, and departure ?

Answer, course s 51 19' w, lat 69 5' A", dep 156' 1.
14. A
ship from the east point of St. Mary, Azores, sails ENE E
till she arrives in the lat of Lisbon, required her distance and de-

parture ? Answer, dist 358 '3, and dep 342-7.

15. Aship leaving Charleston Light, sails N eastward 128 miles, and
is then by observation found 39 miles north of the light, required her
course, latitude, and departure ?

Answer, lat 33 22' N, course N 72 16' E, and dep 122.

16. A ship sails from Cape St. RoquQ NE \ N, 7 miles an hour,
from 3 P M till 10 A M, required her distance, departure, and latitude
arrived at?

Answer, lat 3 45' 8, dep 84- 38, and dist 133.

17. A ship from lat 41
2' N sails NNW f w, 5 miles per hour for 2
days, required her distance, departure, and latitude arrived at ?
Answer, lat 45 45' N, dep 169'7, and dist 330.
18. If a ship sail from lat 4827's, sw b w, 7 miles an hour, in
what time will she reach the parallel of 50 8?
Answer, 23 '91 4 hours.
19. If a ship t>ail from Cape Horn due south 121 miles, and then
 152 TRAVERSE SAILING.

due west 121 miles, required her course and distance, and the latitude
which she has arrived at ?
Answer, course sw, dist 171 '1, and lat 58 0' 8.
20. If after a ship has sailed from lat 40 21' N to lat 46 18' N, she
be found 216 miles to the eastward of the port from whence she lias
sailed, required the course she has sailed, and the distance she lias
made ? Answer, course N 31 11' E, and dist 417 -3 miles.

TRAVERSE SAILING. .

WHEN a ship is obliged to sail on different courses, the crooked line

which she describes is called a traverse, and the method of finding a
single course and distance, which would have brought the ship to the
same place, is called resolving a traverse.
A traverse is resolved by finding the difference of latitude and de-

parture corresponding to each course and distance, and entering them

in a table, of which the form will be found in the first of the
following
examples ; taking care when the ship steers southward to enter the
difference of latitude in the column marked s, but in the column marked
N, when the course is northward. In like manner, when the course is
easterly or westerly the departure
',
must be entered in the column marked
E or w, accordingly.
Thus, if the is SE b s the difference of latitude must be en-
course
tered in the column
and the departure in the column E if the course
s, ;

is w N, the difference of latitude must be entered in the column

N, and the departure in the column w when the course is exactly E,
;

w, N, or s, the whole distance will, of course, be entered in the cor-

responding column E, w, N, or s. Then the difference between the
sum of the numbers in the column marked N, and the sum of those in
the column marked s, will be the whole difference of latitude, and of

the same denomination with the greater sum and in like manner the
;

difference between the sum of the numbers in the columns marked E

and w will be the whole departure, and of the same denomination with
the greater sum.

Having then obtained the whole difference of latitude and departure

which the ship has made, the corresponding course and distance may be
found either by inspection, or by any other method.

EXAMPLE.
Aship from Cape Clear sails SSE E 16, ESE 23, sw b w w
36, w | N 12, and SE b E f E 41 miles, required the equivalent
course and distance, and the latitude of the place which the
ship has
arrived at ?

Br CONSTRUCTION.
Take A for the place sailed
from, and draw the vertical line NA 8 c
 TRAVERSE SAILING. 153

to represent the meridian. About A,

as a centre, with the chord of 60, de-
scribe a circle cutting N c in N and s ;

then N and s will represent the north

and south points of the compass. Take
2 points fiom the line of rhumbs,
and apply it from s to a, join A a, and
on it take AD= 16, from a line of

equal parts. Then D will be the

place of the ship at the end of the
first course. From s set off s b 6 =
points from the line of rhumbs join ;

A 6, and through D draw D E parallel ~ ,,

to A b, and make it
equal to 23 from
the same scale of equal parts that AD
was taken from. Then E will be the
place of the ship at the end of the
second course. Make sc 5 points, =
Dap. l'0m
N d 71 points, and
51 points taken
s e

from the line of rhumbs. Through

E draw E F parallel to A c, and make it equal to 36 from the scale of
equal parts ; through F draw F G parallel to A d, and make it equal to
1 2 from the scale of
equal parts ; through G draw G B parallel to A e, and
make it equal t to 41 from the scale of equal parts. Draw B c perpen-
dicular to the meridian N c, and join A B then B will be the place of
;

the ship, distance from the place which she left, A c her differ-
A B her
ence of latitude, B c her departure, and B A c the course which she has
made on the whole. Now A B, AC, and B c being measured on the scale
of equal parts from which the distances were taken, we have A B 62 7, =
AC = 59 '6, and B c = 19 6 miles. And the arc included by A B and
AC, if measured on the line of chords, gives about 18 for the measure
of the course B A c.

TRAVERSE TABLE.

Courses.
154 TRAVERSE SAILING.

Lat left 51'25'N

cliff lat a
_1
lat in . . . 50 25 N

To fold the course and distance by calculation.

Diff lat 59-6 miles... 1-775246 Radius 10-000000

: radius 10-000000 : diff lat 59 6 miles . . 1-775246
: :
dep 19*6 miles 1-292256 : : sec course 18 12' . . 10-022289
11-292256 11-797535
: tan course 18 12'. . 9-517010 : dist 62'74 miles . . . 1 797535
Whence the course is s 18 12' E, and the distance 62-74 miles.

Br INSPECTION.
Under 18 Table 2, and adjacent to 59 9 in the lat column, stands
in
19*5 in the dep column, and 63 in the column of dist, whence the
course is
nearly 18, and the distance nearly 63 miles.

BY GUKTEB'S SCALE.
The extent from 59 '6 to 19-6 on the line of numbers will reach
from 45 on the line of tangents to the course about 18^, and the
extent from the complement of course to radius on the line of sines will
reach from the diff lat 59 6 towards the right, to the distance 63, on
the line of numbers.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

1. A ship from Cape Clear sbw23, wsw 40,
sails 18, sww
w J-
N 28, s b E 12, and SSE * E 16 miles, required her course, distance,
and latitude come to ?

Answer, course s 45 47' w, dist 102-4 and lat 50 14' N.

2. If a ship sail from Porto Sancto ENE 18, NE ^ E 40, N J- E 13,

NW Jw 16, and NE|N 23 miles, required her course, distance, and

latitude ?

Answer, course N 34 30' E, dist 88-1, and lat 34 16' N.

3. A ship from lat 4112' N sails sw b w 21, sw ^ s 31, wsw -} s 16,

s| E 18, sw i w 14, and w N 30 miles, required her course, distance,

and latitude arrived at ?
Answer, course s 52 49' w, dist 111-7, and lat 40 5' N.
4. A
ship from the equator sails N 48, w 37, NW 18, NE 70,
NNE24, and E32 miles, required her course, distance, and latitude in?
Answer, course N 17 12' E, dist 138 6, and lat 2 12' N.
5. If a ship sail from lat 10 6' s NNE 86, N 74, E b N 53, NNW N ;

40, and ENE J- N 21 miles, required her course, distance, and lati-
tude in ?

Answer, lat in 6 34' 8, course N 23 25' E, and dist 231 miles.

 ON PLYING TO WINDWARD. 155

6. A
ship sails from hit 4 5' x, ssw 1 L2, s b E 86, s b w 86,
BSE 112 miles, required her course, distance, and latitude arrived at ?
Ai^wer, lat in 2 11' s,. course s, dist 375 6 miles, being the same
as the diff lat.
7. Last noon we were in lat 28 46' s, and since then we have sailed
sw | w 62, s b w
16, w i s 40, sw | w
29, s b E 30, and s f E 14 miles,
required the course and distance which we have run, and our present
latitude?

Answer, lat in 30 41' s, course s 43 14' w, and dist 158 miles.

8. If a ship sail from lat 5112's, w 120, and 68, x 70, xw
xw N i-
100 miles, required the equivalent course and distance, and the
latitude in?

Answer, lat in 47* 20' s, course N 42 58' w, and dist 317 '2 miles.
9. If a ship tail from lat 55 4' N, SEbE24, SEbs46, SE^s31,
EbxH, and E^S 13 miles, required her course, distance, and lati-

tude in?
Answer, lat in 53 50' N, course s 51 7' E, and dist 118 miles.
10. If a ship sail from Halifax E $ s 23, SE b E 30, E b N 45, and
NE J x 25 miles, required her latitude in, and course and distance made
good?
Answer, 44 50' x, course x 84 42' E, and dist 107 miles.
lat in

11. Yesterday, on leaving the Lizard, the laud bore from us NE

18 miles, since that time we have sailed wsw 14, sw b w 26, sw s 37,
sswtw29, and w 15 miles, required our present latitude, aud the
course and distance which we have made?
Answer, lat in 48 48 20' w, and distance 131 miles.
31' x, course s
12. On leaving the Cape of Good Hope for St. Helena, we took our
departure from Cape Town bearing SE b s 12 miles ; after running
NW 36, and NW b w
140 miles, required our latitude in, and the course
aud distance which we have made?
Answer, lat in 32 2' s, 'course N 52 41' w, and distance 187 miles.

ON PLYING TO WINDWARD.
WHEN the wind blows so near the point towards which a ship is bound
that she is
obliged to steer on different tacks, it Incomes a question how
far she ought to steer on each tack to reach her port, or to avoid
any
danger that may lie in her way. Questions of this kind however are
very simple for, with a given wind, the course of a ship, close hauled,
;

on either tack, is
easily found ;
and she must steer on one of the tacks
tillthe bearing of the place which she wishes to reach is the same as
the course on the other tack, if she reach the place in two boards.
When the bearing of the port is
given, the angle which the course of
156 ON PLYING TO WINDWARD.

the ship on either tack makes with that bearing is known ; and hence
wiu'ii the distance of the
port is also given, the distance on each tack
will be obtained by the resolution of a plane triangle, of which one
side (the given distance) and all the angles are given, to find the other
two This computation may be conveniently made by the fol-
sides.

lowing rule, which obviously results from what has here been said.
As the sine of the angle included between the two courses is to the yir< //
distance, so is the sine of the angle included between the beariny of the
port and the course on either tack to the distance to be sailed on the
other tack. Thus if a port bear \VNW 20 miles, and the wind blows
from w b s,
and the ship can lie within 6 points of the wind, then the
course which she can make close hauled on the larboard tack will be
NwbN,and on the starboard tack s b w, and she may be steered on
either tack that is most convenient till the bearing of the port be the
same as the course on the other tack. The first of these courses makes
an angle of 3 points with the bearing of the port, the second makes an
angle of 9 points, and the angle included between the two courses is
12 points.
Hence sin 12 points : 20 miles sin 3 points : : : 15 '71 miles, the
distance to be run on the starboard tack.
And sin 12 points : 20 miles sin 9 points
: : : 27 74 miles, the dis-

tance to be run on the larboard tack.

It may be observed that whatever number of boards it may be found
expedient that a ship should make, the sum of the distances on each
tack will be the same as if the place had been reached on two boards

only.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

1. A
ship which can lie within 5 points of the wind is bound to a
port bearing s ^ E 18 miles, the wind being" at SE ; required her course
and distance on each tack to reach her port, close hauled, in two
boards ?
Answer, on the larboard tack sb w 19 '39 miles, and on the star-
board tack E b N 5 '656 miles.
2. "Wanting in two boards to reach the month of a river, which bore
NW w 10 miles, I found my ship could lie within 5^ points of the
-j-

wind (then at NNW) on either tack, but that on the larboard tack she
made \ point leeway, while on the starboard tack she made 1 \ points,
required the course and distance on each tack?
Answer, on the starboard tack \v b s 17*91 miles, and on the lar-
board NE 13'91 miles.
3.Wishing to go round a point, which bore NN\V 15 miles, but the
wind being at >v b N, I was obliged to ply to windward I found my ;
 SAILING IN CURRENTS. 157

.-hip \roulii make way

within 6 points of the wind, required the course
and distance on each tack ?
Answer, on the larboard tack N b w 17 '( 5 and on the starboard
sw b s 4* 138 miles.
4.If a ship can lie within 6 points of the wind on the larboard but
within 5^ points on the starboard tack, required her course and dis-
tance on each tack to reach a port lying sbE 22 miles, the wind

being at sw ?

Answer, on the starboard tack s b E ^ E, 23 66, and on the lar-

board WNW 2 79 miles. -

5. From a ship, A, the mouth of a river bore NNE, and from

another, B, it bore N b w, distant from each 18 miles. If each ship

can lie within 5 points of the wind, and sail with the
given wind, close
hauled, 4 miles an hour, which will reach the harbour sooner, and how
much, the wind being at N ?
Answer, A will reach the river about 27 minutes 43 seconds
before B.
6. The wind is at wsw, and a ship sailing within 5 points of it

2\ miles per hour, makes on each tack 2 points leeway, in what time
will she advance 30 miles directly to windward?

Answer, in 5 days 2 hours and 25 minutes.

ON SAILING IN CURRENTS.
IF a ship at B, sailing in the direction B A, were in a current, which
would carry her from B to c in the same time
that in still water she would sail from B to A,
then, by the joint action of the current and the
wind, she would in the same time describe the
diagonal B D of the parallelogram A B c D. For
her being carried by the current in a direction
parallel to BC would neither alter the force of the wind, nor the

position of the ship, or the sails, with respect to it the wind would ;

therefore continue to propel the ship in a direction parallel to A B,

as if the current had no existence. Hence, as she would be swept to
the line c D by the independent action of the current, in the same time
that she reached the line A D by the independent action of the
wind on her sails, she would be found at D, the point of intersection
of the lines A D and c D, having moved along the diagonal B D.
Now the log heaved from the ship in the ordinary way can give no
intimation of a current : for the line withdrawn from the reel is only
the measure of what the ship sails from the toy ; and, consequently, us
158 OF SAILING IN CURRENTS.

the log iteelf as well as the ship will move with the current, the dis-
tance shown by the log in a current is merely what it would have been
if the ship had been in still water.

The velocity and direction of a current at sea, or its drift and setting,
are generally determined by heaving the log from a boat having ;

first, by means of a line, sunk a pot loaded with iron, or some heavy

piece of metal to a considerable depth, by

which means the boat is kept
nearly stationary. Then the line withdrawn by the log in a given
time is evidently the measure of the current's drift in the same time;
and the direction in which the current carries the log is the direction

or setting of the current.

If the ship sail in the direction of the current the whole effect of
the current will be to increase the distance ; but if she sail against the
current, the difference between the rate of sailing given by the log and
the drift of the current will be the distance which the ship actually

goes ; and she will move forward if her rate of sailing be greater than
the drift of the current, but otherwise her motion will be retrograde,
or she will be carried backwards in the direction of the current.
Problems relating to the oblique action of a current upon a ship
may be resolved by the solution of an oblique-angled plane triangle,
such as A B D in the above figure, where if A B represent the distance
which a ship would sail in still water, and A D the drift of the current
in the same time, B D will be the actual distance sailed, and A B D the
change in the course produced by the current.
A great variety of problems might be proposed relative to currents,
but the chief ones of any practical importance are the following :

1. To determine a ship's actual course and distance in a current,

when her course and distance by the compass and the log, and the
setting and drift of the current are given.
2. To find the course to be steered through a known current, the
required course in still water, and the ship's rate of sailing being
known.
3. To find the setting and drift of a current, from a ship's actual

place, compared with that deduced from the compass and the log.
The first of thee cases may be conveniently resolved, by considering
the ship as having performed a traverse, the setting and drift of the
current being taken as a separate course and distance, and the others

by the resolution of an oblique-angled triangle.

EXAMPLE.
If a ship sail w 28 miles in a current, which in the same time carries
her NNW 8 miles, required her true course and distance ?
first solution, by direct computation from the oblique-angled triangle'
Let B A. in the above figure, represent the distance run by the
log^
 OF SAILING IN CURRENTS. 159

and A i> the drift of the current, then the angle BAD will bo 10
points, ami consequently half the sum of the angles AB D and AD B
will he 3 points. Hence AB + AD (36) A B
: A D (20):: tan 3
points : tan 20 22', half the difference of the angles A D B and A B D,
whence ABD is 13 23', which allowed from the west towards the
north gives the course N 76 37' w. And as sin AB D (20 22') : AD
(8) : : sin B A D (10 points) : B D 31 -93, the true distance.

Second, by the Traverse Table.

160 PARALLEL SAILING.

6. If a ship sail due w 8*5 miles per hour by the log, in a current

setting sw b w 4 miles per hour, required her true course, and hourly
rate of sailing?

Answer, course s 79 21' w, and rate 12-04 miles per hour.

7. A ship in doubling a cape meets a strong tide setting BE, and after

running sw 18 miles by the log, the cape bore N JE. Required the
distance of the cape, and the drift of the current ?

Answer, distance 22-41 miles, and drift 13-35.

8. A ship
from a port in lat. 42 52' N, sailed sbw^w, 17 miles
a current setting between N and w and then the same
in 7 hours, in ;

port bore ENE, and the ship's lat. by observation was 42 42' N.
Required the setting and drift of the current ?
Answer, setting N 71 55' w, and drift per hour 29 miles.
9. A ship in crossing the mouth of a river, into which a current sets
due E, sails from a buoy on the south side NE 10 miles, and then falls
in with another buoy on the north side distant from the first 15 miles.
Required the ship's true course, and the drift of the current ?
Answer, course N 61 52' E, and drift 6-158.

PARALLEL SAILING.
IN the preceding problems the earth has been considered as a plane ;
we now proceed to the solution of problems in which it is
necessary to
advert to the spherical form of the earth, which we must do in all

problems in which longitude is concerned.

In parallel sailing the distance of two meridians on a given parallel,
the latitude of that parallel, and the distance of the meridians at the

equator, or the difference of their longitudes, are the quantities whose

relations are the object of computation.
It has already been shown (page 130), that if the base of a right-

angled plane triangle represent the distance of two meridians, on a

parallel whose latitude is the measure of the acute angle at the base of
the triangle, the hypothenuse will represent the distance of the
meridians at the equator, or the difference of their longitudes.
Hence by the solution of a right-angled triangle, when any two of
these quantities are given, the other may readily be found ; it may
however be convenient to recollect the following relations, viz.
1. rad difflong : cos lat :mer dist ;
: :

or diff long cos lat == mer dist, when rad = 1 .

2. cos any lat : mer dist in that lat : : cos any other lat : mer dist in

that other lat.

 PARALLEL SAILlMi. 161

EXAMPLES.
1. If a ship sail from Cape Finisterre west 196 miles, required her

longitude?
BY CONSTRUCTION.
Make the angle A = 42 54', the latitude of Cape Finisterre, and
from a scale of equal parts take A B 196, the given =
meridian distance ; let B c, perpendicular to A B, meet
Ac in c : then A c measured on the scale of equal
parts will be found to be 268, the required difference
of longitude. D Dist.
BY INSPECTION.
To the angle A, nearly 43, in Table 2, and A B, 196, in the lot
column, corresponds A c, 268, in the dist column.

BY GUNTER'S SCALE.
Extend on the line of sines from 47 6', the complement of the lati-

tude, to radius 90, and that extent will reach on the line of numbers
from 196, the meridian distance, towards the right to 268, the difference
of longitude.
BY CALCULATION.
As radius 10-000000
: A B 196 2 292256
: :sec Z. A 43 54' .... 10-135167
: AC 267-6 2.427423
Longitude Cape Finisterre . 16' w
diff long 4 28 w
long in 13 44 w
2. If a ship sail E 126 miles from the North Cape, in Lapland, and
then due N she arrives in lat 73 26' N,
till how far must she sail w,
to reach the meridian of the North Cape ?

BY CONSTRUCTION.
Make A B = 126 the given distance sailed from the North Cape,
and the L BAC= 71 10' the lat of the North

Cape, and draw B c perpendicular to A B then A c ;

will be the diff long. On A c describe a semicircle,

and from A draw A D, making the angle c A D r=
73 26', the latitude in which the ship sailed w,
meeting the semicircular arc in D, then A D will be
the required distance, 111.

\\\ ! "V.
In Table 2, with the angle CAB, nearly 71, and A 126 in the lat

,
the diff long AC is found = 387 nearly in the dist column.
162 PARALLEL SAILING.

Then with c A D nearly 73, and 387 in the dist column, D A the re-
quired distance is found =
1 10 in the lat column.

Note. As the given numbers are too great to be found in tln-ir

respective columns, the half of each number maybe sought for, and
the

corresponding result doubled to obtain the required number.

BY GUNTER'S SCALE.
Extend from 18 complement of the latitude of the North
50', the

Cape to 16 complement of the other given latitude on the

34', the
line of sines, and that extent will reach in the same direction on the
line of numbers from 126, the given meridian distance in the latitude
of the North Cape to 111 '3, the corresponding meridian distance in the
other latitude.

Br CALCULATION.
As cos B AC 71 10' 9-508956
:ABl26 2-100371
: : cos i> A c 73 26' . 9-455044

11-555415

: AD required dist 111-3... 2 046459

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

1. How far must a ship sail w on the parallel of 60 tochange her
longitude 2 ? Answer, 60 miles.
2. If a ship E from Cape Race 212 miles, required her longi-
sail

tude ? Answer, 47 54' w.

3. Two places in lat 50 12' diff in long 34 48', required their

meridian distance ? Answer, 1336 miles.

4. If a ship sail from the Naze, in Norway, due w 78 miles, required
her longitude ? Answer 4 36' E.
5. How far must a ship w
from Cape
sail Town that her course to
James Town, St. Helena, may be due north?
Answer, 1203 miles.
6. A ship in south latitude sails on a parallel 189 miles, and another
in north latitude sails on a parallel 230 miles, they have both made the
same diff long, 267 miles, required their difference of latitude ?

Answer, 75 27', or 4527 miles.

7. Two ships in the same north latitude, but 126 miles distant from
each other, sail 8 248 miles, and their distance from each other is then
200 miles, required the latitude left, and the latitude arrived at ?
Answer, lat. left 83 2' N., and lat. arrived at 78 54'.
 MIDDLE LATITUDE AND MERCATOIl's SAILING. 163

8. The master of a "West Indiaman, in long 16 12' w, bound for Ire-

land, (li-t( rniiiics to take the shortest distance to the parallel of Cape
Clear; \\\nm he is arrived in that parallel what will be his distance
'
from (he Cape ? Answer, 251 3 miles.
9. How far must a ship sail E from Cape Horn, to reach the meri-
dian of the Cape of Good Hope. Answer, 2872 miles.
10. In what latitude will a ship's diflf
long be three times the dis-
tance which she sails upon a parallel ? Answer, 70 31' 44".

MIDDLE LATITUDE AND MERCATOR'S SAILING.

By PLANE SAILING, as we have seen, we determine the relations which
connect the nautical distance, difference of latitude, departure, and
course, and compute one from the others and by parallel sailing, as we
;

have also seen, the distance sailed on a parallel, the latitude of the pa-
rallel, and the corresponding difference of longitude, may be determined
from each other.
MIDDLE LATITUDE and MEBCATOK'S SAILING are two different
methods of determining the relation between a ship's change of place,
and her difference of longitude, when she sails on an oblique rhumb.
When the latitudes are both N or both s, half their sum is the middle
latitude ;
but when one is north and the other south, half their difference
is the middle latitude.

In MIDDLE LATITUDE SAILING, the departure computed by plane

sailing is considered as a meridian distance in the middle latitude, and
the difference of longitude, on that supposition, is computed as in

parallel sailing. For, the departure being taken as the base of a right-
angled plane triangle, and the middle latitude as the acute angle ad-
joining the base, the hypothenuse of the triangle is nearly equal to the
difference of longitude.
This method of deducing the difference of longitude is
slightly
erroneous, because the departure is not strictly equal to the meridian
distance in the middle parallel ; but it will scarcely produce any material

error in computing the difference of longitude for an ordinary day's

run ; and in any case when the course is nearly east or west, it is safer
to compute the difference of longitude by this method than by Merca-
tor's sailing ; by account will, under
for a small mistake in the course

such circumstances, produce an error of much greater importance in the

ditU-rence of longitude computed by Mercator's sailing, than any that
can arise from the trifling error in the assumption on which middle lati-
tude sailing is found"!.
M2
164 MIDDLE LATITUDE AND
The following proportions, which have been previously deduced,
will

readily suggest themselves from a consideration of the figure, p. 132:

cos mid lat : dist : : sin course diff long, :

diii' lat : ilitl'

long mid : : cos lat : tan course,
rad : diff long cos mid lat : : :
dep,
diff lat :
dep : : rad : tan course,
rad : diff lat : : sec course :
dist,
rad :
dep : : cosec course : dist.

Of the two proportions for the distance the latter is preferable, when
the course is very large.
These proportions may be varied so as to find any term that may be
required.
In MERCATOR'S SAILING the difference of longitude is computed by
considering the meridians as parallel lines, and of course all the pa-
rallelsof latitude as equal to the equator. But the elementary parts of
the meridian are also conceived to be increased in the same proportion
as their parallels of latitude are; so that the proportion between the

elementary parts of the meridians and their parallels remains unaltered.

The increased meridian between the two parallels is called the meridional
difference of latitude, in contradistinction to the actual distance of the
parallels, which is called the proper difference of latitude. The meri-
dional difference of latitudeis obtained
by taking the difference of the
meridional parts corresponding to each latitude from Table 3, when the
latitudes are of the same name, but their sum, when the latitudes are of

different names.
Then, if a triangle be constructed similar to that formed by the dif-
ference of latitude, departure, and nautical distance, in plane sailing,

having the side adjacent to the course equal to the meridional difference
of latitude, the side opposite to the course will be the difference of
longitude and the different parts of these triangles may be computed
;

from each other. (See the Jig. p. 135.)

It may be useful in practice to recollect the following proportions :

prop diff lat :

dep : : mer diff lat : diff long,

mer diff lat : rad : : diff long : tan course,

rad :
prop diff lat : : sec course : distance.

When the course exceeds 5 points, it is preferable to employ the

middle latitude method. But when the diff long is very considerable,
and the diff lat small, the following method of finding the course and
distance may be employed with advantage, as in all cases it produces
accurate results. (See page 135.)
To the middle latitude add the number from the following table,
and the sum will be the latitude of the parallel in which the meridian
distance is exactly equal to the departure call this the true middle :

latitude.
 MERCATOK S SAILING. 165

Then to find the course,

diff lat : diff long : : cos true mid lat : tan course.

To find the distance,

sin course : cos true mid lat : : diff long : distance.

TABLE OF CORRECTIONS, TO BE ADDED TO THE MEAN MIDDLE

LATITUDE TO FIND THE TRUE MIDDLE LATITUDE.

Mid
Lat
166 MIDDLE LATITUDE AND

Bv MIDDLE LATITUDE SAILING.

Construction of the figure.

Draw the meridian line A i>. and at the point A make an angle
BAC equal to the co'mplement of the true middle lati-
tude, 45 39'; from A on A B lay off 1292 miles, the diff
long ; from B let fall the perpendicular B c on A D, then
B c will be the mer dist in the mid lat, or the departure.
Produce AC until CD be equal to 745 miles, the diff lat,
and join D B, which will be the distance, and the angle D
will be the course.
Hence D B, measured on a line of equal parts, will be 1187 miles,
and /_ D the course N 51J E.
Br INSPECTION.
With the mid lat as a course, and diff long 1292 miles as a
44|
distance, the dep is found in the lat column to be 930 miles. Then
with diff lat 745, and dep 930 miles, in their proper columns, the
course is N 51^ E, and dist 1187 miles.

Br GUNTER'S SCALE.
Extend from rad to 45$, the comp of true mid lat, on the line of

sines, that extent will reach from the diff long 1292 miles to the dep
930 miles on the line of numbers. Extend from this dep to 745 miles,
the diff lat, on the line of numbers, and that extent will reacli from

rad, or 45, to the course, about 51J, on the line of tangents.

Extend from rad to the comp of the course, on the line of sines, that
extent will reach from the diff lat to the dist 1187 on the line of
numbers.
BY CALCULATION.
Diff lat 745 2-872156 rad 10-000000
:difflong!292 3-111263 : difflat 745 2-872156
: cos true mid lat 44 21' 9-854356
: : : sec course 10-202223
12-965619 Dist 1187 . ~3-074379
Course N 51 7' E tan 10-093463

THE SAME BY MERCATOR'S SAILING.

Construction of the figure.

Draw the vertical line A D, on which lay off A D 1042 miles, the
mer diff lat, at Derect a perpendicular, and on it
D
take D E 1 292 miles, the diff long. From A on A
D
lay off A B 745 miles, the proper diff lat draw B c ;

parallel to D E, and join A E, cutting B c in c, then

A c will be the distance, _ A the course, and B c the
departure.
 MERCATOR'S SAILING. 167

A c measured on a line of equal parts will be found 1189 miles, and

Z. A measured by the scale of chords will be found about 51i. Hence

the dist is 1187 miles, and the course N 51i E.

By INSPECTION.
2, with the mer diff lat 1042 miles in the lat column, and
In Table
the diff long 1292 miles in the dep column, the course is found at the
bottom of the page to be between 51 and 52, or nearly 51i, with
this course, and the proper diff lat in the lat column, the dist is found

to be about 1187 miles.

Br GUNTER'S SCALE.
Extend from the mer 1042 miles to the
diff lat diff long 1292 on the
line of numbers, that extent will reach from rad to the course 51^ on
the line of tangents. Extend from rad to the comp of the course on
the line of sines, and that extent will reach from the proper diff lat
745 miles (towards the right) to the dist 1187 miles on the line of
numbers.

BY CALCULATION.
mer diff lat 1042 miles 3-017868 as radius 10-000000
: rad 10-000000 :
prop diff lat 745 miles 2-872156
: : diff long 1292 3-111263 : : sec course 51 7'. . . 10-202223
: tan course N 51 7' E 10-093395 : dist 1187 3-074379

2. A ship sails in the NW quarter 248 miles, till her departure is

135 miles, and her diff long 310 miles; required her course, the lati-

tude left, and the latitude come to ?

BY CONSTRUCTION.
Draw the meridian line A D, and at c in that line erect a perpen-
dicular, on which take B c, equal to the departure 135
miles. From B, with the diff long 310 miles, cut A D in
D and from the same point B, with the distance 248, cut
;

A D in A, and join B D, A B. Then B D will represent the

diff long, A B the distance, _ A the course, A c the diff

lat, and _ D B c the mid lat, or half the sum of the re-

quired latitudes. By measuring the different parts, we find

A c 208 miles, _ A 33, and /. D B c 64 11'. Hence the course is N
33 w, and as half the diff hit added to the middle gives the greater,
lat

and subtracted leaves the less latitude, the lat left is 62 27', and the

lat come to 65 55'.

BY INSPECTION.
with the dist 248 miles, and the dep 1 35 miles in their
In Table 2,
own columns, we find the course at the top of the page to be 33, and
the diff lat 208 miles and with the diff long 310 miles in the distance
:
168 MIDDLE LATITUDE AND

column, and the dcp 135 miles in the lat column, the mid lat is found
at thebottom of the table as a course, nearly 64. Hence the latitudes
are found as above.

BY GUNTER'S SCALE.
Extend from the dist 248 miles to the dep 135 miles on the line of
numbers, that extent will reach from rad to the course 33 on the line
of sines. Extend from the diff long 310 miles to the dep 135 miles
on the line of numbers, that extent will reach from rad to the comp of
64 1 1', the mid lat on the line of sines. Extend from rad to the comp
of the course on the line of sines, that extent will reach from the dis-
tance to the diff lat, 208 miles on the line of numbers.

Br CALCULATION.
dist 248 miles 2-394452 rad 10-000000
: rad 10-000000 :
dep 2-130334
:: dep 135 miles 2-130334 : : cot course 10-187759
: sin course 32 59' . . 9'735882 diff lat 208 miles . . 2-31 8093
As diff long 310 miles 2-491362
: rad 10-000000
: :
dep 135 miles 2-130334
: cos mid lat 64 1 1/ 9-638972
64 11' mid lat 60)208 miles diff lat

1 44 half diff lat 2)3" 28'

62 27 N lat left 1 44 half diff lat.
65 55 N lat in

Note. The preceding example cannot be worked on the principles of

Mercator's sailing by any method that can be regarded as practical.

3. If a ship sail from Cape Finisterre, lat 42 54' N, SE E, till her

diff of longitude is 134 miles, required her distance and latitude in?

BY CONSTRUCTION.
Draw A D, and at D erect the perpendicular, D E,
the meridian line
and make equal to 134 miles, the diff long. Make the angle
it AED
equal to 3| points, the complement of the course, and let E A meet
A D in A, then A D measured on the scale of equal parts from which
D E was taken, will be found about 121 miles, the mer
diff lat. Now A D subtracted from the mer parts of
the latitude of Cape Finisterre will leave 2734, the
mer parts of 41 25', the latitude arrived at. Hence
the proper diff lat is 89 miles. Make A B equal to 89
miles, and draw B c parallel to D E, then Ac will be
the distance, and equal to about 132 miles.
 MKKCATOR'S SAILING. 169

BY INSPECTION.
Enter Table with the course 4J points at the bottom of the table,
1

and tin- cliff long 134 miles, in the dep column, and corresponding to
it in the lat column will be found 121'5, the mer difflat. Find the lat

in and diff lat as above, and enter the table with the course, and cor-
responding to 89 in the lat column will be found the dist, about 132-5
miles in its own column.

BY GUNTER'S SCALE.
Extend from rad to the complement of the course 3f points on the
line of tan rum, that extent will reach from the diff long 134 miles on
the line of numbers towards the left, to the mer diff lat 121 miles.
Extend from rad to the complement of the course on the line of sines,
and that extent will reach towards the right from 89 miles, the diff lat,
to 131-5 miles, the distance.

BY CALCULATION.
radius 10-000000
:
long 134 miles
diff 2-127105
: : cot course 4 points 9*957295
: mer difflat 121-5 miles . . . 2-084400

Latitude Cape Finisterre 42 54' N mer parts .... 2855

mer diff lat. 121s
lat in 41 25 mer parts 2734
diff lat 1 29 = 89 miles.

As radius lO'OOOOOO
:
proper diff lat 89 miles ... 1 -949390

: :sec of course 4J points . 10 '17291 6

. .

: dist 132-5 miles . 2-122306

Note. The preceding example cannot be solved by middle latitude

sailing.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

1. If a ship from Lisbon wsw w
168 miles, required her latitude
and longitude? Answer, lat 37 54' N, long 12 33' w.
2. If a ship sail from Cape Race ss E $ E 216 miles, required her

latitude and longitude ? Answer, 43 35' N, and long 50 26' w.

/
Required the course and distance from lat 41 46 s, long 10 34' E,
3.

to Rio Janeiro? N
Answer, course 67 17 w, dist 2933 miles.
4. A ship from lat 40 12' N, long 18 3' w, is bound for England ;

after sailing N E b N ^ N 248miles, required her course and distance to

the Lizard ? Answer, course N 48 49' E, dist 557 miles.
170 MIDDLE LATITUDE AND

5. If a ship sail from lat 40 5' N, long 28 14' w, E N E E till

her difference of longitude is 320 miles, required her distance, latitude,
and departure ?
Answer, lat 41 18' N, dist 251 "5 miles, and dep 240-6 miles.
6. A
ship from Cape Horn sails in the south-west quarter, till she
arrives in lat 60 lO' s, having made 218 miles difference of longitude,
required her course and distance ?
Answer, course s 24 34' w, dist 277 miles.
7. A shipfrom Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope, sails N w b w till
she arrives in lat 30 4' s, required her course and distance to St. Helena ?
Answer, course N 46 58' w, and dist 1244 miles.
8. Required the course and distance from lat 53 18'N, long 55' E,
to the Naze? Answer, course N 36 31' E, and dist 348 miles.
9. If a ship leave Cape Clear, bearing NE N 16 miles, and sail
swf s 150 and distance to St. Mary's,
miles, required her course
Azores ? Answer, course s 37 57' w, and dist 931 miles.
10. A ship bound for Cork was met at sea by another, which had
sailed from Cape Ortegal, NW b N 186 miles, required the ship's course
and distance to Cork harbour ?
Answer, course N 14 23' E, and dist 336 miles.
11. A ship from lat 40 41' N, long 16 37' w, sails in the NE quarter
till she arrives in lat 43 57' N, and has made 248 miles departure, re-

quired her course, distance, and longitude in?

Answer, course N 51 41' E, dist 316 miles, and long in 11 w.
12. How far must a ship sail NE E from lat 44 12' N, long 23 w,
to reach the parallel of 4T N, and what, from that point, will be the

bearing and distance of Ushant ?

Answer, she must sail 265 miles, and her course and distance to
Ushant will then be N 81 26' E, 591 miles.

TO FIND THE DIFFERENCE OF LONGITUDE MADE ON A

COMPOUND COURSE.
FORM a traverse table, and find the diff of latitude and departure, lati-

tude arrived and course made good, as in traverse sailing.

at, Take
the middle latitude between the latitude left and the lat arrived at, and
the meridional diff lat between the same two latitudes ; then with the

departure made by the traverse table, and the middle latitude, find the
diff long by middle latitude sailing or with the course made good by
;

the traverse table, and the meridional diff of latitude, find the diff long
by Mercator's sailing, and it will always be of the same name with the
departure.
 MKKCATOR S SAILINc.. 171

The above method will generally determine the diff long with suffi-
cient exactness in such traverses as can be made in the course of a day ;

but, in strictness, the diff long ought to be computed for every separate
course ; and, when the traverse is performed in a high latitude, it may
often be expedient to do so.
This may be done by finding the successive latitudes made at
easily
the end of every course, the middle latitude between that at the begin-

ning and that at the end of each course, and the meridional diff lat be-
tween each pair of successive latitudes. Then, with the middle lat for

each separate course, and the departure made on the same course, the
diff long made on that course may be found by middle latitude sailing ;

or with each separate course, and the meridional diff lat made on it, the
diff long may be found by Mercator's sailing.
If, then, the several diff longitudes thus found be entered in two

columns, marked E and w, according as the course has been easterly or

westerly, the difference between the sum of the numbers in these co-
lumns will be the whole difference of longitude made on the traverse,
and of the same denomination with the greater sum.
Note 1. When the course is N or s, no diff long will be made ; and
when it is w the diff long must be found by parallel sailing.
due E or
Note In practice, the diff long may in general be determined with
2.
sufficient exactness by inspection, and the middle latitude method may
be used in preference to Mercator's, when the course exceeds 5 points,
or 56.

EXAMPLE.
A ship in lat 66 14' N, long 3 12' E, is bound forArchangel ; after
sailing NNE i E 46, NE $ E 28, N f w 52, NE b E E 57, and ESE 24
miles, required her course and distance to the North Cape ?

TRAVERSE TABLE.
172 MIDDLE LATITUDE AND
Lat left 66 14' N Mer parts 5358 Long left 3 12' E
difflat 2 10 N difflong 4 39 E
lat in 68 24 N 5695 long in 7 51 E

2)134 38 mer diff lat 337

mid lat 67 19

With the difflat 129 '9, and departure 106 '8, the course is found in
Table 2 to be about 39^, and the distance 168 miles. With this
course, and mer dif lat 337 in the latitude column, the diff long is found
in the departure column to be about 278 miles.
Or with the middle lat 67 19' as a course, and the departure 106 '8
in the lat column, the diff long is found in the distance column to be
nearly 279 miles.
To find the diff long made on each course separately by middle
latitude sailing.

Lat left,

at the end 1st Course,

 MERCATOR'S SAILING. 173

With each course, and the mer diff lat made on that course, the diff

long i* found and entered in the columns marked E or w, according as

the course has been easterly or westerly, and the difference between
the sum of the numbers in the E and w columns is 281 7, the diff long,
aliiin>t identical with that found by middle latitude sailing.

Hence the lat in is 68 24', and the longitude computed from the
result of the whole traverse is 7 51'; but by computing the diff long
for each course separately, the long is 7 54' East.

To and distance from the ship to the North Cape.

find the course

Ship's place lat N Mer parts 5695

68 24' Long 7 54' E
N Cape ...... 71 10 N ........ 6177 25 51 E
Diff lat 166 = 2 46 N Mer diff
Iatj482 Diff long 17 57 = 1077
2)139 34
Mean mid lat 69 47
Cor. (tab. p. 165) 3
True mid lat . 69 50

By CALCULATION.
By Middle Latitude Sailing.

Diff lat 166 ......... 2-220108 Sin course ......... 9-960448

: diff long 1077 ...... 3-032216 : cos mid lat ...... 9-537507
: : cos raid lat 69 50'. . 9-537507 : : diff long ........ 3-032216
12569723 12-569723
: Course 65 55' tan . . 10-349615 : dist 406-7 2-609275

By HerGator's Sailing.
Mer diff lat 482 2-683047 Rad 10000000
: rad 10-000000 : diff lat 166 2-220108
: : diff long 1077 .... 3*032216 : : sect course 65 55' . 10-389271
: Course 65 55' tan . 10- 349 169 : dist 406-8 2-609379
Hence the course to the North Cape is about N 66 E, 407 miles.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

1. If a ship .sail from the Naze, WNW 24, NW | w 16, saw 31, 8} E
12 and sw *
s 20 miles, required her latitude and longitude?
Answer, course s 57 5' w, lat 57 20' N, and long 5 15' E.
2. sail from Funchal s 59, w 46, sw | w
If a ship 15, and s J w 24
'S required her latitude and longitude?
Answer, course s 32 27' w, dist 109-6 miles, lat 31 5' N, and
long 18 7' w.
174 MIDDLE LATITUDE AND

3. If a ship sail from the Cape of Good Hope NW 25, 21, N^W
NNE i E 35, NW $ w 40, and N b E 18 miles, required her latitude and
longitude ?

Answer, lat 32 32' s, and long 17 44' E.

4. If a ship sail from Fort Royal, in the Island of Grenada, for

Kingston, in Jamaica, NW 46, NNW f w 50, Nwbw 70, and W^N
21 miles, required her latitude and longitude, and distance from her
destination ?

Answer, lat 13 59' N, long 64 9' w, course N 72 18' *, and

dist 759-8 miles.
5. A ship sails ssw 48, sb E 34, sw-J- w 26, and E 17
from Toulon
miles, required her course and distance to Port Mahon ?
Answer, lat in 41 32' N, long 5 37' E, course s 30 55' w, and
dist 116'2 miles.

6. If a ship sail from the Butt of Lewis wsw 26, sw w 42, ssw
13, wbN 29, w 12, sf E SES
15 miles, required
18, 10, and wbs
her latitude and longitude, and course and distance to the Peak of
Pico?
Answer, lat 57 18' N, long 9 33' w, course s 33 50' w, dist
1356 miles.
7.If a ship take her departure from Cape Race, bearing NW 18
miles, and sail SE 32, SE Js 16, ssbE 34, E N 40, and E 16 miles,
required her place, and the bearing and distance of Corvo, one of the
Western Islands?
Answer, lat 45 39' N, long 49 56' w, course s 66 44' K, dist

906 miles.

8. sail from Cape Farewell, in Greenland, for Oporto,

If a ship
E 86, Ebs
120, and s 39 miles, required her course and distance to
her destined port ?
Answer, lat in 58 43' N, long 40 27' w, course s 49 0' E, and
dist 1607 miles.

9. A ship is by observation in lat 24 14' N, long 48 20' w, and

sails wsw
24, swf 90, 24, and w sw wbN 41 miles, required her
course and distance to Antigua ?
Answer, lat in 22 55' N, long 50 50' w, course to port s 60
39' w, and dist 716 miles.

10. If a ship from Heligoland sail NW b N 26, NW.| N 34, N b E 12,

w s 42, and NNE 38 miles, required her place, and course and dis-
tance to Aberdeen ?

Answer, lat in 55 44' N, long 6 9' E, course to port N 72 45' w,

and dist 286-6 miles.
11. If a ship from Cape Horn sail SE^s46, SEbE 72, ESE 90,
s | W 51, and ssw w 61 miles, required her course and distance to
 MERCATOR'S SAILING. 175

Cape Smith, New Shetland, finding the difference of longitude upon

each course ?
Answer, lat in 59 32' s, long 63 4' w, course 8 6 38' w, and
dist 201-0 miles.
12. A ship from lat 6 28' N, long 63 27' E, bound for Bombay,
sails NNE 16, N w 43, NE i N 70, NE b N 43, and N b E | E 14 miles,
required her latitude and longitude, the course to be steered, and the
distance to be sailed to arrive at her port ?

Answer, lat 9 6' N, long 64 45' E, course to port N 39 2' E,

and dist 756 miles.
13. By observation, a ship is found to be in lat 41 50' s, long
68 14' E; she sails NE 140, and ES
73 miles, required her place,
and course and distance to the Island of St. Paul ?
Answer, lat 40 18' s, long 72 2' E, course N 68 31' E, and
dist 262-0 miles.

ON CHARTS.
A CHART is a representation of the whole or part of the surface of the
globe, exhibiting particularly everything calculated to facilitate the
business of navigation. There are two kinds of charts in use among
seamen, the plane chart and the Mercator's chart. In plane charts, in
which it is attempted to exhibit the latitudes and longitudes of places,
the meridians are drawn parallel to each other, the degrees of the

parallels of latitude, as well as those of the meridians, being repre-

sented as equal to the degrees of the equator. The longitudes and
relative positions of different places must therefore on such charts be
exhibited very erroneously ; and, in fact, charts of this kind can
scarcely be considered as of any practical utility.
But abstracting from the consideration of latitude and longitude,
there will be no material error in representing a small portion of the
earth's surface as ifit were
actually a plane ; and coasting charts are
generally constructed on that supposition. In plane coasting charts
neither latitude nor longitude is considered, and places are represented

according to their relative distances and angular positions ; and as

comprehend but a small extent of coast, they
these charts in general
can be drawn on a large scale, and, in consequence, many things can
be inserted in them which it is impracticable to introduce in a more
general chart.
Plane charts, which show in au approximate way the latitudes and
longitudes, bearings and distances, of places comprehended within
small portions of the earth's surface, may be constructed thus :
Draw a line at the bottom of the paper to represent the parallel at
which it is
proposed the chart should begin, erect a perpendicular by
176 ON TUB CONSTRUCTION

the side of the page, and set off upon it as many degrees of latitude as
it is intended the chart should extend to, and of such a magnitude as

may be thought proper, subdividing the degrees into such smaller

portions as the size will admit ; and at convenient intervals draw lines
parallel to the bottom one to represent the parallels of latitude. Then
to determine the proper length of a degree on the parallels, take the
latitude of the middle parallel on the chart as a course, in Table 2, and
corresponding to 60 in the distance column, will be found the length
of a degree on the parallel, in the latitude column which being taken
;

from the previously divided meridian, and laid off on the bottom
parallel, will divide it into degreesof longitude nearly. From such
points of the divided parallel as may be thought proper (say at every
degree) meridians may be drawn parallel to the divided one, and the
degrees of longitude which the chart is intended to embrace may be
marked on the parallels at the bottom and top of the page : and the
degrees of latitude on each side of the middle latitude, used in com-
puting the degrees of the parallel, may be marked at their proper
places. Then, a compass being drawn in any convenient situation on
the chart, and the different places included in it marked
according to
their latitudes and longitudes, the coasts, &c., may be traced out and

shaded, and the chart will be completed.

Such charts are of limited use to seamen, however, when compared
with the Mercator's chart, the construction of which may be thus
explained.
Having drawn at the bottom of the paper a line to represent the
lowest parallel on the chart, and divided and subdivided it as may be

thought convenient for degrees, &c., of longitude, let this line be con-
sidered as a general line of measures, and draw perpendiculars at the
extremities of it to represent the extreme meridians. Then to obtain
the proper length of the degrees in the different parts of the meridian

proceed as follows.
Take from Table 3 the meridional parts for the latitude at which it
is proposed the chart should commence, and also for each successive
degree of latitude intended to be contained in it. Then find the meri-
dional difference of latitude between the latitude of the lowest parallel,
and every other one intended to be contained in the chart, and dividing

them by 60, for degrees, &c., take the quotients from the bottom line,
or the line of measures, and apply them from the bottom on the ex-
treme meridians, and the degrees of latitude will thus be determined ;
and they may be further subdivided in a manner similar to the degrees
of longitude. The meridians and parallels of latitude being then drawn
at such intervals as
may be judged convenient, the situation of every
remarkable place, rock, island, shoal, &c., comprised within the space
represented by the chart, may be laid down from its known latitude
 AND USE OF CHARTS. 177

and longitude ;
and a compass (or more than one, if the chart be

large) being any convenient situation, to determine the

inserted in
relative bearings of the different points on the chart the coasts, sands,
;

rocks, &c., may be drawn and shaded, and the chart will be com-

pleted.

USE OF MERCATOR'S CHART.

To find the latitude and longitude of any place on the Chart.
TAKE the perpendicular distance of the given place from any conve-
nient parallel, and from the point where that parallel cuts the graduated

meridian, apply the distance upon the meridian in the same direction
that the place lies with respect to the parallel, and the point to which
the distance reaches will be the latitude of the place.
In the same way, if the perpendicular distance of a place from any
meridian be taken and applied from the place where that meridian cuts
the divided parallel, the longitude of the place will be determined.

From the latitude and longitude of a place to find its situation on the
Chart.

Lay the edge of a scale over the parallel of the given latitude ;
measure on one of the graduated parallels the distance of any conve-
nient meridian from the given longitude, and apply this distance along
the edge of the scale from the place where the meridian measured from
cuts the scale, in the same direction that the longitude lies from the
meridian ; and the point to which the distance reaches will be the
required situation of the place.

To find the course between two places on the Chart.

Lay the edge of a scale over both the places, and applying a parallel
ruler to the edge of it, move the two parts of the ruler in succession
till the
edge of one of them passes through the centre of a compass,
and that edge will, on the compass, indicate the course.
Or draw a line in pencil along the edge of the scale, cutting any
meridian, and the angle included between the line and the meridian
will be the course.

Or, lastly, having laid the scale over the places as before, place one
foot of a pair of compasses in the centre of any convenient compass on
the chart, and with the other take the nearest distance to the edge of
the scale. Then carry both points of the compasses forward, keeping
one of them by the edge of the scale, and the imaginary line which
joinsthem perpendicular to the edge; and the line which the other
 178 ON THE CONSTRUCTION

point describes from the centre of the compass will indicate the
course.

To find the distance between two places on t/ie Chart.

If the places are in the same longitude, find the latitude of each,
and if their latitudes are of the same denomination, take their
difference ;
otherwise, their sum for the distance of the places.
If they are in the same latitude, or the same parallel, take half their
distance, and apply it on the graduated meridian on both sides of the
parallel on which the places are situated, and the degrees of the meri-
dian intercepted between the two points to which the distance reaches
will be the distance of the two places nearly.
But if the places differ both in latitude and longitude, lay a scale
over them both, and taking half their distance apply it both upwards
and downwards on the graduated meridian from the middle parallel
between the two places, and the degrees of the meridian intercepted
between the points to which the distance reaches will be the distance
of the places nearly.
If half the distance be too great to be conveniently measured at
once, one-fourth or one-eighth of it may be taken and applied upwards
and downwards from the middle parallel as before, and the intercepted
degrees of the meridian will be one-half, or one-fourth of the required
distance nearly.
The distance may be found by the following method, which is exact
in principle, and is in fact only an abridged solution of the question by
construction, on the principles of Mercator's sailing.
Find the diff lat between the two places, and take it in the com-
passes from the graduated parallel. Then having laid a scale over the
two places, slide one foot of the compasses along its edge till the
other, in sweeping, just touches a parallel of latitude and the distance
;

from the point where that parallel cuts the scale to the point of the
compasses by the edge of the scale, applied to the graduated parallel,
willshow the distance of the two places. But this method should not
be used when the course is very large.

From the course and the distance which a ship has run from a known

place, to determine her situation on the Chart.

Lay the edge of a scale over the given place in the direction of the

ship's course, and take the distance, reduced to degrees, &c., from that
part of the graduated meridian opposite the place on which the ship
has been sailing, and this distance, applied from the given place along
the edge of the scale will determine the situation of the ship.
The method of using a plane chart, on which the latitude and longi-
tude are marked, isthe same as the method of using a Mercator's one,
 AND USE OF CHARTS. 179

except that the distance between places is in all cases determined by

applying their distance on the chart to the graduated meridian.
But in c<ia>ting charts, where latitude and longitude are not in
general noticed, the distances of places are measured on a scale
adapted to the chart, and inserted in some part of it ; and the mag-
netic bearings and courses between places are determined
by their
situations with respect to the points of a compass drawn also in some
convenient part of the chart, and adapted to the
magnetic, not the trite
meridian.

ON A SEA JOURNAL.
A JOURNAL is a register of occurrences that take place on board a
ship, either inharbour or during a voyage, and it ought to contain
a particular detail of everything relative to the navigation of the ship,
as the courses, winds, currents, &c., that her situation may be known
at any instant at which it
may be required.
On commencinga voyage, the true course to the first place which is
expected to be seen is either taken from a chart or computed ; and
thence, from the variation, the compass or steering course is found ;
and the ship is kept as near that course as the wind and other circum-
stances will admit. When the ship leaves the land, the bearing of
some known place is taken by the compass, and its distance is in
general estimated by the eye, which seamen soon acquire considerable
in doing.
.-kill This is called taking the departure. But the distance
may be otherwise determined by taking the bearing of an object at two
different times, carefully noting the course and distance run in the
interval. For the sine of the change in the objects bearing is to the
distance run by the ship in the interval as the sine of the angle in-
cluded between the ship's course, and the bearing of the object at the
first observation is to its distance at the second observation.

But whether the distance of the place from which the departure is

taken is estimated or computed, the opposite point to that on which it

bears is considered as the first course, and its distance as the first dis-
tance sailed from the place ; and the other courses and distances made
during the day, being determined by the compass and the log, they are
severally written in chalk, on a painted black board, called the log-
board, of which the general form will be found below ; and afterwards
copied into a book, similarly ruled, called the log-book. The courses
are either corrected for leeway before they are put down on the log-
hoard, or the leeway is marked in the proper column opposite the course

t-> which it
belongs. The netting and drift of currents, and the
estimated effect of the swell of the sea, are also inserted in the column
180 METHOD OF KEEPING
of remarks and this column, besides, must contain an account of every
;

occurrence deemed of importance.

Then the several courses in the log-book being corrected, as in the
preceding problems, for leeway and variation, and the distances on
each course summed up and entered in a traverse table, care being
taken to introduce the effect of currents and the swell of the sea, when
any exist, as separate courses and distances, the latitude and longitude
arrived at are determined by the methods which have already been

explained, under the different heads of Practical Navigation ; but in

general the whole of the computations may be performed with sufficient
exactness by inspection.
The computation of the ship's place from the reckoning is always
made at noon, and the operation is called working a day's work. An
abstract of the result is inserted in the
log-book, containing the true
course and distance which the ship on the whole has made during the

day ; the latitude and longitude as deduced from the reckoning, with
those also which are obtained from observations ; and the bearing and
distance of the port, or of the nearest land that lies in the ship's way.
When the variation of the compass is given in degrees, it will be
found convenient first to correct the courses in the traverse table for
leeway only, and with these courses and distances, to find the difference
of latitude and departure, and thence the compass course and the
distance made during the day. The resulting course being then cor-
rected for variation, with and the distance already found, the true
it

difference of latitude and departure may be readily obtained and the ;

calculation for the difference of longitude may then be made in the

usual manner.
In hard -blowing weather, with a contrary wind and a high sea, it is
impossible to gain any advantage by sailing, and the object is then to
avoid, as much as possible, being driven back. To effect this object,
it is usual to lie-to under no more sail than is
necessary to prevent the
violent rollingwhich the ship 'would otherwise acquire. The tiller
being put over to leeward brings the ship's head round towards the
wind, which then having little power on her sails, she loses her way
through the water, and the directive power of the rudder consequently
ceases; her head falls off from the wind, and the sail which she has set
again, and gives her fresh way through the water, which acting on
fills

the rudder brings her head about to the wind, and she thus comes up
and falls off alternately. In such cases the middle point between those
on which she comes up and falls off is taken as her apparent course,
and the leeway and variation being allowed from that point, the result
is entered as a course in the traverse table, with the estimated drift of

the ship through the water as a distance.

But notwithstanding all the care that can be taken in keeping a sea
 A SEA JOURNAL. 181

reckoning, the place of the ship as deduced from it must always be

considered as only approximately determined. It is often
extremely
difficult to arrive at any considerable certainty respecting the precise

course and ili.-timcc \\liich a ship has actually made. Different rates
of sailing between the times of heaving the log, want of care in
steering, and sometimes also the great difficulty in steering steadily ;

sudden squalls, incorrect allowances for leeway and variation, and

many other circumstances, conspire to render the ship's place, as de-
duced from the common reckoning very uncertain. No opportunity
ought therefore to be lost to determine her place by celestial observa-

tions ; and the sea-reckoning should chiefly be considered as a means

of estimating her situation nearly in the interval between such
observations.
The log is dated according to the civil reckoning of time, and the
place of the ship therefore, computed at noon, is for the middle of the
civil day the courses or distances in the afternoon or P.M. of the
:

preceding day, being connected with those made in the morning, or

A.M. of the current day, in computing the change of her place from
the last noon.
When the place of the ship has been determined by observation, her
place by the reckoning ought to be disregarded, and the future reckon-
ing should be carried forward from her place found by observation,
till other observations give a new point of reference. But some
mariners keep a separate account of the ship's place, by the reckoning
and by observation, during the whole voyage which, as they conceive,
;

enables them to judge of the total effect of currents and other generally

operating causes of error on the reckoning.

The explanatory remarks on the method of working the first two
days' work in the following journal will enable the student to under-

stand how to proceed in any case. The results only of the last four
days' work are given, the computations being left as an exercise.
A more extended journal might have been given, but the author has
found it more advantageous, in teaching this branch of navigation, to
propose to the student, after he has acquired a knowledge of the
method of working a day's work, to undertake the fancied charge of
the navigation of a ship on a proposed voyage ; the teacher giving the
winds, and the student, under his direction, finding what in the given
circumstances will be the most advantageous courses to steer. Then
such distances, leeway, &c., being given, as the teacher with a due
regard to the wind, &c., judges proper, the student proceeds to make
tin-proper corrections on the different courses, and to determine, as in
actual sea practice, the situation of the ship.
When observations are obtained for the latitude only, and the lati-
tude by observation differs from that by account, some persons apply a
182 JOURNAL

conjectural correction to the difference of longitude for the error in the

reckoning, which the observed latitude indicates. Such corrections
however ought never to be applied, unless the real cause of the mis-
take should be discovered ; but the longitude as well as the latitude
should be carried forward by the reckoning from tlie last observation,
till another can be obtained.

The occurrences of the afternoon or P.M. are written on the lower

half of each page, and those of the forenoon or A.M. on the upper half
of the following page. Eacli page therefore shows what has been done

during the civil day, and the result of the day's work in the middle of
the page between A.M. and P. M. shows the situation, &c., of the ship at
noon.

Extract from a Journal of a Voyage from St. MichaeCs tmcards

England.

11.
 JOURNAL. 183

II.
184 JOURNAL.

H.
 JOURNAL. 185

II.
186 JOURNAL

II.
 JOURNAL. 187

II.
188 JOURNAL.

II.
 JOURNAL. 189
TRAVERSE TABLE.

Course*.
 190 PRINCIPLES OF THE

ON THE QUADRANT AND OTHER REFLECTING

INSTRUMENTS FOR MEASURING ANGLES.
THE quadrant, sextant, and reflecting circle are in principle the same
instrument. The following is an explanation of
the principle on which they are constructed.
Let A B c be a section of a reflecting surface, F B
a ray of light falling upon it, and reflected again in
the direction B E, and B D a perpendicular at the
is a well-known optical fact, that the
point of impact then it ; angles F B c
and E B A are equal, and that F B, D B, and E B are in the same plane.
Again, if A c were a reflecting distance, and a ray of light, s B,
from any object s, were reflected to an
celestial
would appear
eye at E, the image of the object
at s' on the other side of the plane, the an-

gles SB A and ABS', as well as BBC, being

equal ;
E B bear no sensible proportion
and if

to the distance of s, the angles SES' and

s B s' may be considered as equal for their ;

difference, BSE, will be of no sensible magni- 1

s
tude.
These principles being premised, let the quadrant or sextant be

represented by B H K, a
sector
of a circle, having a revol- S

ving radius B i, which carries

with it round the centre a
mirror A
B, whose plane is

perpendicular to that of the

sector and, for the sake of
;

simplicity, let us suppose

that
"""
B i is in the plane of the V \ L*

mirror. Let c D be another

mirror, which is parallel to
A B when B i coincides with
BK and let A B and c D,
;

the planes of the mirrors,

meet when produced in o.
Let s be a celestial object,
and s B, B D, D E L/, the course of a ray of light proceeding from it,

and reflected from the mirrors A B and c u in succession to an eye at

E, where D E meets s B produced, and conceive B D to be produced to

F. Then at E the object will appear at s, and its image at D and the
angle BED will be the apparent distance of the object from its re-
 QUADRANT, SEXTANT, ETC. 191

fleeted image ; and whether the eye be at E, or at any point in the line
D the angular distance of s and its reflected image at i> will be the
i/,

same, iftlit- distance of eye from E be evanescent with respect to the

distance of s. Now the angle s B A being equal to the angle DBG,
by the above-mentioned property of reflection, and equal also to the
vertical angle E B G, the angle D B E is bisected by B G and B DC ;

being, for a like reason, equal to each of the angles F D G, and EDO,
the angle E D F is bisected by D G, hence (Geom., Theo. 26.) the angle
B G D, or the alternate angle G B K, which is measured by i K, is equal
to half the angle BED, the angular distance of the object from its

reflected image.
In the quadrant, sextant, &c., the half degrees on the arc HK
are considered as whole degrees, and therefore the angle read from that
arc is the measure of the distance of the object from its reflected image.
If M N were a mirror perpendicular to c D, the angles B D N, K' i> M
would be equal, and therefore the ray B D would be reflected from M N
in the direction D E' L, opposite to its direction as reflected from CD.

Ik-nee, as seen by an eye in the line D E' L, the arc i K will be the
measure of the supplement of the distance of the object from its re-
flected image.
When the distance of an object from its image is determined from
the inclination of two mirrors, situated as A B and c D are, the eye in
the line DEL,' looking towards the object, the angle is said to be mea-
sured by a fore observation ; but when the supplement of the distance
of the object from its image is obtained from the inclination of two
mirrors, situated as A B and M N are, the eye in the line i> i: i.

looking from the object, the angle is said to be determined by a back

observation.
The mirror A B is called the index glass, c D the fore horizon glass,
and 'M N the back horizon glass. The
horizon glasses are only partly
silvered, that objects may be seen through them, as well as by re-
flection When the image of an object, as s, re-
from their surfaces.
flectedfrom the index and horizon glasses to the eye at E, is in apparent
contact with an object, as r., seen by the eye through the horizon glass
at the same instant, the arc i K measures the angular distance of the

objects s and L.
The revolving radius B I is called the index, and it is evidently of
no importance, provided they revolve together, that it and the index
glass A B should be in the same plane. The arc H K, called the limb,
is generally in quadrants graduated to 20', and the index carries a sonic

called, from its inventor, a Vernier, the length of the divisions on which
are 19' ; hence the division on the vernier which corresponds with a
division on the limb, points out the minutes which the beginning of the
vernier scale has advanced beyond the preceding division on the limb.
192 PRINCIPLES OF THE

In sextants and circles, the divisions on the limb and the vernier are
generally more minute, but the principle of division is the same, the
following being the general theory of it.
If n be the minutes in each division on the limb, and the m=
number of those divisions which are taken as the whole length of the
vernier scale, then mn is the minutes of the limb which the vernier

comprehends ; and this is divided into m -\- 1 equal parts for the length
mn = - n -
of each division on the vernier. Hence n
m+1 m+1
= the

difference between the lengths of the vernier and limb divisions, or

it is the length of the parts into which the vernier scale subdivides the

divisions on the limb. If n = 20', and m = 19', then = 1'

m+ 1

if n = 10' and m= 59', then - = 10", &c.

m+ 1

If when A B and c D are parallel (see the last figure), or A B and

M N perpendicular to each other, the beginning of the divisions on
the vernier does not coincide with the beginning of the divisions on
the limb, their distance is called the index error, subtractive, of course,
from the arc read from the limb, as the measure of an angle, when the
vernier division is to the left, and additive when to the right of the
first division on the limb. If the first divisions on the scales coincide
when the mirrors are parallel, the instrument has no index error, and
the arc pointed out by the index is the measure of the required angle.
As the angle s E L is double the angle B G D, the image of 8 will co-
incide with itself, when A B and c r> are
parallel and, fora like reason,
;

when A B and MN are perpendicular, s will be diametrically opposite

to image, as reflected from M N.
its

A
telescope is sometimes applied to guide the sight, and, from its
magnifying power, to enable the observer to mark the contact of the
objects observed with greater exactness.
The adjustments of the instruments are, to make all the mirrors

perpendicular, and the axis of the telescope parallel to the plane of the
instrument; the fore horizon glass parallel, and the back one perpen-
dicular to the index glass, when on the vernier coincides with on
the limb.
There are various screws for making these adjustments, the method
of doing which, as well as of using the instruments, will be best
learned by practice, under the direction of a skilful teacher but the ;

following concise directions for making the requisite adjustments may

be found useful.
The frame which holds the index glass is fastened to the index by
means of two screws behind it and behind these is an adjusting screw.
;

Having placed the index about the middle of the limb, as B i

(see the
 '

QUADRANT, SEXTANT, ETC. 193

last figure) is
placed, turn the face of the instrument upwards, and look
obliquely into the glass ; and if the image of H i appears on a level
\\iih ii i itself, as seen by the eye, the index
glass is perpendicular to
the plane of the instrument : but if the image appears lower than H r,

tighten the adjusting screw ; if higher, slacken the adjusting screw till

the limb n i and its image, seen by reflection in the glass, appear one
continued plane.
Then to effect the parallel adjustment of the horizon glass, make
on the index exactly coincide with on the limb fasten the clamp be- ;

hind the index, and, looking towards the horizon through the sight vane
or telescope, loosen the clamp of the lever which moves the horizon

glass, and by means of the screw connected with the lever, or the nut at
its
extremity, move the horizon glass till the image of the horizon seen
in the silvered part of the glass is in a straight line with the same object
seen through the transparent part.
To make the horizon glass perpendicular to the plane of the in-
strument, incline the instrument to one side, with its face upwards, and
looking as before towards the horizon, if it and its image appear still
a straight line, no adjustment is required ; if the image appears to rise
above the horizon, as seen directly, slacken the sunk screw before, and
tighten that behind the glass, till the image and the object appear as
one line ; if the image appear lower, slacken the back screw and tighten
the fore one.
This adjustment is made in some instruments by means of a screw
passing through the frame, and in others by a screw behind, turned by
a key, or a small capstan-pin, which is put into a hole in the head of
the screw.
When is furnished with a
the instrument telescope, this adjustment is
generally made thus:screw a dark glass on the end of the telescope,
and looking at the sun, make the two images pass over each other,
and if they do not exactly cover each other in passing, turn the screw
for the perpendicular adjustment of the horizon glass, till
they do so.
The adjustment may be made with equal readiness by means of the
moon or a star, without the use of the dark glass.
In
sextants, the index glass is general ly fixed in its situation by the
maker, so that it cannot be directly adjusted ; and in the best instru-
ments, the apparatus for the parallel adjustment of the horizon glass
isalso omitted ; so that it is indispensably necessary to determine the
index error.
To make the axis of the sextant telescope, when it is an inverting
one, parallel to the plane of the instrument, turn the eye-piece of the
telescope till two of the parallel wires in its focus appear parallel to
the plane of the instrument ; and bring the sun and moon, the moon
and a bright star, or two bright stars, being 90 or more distant from
o
194 PRINCIPLES OF THE QUADRANT, SEXTANT, ETC.

each other, in apparent contact, on the wire next the instrument in- ;

stantly bring them to the other wire, on which, if they still appear
in

contact, no adjustment is
required if they separate, slacken the
;
screw

farthest from the instrument, in the ring which holds the telescope,
and
tighten the other ; and vice versa if they overlap. On a few repetitions
this adjustment may be made perfect, and it is not very liable to alter.
To find the index error, move the index till the horizon, or any dis-
tant object coincides with its image, and the distance of on the
index from on the limb is the index error ; subtractive when on
the index is to the left, and additive when it is to the right of on
the limb.
Or, holding the instrument horizontally, move the index forward till
the sun and his image appear to touch at the edges, and the difference
between the reading on the limb and the sun's known diameter at the
time is the index error ; subtractive when the reading is the greater,
and additive when it is the less.
Or, in the same manner, make the images touch at the edges, right
and left, and when the readings are one right and the other left of zero
on the limb, half their difference is the index error ; but when they are
both right or both, left of zero, half their sum is the index error; sub-
tractive when the greater reading is left, and additive when it is right
of zero.
Note. When the readings are on different sides of zero, one fourth
of their sum, but when they are on the same side of zero, one fourth of
their difference is the sun's semidiameter.
The reflecting circle differs from the quadrant or sextant chiefly in
having the complete circle graduated, and the measure of the required
angle pointed out by three indexes, placed at equal distances from each
other, one of which, having a screw attached to it, is called the leading
index. Angles are measured by this instrument, on each side of
on the arc, by reversing the face of it; and the mean of the measures
on each side of is the true measure of the
angle, independent of the
index error.
In the annexed figure, let B D, B E, and B F be the position of the
leading and other indexes when the re-
volving central mirror is parallel to the
fixed one KL. Let AC and MN be
twopositions of the revolving mirror,
when it is equally inclined to K i..
Then the arcs D G, D G', E H, E H', F i,
F i', passed over by B D, B E, and B F,
will be all equal ; and if, when the
mirror has the position M N, the face of
the instrument be reversed, M N and K L
 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY. 195

will then liave tin- sune relative position to each other that
v
AC and K i.

lia\r; and, consequently, if an object is seen by reflection from AC and

K i . it will also, when the instrument is reversed, be seen by reflection
from M N to K L by an eye placed in the same situation : hence the
degrees, &c., on the arcs o o', HII', 1 1', are each the measure of double
the distance of the object and its reflected image ; it is evident, there-
fore, that, in observing with the instrument in this manner, its index
error does not affect the measure of the required angle.

NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.
DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES.
ASTRONOMY is the science which treats of the heavenly bodies, their

distances, appearances, and the laws by which their motions are governed ;
and Nautical Astronomy is that application of the principles of the
science by which, from the angular position of celestial objects, with

respect to each other and to the horizon, the mariner is enabled to de-
termine his situation at sea.
The sun, which to us is the fountain of light and heat, is an immense
spherical body, of about 880,000 miles in diameter, and it is the centre
round which sixteen other bodies, called planets, are known to revolve
at different distances, and in different periods. The planes in which
the planets revolve all pass through the centre of the sun, and they are
in general inclined to each other in very small angles. They are called

jiriuKtrtj p/a/iets ; and several of them are attended by smaller ones,

called satellites, which revolve round them in the same manner as they
revolve round the sun.
The sun and the planets are called the solar system. The orbits of
the planets are not strictly circular, but elliptical or oval and the sun is ;

situated nearer one extremity of the longer axis than the other, in a

point in that axis called iliefucus : so that the planets at one period of
their revolutions are nearer to the sun than another ; and when they
are nearest to him, their velocities are greatest ; the fundamental law of

planetary motion being, that a line drawn from the planet to the sun
describes equal areas round him in equal tinn-.i.

Besides this periodical revolution round the sun, each of the planets
has a uniform rotary motion round an imaginary line, called the axis,

passing through the centre ; and during the whole of any planet's
i
olution, its axis of rotation preserves the same parallel position.
-e\ In
consequence of this rotation, the different parts of the surfaces of the

planets are presented to the sun in succession ; but it has not been
o2
196 NAUTICAL A8TRONOMY.

observed that the axis round which any planet rotates is perpendicular
to the plane in which it revolves round the sun therefore at one period ;

of the revolution one extremity of the axis and the adjacent parts of the
surface will be inclined towards the sun, and the other at the opposite

period.
There is a class of bodies called comets, which also revolve round the
sun, and appear to be governed in their motions by the same laws that
regulate the motions of the planets. Their orbits are greatly elongated,
and they come towards the sun from all quarters of the heavens, differ-
ing in this respect from the planets, which revolve pretty nearly in the
same plane.
The planets become visible or shine only by reflecting the light of
the sun, and they can therefore be seen only when some part of their
surface on which the sun shines is turned towards the observer.
The earth on which we live one of the planets ; it revolves round
is

the sun in a year, and performs its rotation on its axis, from west to

east, once in a day. The moon is a satellite attending the earth, round
which itrevolves, from west to east, in about 27 days 8 hours, at a
mean distance of about 240,000 miles.
The planets, in the order of their distances from the sun, are Mer-
cury, Venus, the Earth, Mars, the Asteroids, Jupiter, Saturn, Her-
schel, and Neptune. Mercury and Venus, which are nearer the sun
than the earth, are called inferior or interior planets the others, ;

which are farther from the sun than the earth is, are called superior
or exterior planets. Jupiter, Saturn, Herschel, and Neptune, are by
far the largest. The Asteroids are small planets revolving between
Mars and Jupiter. They have all been discovered in modern times.
There are nine of them known to astronomers, and their names are
Vesta, Juno, Ceres, Pallas, Astrea, Hebe, Iris, Flora and Metis.
Jupiter has four satellites, Saturn eight, and Herschel six; and
Saturn is" besides surrounded by a thin, broad, and beautiful ring,
perfectly detached from his body.
The mean distance of the earth from the sun is 95,000,000 miles, and

the mean distances of all the planets are nearly proportional to the

following numbers :

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Asteroid*, Jupiter, Saturn, Herschel. Neptune,

4 7 10 16 28 52 100 196 310

Hence from the mean distance of the earth, that of any of the other
planets may be obtained by proportion.
When an inferior planet is between the earth and the sun, its dark
side being turned towards the earth, it cannot of course be seen
by us,
unless as a spot
apparently passing over the surface of the sun ; but it
can be seen only when it
passes the sun in one of those points at which
 DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES. 197

its orbit crosses the plane of the orbit of the earth. These points are
called the nodes of the planet's orbit.
The moon in like manner is invisible when she is in the vicinity of
rlit- sun, or at new moon, and she appears like a full circle when she is

in the opposite quarter of the heavens ; and the various appearances

which she exhibits in other situations are merely those which arise
from a greater or less portion of her enlightened hemisphere being seen
from the earth ; but the convex edge of the visible part is always turned
towards the sun. I

When the moon

passes directly between the earth and the sun she
intercepts his light, and forms a solar eclipse ; and, when at full, the
earth is between the moon and the sun, it intercepts the light of the sun,
and produces a lunar eclipse ; the moon in that case passing through
the earth's shadow, as the moon's shadow in a solar eclipse passes over
the earth.
The inferior planets, when viewed through a telescope, present all
the varying appearances of the moon ; but as the superior ones are never
between the earth and the sun, the apparent form of their visible discs
undergoes a comparatively inconsiderable change.
From the rotation of the planets, the axes round which they revolve
are shortened, and the diameters perpendicular to them, or their equatorial
diameters, are lengthened ; that is, they are flattened at the poles. This
is particularly observable in the larger planets, and which have besides

a quick rotation. Jupiter's equatorial diameter is to his polar one nearly

as 14 to 13, Saturn's as 12 to 11, and the earth's as 301 to 300. The
earth is much less flattened by its rotation, or it is more nearly
therefore

spherical than either Jupiter or Saturn and the cause is obvious, for
;

Jupiter and Saturn are both immensely larger than the earth, and they
revolve also in less than half the time.
Besides the bodies which form the solar system, whose positions, both
real and apparent, are continually varying, there are numberless other
stars,which shine by their own light, and whose relative situations ap-
pear not to be subject to any such change. They are called fixed stars,
and their distance is so great that the whole extent of the solar system
is
absolutely as nothing when compared with it. Therefore, from what-
ever part of the earth's orbit the fixed stars are viewed, their apparent
situations in space are the same.
The day and night are produced by the diurnal rota-
vicissitudes of
tion of the earth on
its axis and the inequality of the days and the
;

alternations of the seasons, by the inclination of its axis to the plane of

its orbit.

It is not however the rco/, but the apparent motions of the

heavenly
bodies that are the objects of consideration in Nautical
Astronomy ;
and all the apparent motions would be the same if the earth were con-
198 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

ceived to be stationary, the sun to revolve annually among the mixed

stars in the planeof the earth's orbit, the planets at the same time per-
forming their apparent evolutions round him on the immeasurably
distant concavity of the celestial sphere, and that sphere with the sun,

stars, and planets, to revolve daily round the earth, from east to west.
The plane of the earth's orbit, or the circle in which the sun appears
to move among the stars, is called the ecliptic, and circles perpendicular
to it are called circles of celestial latitude.
The axis of the earth produced to the heavens points out the celestial

poles, or the points round which the apparent diurnal revolution of the
celestial sphere is performed ;
the terrestrial equator produced to the
heavens iscalled the celestial equator ; the meridians produced in like
manner are called celestial meridians ; and the parallels of latitude

similarly produced are called parallels of declination.

The ecliptic intersects the equator in two points, called equinoctial
points : that at which the sun crosses from the south to the north side
of the plane of the equator is called the first point of Aries Aries being ;

the first of twelve equal parts, called signs, into which astronomers
divide the ecliptic.
From the attraction of the sun and moon on the protuberant parts
of the earth about the equator, the equinoctial points move westward
along the ecliptic about 50" in a year this motion is called thepreces-
:

sion of the equinoxes.

The signs of the ecliptic, in order, with their distinguishing marks,
are as follow, viz. :

SI-.NS . . .
Aries, Taurus, Oemiui, Cancer, Leo, Virgo,

MiKKS . . <Y> 8 n SI R

SIOKS . . .
Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, Pisces,

MARKS . . :: m. / YP & x
The inclination of the equator to the ecliptic is called the oblit/"ifi/

of the ecliptic.
The latitude of a celestial body is an arc of a circle of latitude inter-
cepted between the object and the ecliptic, and it is called north or
.south, according as the object is on the north or south side of the
ecliptic and the longitude of a celestial object is the arc of the ecliptic
;

intercepted between the circle of latitude passing over the object and
the point of Aries, estimated in the order of the signs.
first

The
declination of a celestial object is its distance from the celofial

equator measured on the meridian passing over the object, and it is

called north or south, according as the object is on the north or south
side of the equator ; and the right ascension of a celestial object is the
arc of the equator intercepted between that meridian and the first point
 DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES. 199

of Aries, estimated, like the longitude, in the order of the signs. The
>n of any meridian is the same as that of a celestial object

conceived to be on the meridian.

The sensible horizon is a plane conceived to touch the earth at the

point at which an observer is situated ; and the rational horizon is

a plane parallel to the sensible one passing through the centre of the
earth.
The pole of the horizon vertically over an observer is called the zenith,
and the opposite point the utidir. The zenith is at the same angular
distance from the celestial equator that the observer himself is from the
-trial one.
Great circles perpendicular to the horizon, and which of course meet
in the zenith, are called vertical circles, azimuth circles, or circles of
altitude. The angle which the vertical circle passing over any object
makes with the meridian passing through the zenith, or the arc of the
horizon which these circles intercept, is called the azimuth of the
object.
The vertical circle which is at right angles to the meridian is called
the prime vertical, and it meets the horizon in the east and west points ;
the meridian meeting it in the north and south points.
The amplitude of the object is the angle included between the prime
vertical and the vertical circle on which the object rises or sets ; or it
is the angular distance of the object at rising or setting from the east
or west points of the horizon.
Small circles parallel to and above the horizon are called parallels of
altitude, and the small circle 18 below the horizon is called the twi-

light circle, because the twilight begins in the morning and ends in
the evening, when the sun is on that circle.
The polar distance of an object is its distance from the pole nearest
the zenith of the observer, and it is
consequently equal to the sum or
difference of a quadrant and the declination, according as the latitude
and declination are of a contrary or the same denomination.
A sidereal day is the interval between two successive transits of a

fixed star; and solar or an apparent day is the interval between two
a.

successive transits of the sun over any meridian. The sidereal day
commences when the first point of Aries is on the meridian, and the
solar or astronomical day when the sun is on the meridian. The
sidereal time of day is measured by the arc of the equator, or the angle
at the pole between the first point of Aries and the meridian of the

observer, estimated from the meridian westerly ; and the solar or

apparent time of day measured by the arc of the equator, or the

Ls

angle at the pole intercepted between the meridian on which nie sun
i-. ami the meridian of the observer, estimated also from the meridian

rly.
200 NAUTICAL ASTUONOMY.

Hence the solar time added to the sun's right ascension is the
sidereal time, or the sun's from the sidereal time
right ascension taken
leaves the solar or
apparent time.
A mean solar day is longer than a sidereal one, for the sun daily
advances in the ecliptic so far towards the east that the mean interval
between his transits is about 3m 56s greater tlian the interval between
the transits of a fixed star. The sidereal days are all perfectly equal,
but from the variable angular motion of the sun in the ecliptic
(a
circle inclined to the
equator) his daily change of right ascension is a
variable quantity, and hence he comes to the meridian at
unequal
intervals of time. Mean time is that which would be shown by the
sun if he revolved in the plane of the equator with the mean angular
velocity with which he revolves in the ecliptic the difference between
:

mean and apparent time is called the equation of time.

Chronometers for nautical purposes, as well as clocks and watches
for use in ordinary life, are
regulated by mean time, but observatory
clocks by sidereal time ; because when an object is on the meridian,
the sidereal time is its
right ascension, which in observatories it is one
of the chief objects to determine.
The meridian distance of a celestial object is the angle at the pole,
included between the meridian on which the object is, and the meridian
of the observer.
The semidiurnal arc is the arc of the parallel of declination which a
celestial object describes, between the time of its rising or setting, and
that of passing the meridian, and it is measured by the correspond-
its

ing arc of the equator.

The ascensional difference is the difference between the semidiurnal
arc and six hours.
From what has been said on the subject of time, it is evident that
the difference between the time at Greenwich, and that at any other

place, is measured by the same arc of the equator which measures the
longitude of that place, whether the time is apparent, mean, or side-

real ; the circumference of the equator, or 360, representing 24 hours

of time. Hence the problem of finding the longitude by observation
requires us to be able to determine the time at the place at which we

are, and the time at the same instant at the meridian of Greenwich.
The apparent altitude of a celestial object is the arc of a vertical
circle intercepted between the centre of the object and the sensible
horizon, the eye being on the surface of the earth ; and the true alti-
tude is the arc of a vertical circle intercepted between the centre o
the object and the rational horizon, the eye being conceived to be at
the centre of the earth. The true and apparent zenith distances, or
the true and apparent distances of the object from the zenith, are the

complements of the true and apparent altitudes. The altitude and

 DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES. 201

/.t'liith distance of an object, when on the meridian, are called the

meridian altitude and meridian zenith distance of that object.
But altitudes, if observed on or above the surface of the earth, re-
quire several corrections before the true altitudes can be deduced from
tin-in. These corrections are for semidiameter, dip, refraction, and
parallax. the semidiameter of a celestial object, is meant the
By
angle which the radius of its apparent circular disc subtends at the eye
of the observer ; and by the parallax, the angle which that radius of
the earth on which an observer, is situated subtends at the centre of
the object. When the object is in the horizon, the semidiameter and
parallax are called the horizontal semidiameter and horizontal parallax ;
aud the parallax, at any altitude, is called the parallax in altitude.
The sun's semidiameter was given in the Nautical Almanac for every
sixth day of the month, and since 1834 it is given for every day.
His mean horizontal parallax is about 8f", and it never differs more
from that quantity than about a quarter of a second. His parallax,
at any altitude, may be taken by inspection from Table 10, and his
semidiameter, with sufficient exactness, from Table 16 ; but for com-
mon purposes, the semidiameter may be always taken at 16'.
The moon's horizontal parallax and semidiameter, as seen from
the centre of the earth, are given in the Nautical Almanac for every
noon and midnight of Greenwich time. The
parallax there given is
the horizontal parallax of the earth's greatest or equatorial radius,
and the reduction, to adapt it to any particular latitude, may be taken
from Table 12. The parallaxes of the sun and the planets are so
small, that this correction with respect to them, is too minute to be
regarded. The moon's parallax is to its semidiameter always very
nearly as 11 is to 3. Her apparent semidiameter is greater as her
altitude increases, as she is then nearer to the observer. This aug-
mentation of her semidiameter may be taken from Table 14.
When above the surface of the earth, the visible horizon
the eye is

appears depressed, as the line from the eye, touching the horizon, is a
tangent to the earth at the point of contact. The depression of this
line below the horizontal plane passing through the eye of the ob-
server, is called the dip ; and the altitude, as observed, as well as its

supplement, are too great by this depression. The correction for dip is

therefore subtractive : it may be taken, by inspection, from Table 7.

When a ray of light passes obliquely from one medium into another
of greater density, it is bent towards the perpendicular at the point at

which it enters. This bending is called refraction. Now the strata of

the atmosphere, through which the rays of light pass to the earth,
increase in density as they approach the surface, being compressed by
the weight of the superincumbent atmosphere ; and therefore the rays
of light from celestial objects are bent downwards as they approach the
202 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

earth ; and, consequently, to us, all celestial objects appear more

elevated than they would do, or their altitudes are greater than they
would be, if light were not refracted.
altitudes are
Except near the horizon, the refractions at different

nearly proportional to the cotangents of the altitudes.

In a mean
state of the atmosphere, the refraction at the horizon is 33'. Table 9
contains the mean refractions, and Table 11 their corrections for any
variation in the temperature, or density of the atmosphere.
To explain more clearly the effect of these corrections on altitudes,
let M i K i, be a section of the
rational, and N B a section of the
sensible horizon, AB the eleva-
tion of the eye of an observer
above the surface of the earth, and
Ac a plane parallel to M L. Let
N be the place of a celestial object
when in the horizon, s its true
place when above the horizon,
s a A the course of a ray of light,
from it to the
eye at A, AS' a
tangent to the curve s a A at the
point A, and A H a tangent drawn
from A to the earth's surface at H ;
then s A s' will be the refraction,
c AH = BKH the dip, B N K the horizontal parallax, and B s K
the parallax in altitude; S'AH the observed, SBN the apparent,
and s K M the true altitude, which is measured by the arc Q i. Now
even in the case of the moon, the parallactic angle BSK will not in
any case much exceed a degree ; and it is subtended by B K, which
is nearly 4000 miles, the
angle A s B subtended by A B, which on
ship-board cannot exceed a few feet, may be considered as evanes-
cent ; and therefore the angles SAC and s D c, or s B F, may be
considered as equal. Whence S'AH (the observed altitude) CAH
(the dip) s' A 8 (the refraction) = SAC = SBF; and s BF +BsK
= SEF = SKM, the true altitude. And NK and SK being equal,
NK:BK::SK:BK; but N K : BK : : rad : sin BN K, and s K : BK : :

sin s B
K, or cos s B N : sin BSK; consequently, rad sin horizontal :

parallax : cos apparent altitude : sin parallax in altitude ; whence,

:

from the horizontal parallax, the parallax in altitude may be computed.

The joint effect of the moon's parallax and refraction may be taken by
inspection from Table 24.
With respect to the semidiameter of the object, as it is the altitude
of the centre that required, the semidiameter must be added to the
is

observed altitude when the lower edge, or lower limb, is observed, and
subtracted from it when the upper limb is observed.
 DEFINITIONS AND PRINCIPLES. 203

The moon is so near the earth that her semidiameter seen from its

surface is sensibly greater than as viewed from the earth's centre,

which is that given in the Nautical Almanac.
To compute this augmentation, let 8 in the above figure be the

place of the moon, and let 8 K, its distance from the earth's centre d; =
B s, its distance from the observer at B d', its semidiameter seen =
from K = *, and from B r= *', then *' s is the augmentation.
Let a = the apparent altitude and a' = the true altitude.

d d cos a s' cos a

as s'
= =
.
Now = ; and
,

7 , and hence
< cos a' s cos a'

s'-s - cos a cos a'

and
.

s
= cos a
;
= 2
,

sin
,
(a'+ a) .
.

sin $ (a a) . sec a'.

Representing the parallax in alt. by p, then (a' a) r= /J,

and
^ (a'+ a) a' =
J9,
then
'
* =2s . sin (a' %p) . sin /> . sec a'.

"When the altitude of an object is taken by what is called a back

observation, the depression of the point diametrically opposite to the

object is measured ; the effect of the dip is therefore to diminish this
angle, as it increases the measure of its supplement ; in this case there-
fore the correction for dip is additive.
The altitude corrected for semidiameter and dip is the apparent
altitude, and the difference between the remaining corrections, viz.

the parallax in altitude and the refraction, is called the correction of

altitude.
The correction for parallax being additive, and that for refraction

subtractive, their difference is additive when the parallax, and sub-

tractive when the refraction is the greater ; but it is only in the case
of the moon that the parallax exceeds the refraction, and from the
distance of the fixed stars their parallax is insensible therefore the :

moon's correction of altitude additive, and that of the sun or of a

is

star subtractive ; or the true place of the moon is above, and that of

any other celestial object below its apparent one. Altitudes are some-
times observed on land by reflection, from what is called an artificial
horizon, which is in general merely the horizontal surface of a fluid.
Thus, in figure 2, page 190, if the reflecting surface AC were hori-
zontal, the angle E, or its equal a B s', would be double of s B A, the
altitude of s. Altitudes can be taken with great exactness by this
method, and the seaman should be familiar with the practice of it, as
from altitudes so taken on shore he may, at any time, with ease and
accuracy, find tin- error and rate of his chronometer. When the alti-
tude of a celestial object is increasing, it is marked with ,
and with - +
when it is decreasing ; hence + affixed to an altitude shows t hat the

object is east, and that it is west of the meridian.

The same marks added to a number, taken from a Tableyshow
204 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

whether the number is increasing or decreasing. For example, if I

take the sun's right ascension for July 4, 1825, from Table 21, thus
(ill 52m 43s 4m 7s, I mean that the right ascension is 6h 52m 43s
+
its next value given in the Table is 4m 7s greater.
at noon, and that
If I take from Table 32 the moon's horizontal parallax for mid-
night, Greenwich time, September 9, 1823, thus 55' 55" - 21", I
is 55' 55'', and that the next
mean, that her parallax following one is
21" less.

L signifies the sun's lower, and "0" his upper limb ;

2. the moon's

lower, and ^ her upper limb.

PREPARATORY PROBLEMS.
PROBLEM I.

To convert longitude into time.

MULTIPLY by 4, divide the degrees of the product by

the longitude

60, and the quotient will be the hours, the remainder minutes, and the
other parts of the product seconds, &c. of the corresponding time.

EXAMPLE.
What time corresponds to 49 4' 20" of longitude ?

49 4' 20"
4

60)196 17 20
hours 3 16 17 20

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

Longitude. Time.
' "
h m s t

1. 154 14 10 equivalent to 10 16 56 40
2. 48 27 00 3 13 48 00
3. 14 2 30 56 10 00
4. 5 16 00 21 4 00
5. 163 2 48 10 52 11 12

PROBLEM II.

To reduce time into longitude.

Reduce the hours and minutes into minutes, and divide all by 4,
and the quotient will be the degrees, minutes, &c., of the correspond-
ing longitude.
 PREPARATORY PROBLEMS. 205

EXAMPLE.
2in 46s?
What longitude corresponds to 7h
h m s
7 2 46
60

4)422
105 41' 30"

EXAMPLES FOB EXERCISE.

Time. Longitude,
"
h m s
'

1. 3 4 56 equivalent to 46 14 00
2. 5 2 19 75 34 45
3. 14 3 3 30 45
4. 11 45 38 176 24 30
5. 18 29 9 277 17 15

PROBLEM III.

To express civil time astronomically.

If the given civil time be P.M., the astronomical and civil time will
agree but if the civil time be A.M., add 12 hours to it, and the sum
;

will be the corresponding astronomical time after the noon of the pre-
ceding day.
For example, October 4th, at 2h 10m 3s P.M. civil time, is also
October 4th, 2h 10m 3s astronomical time ; but September 1st
8h 4m 20s A.M., is August 31st, 20h 4m 20s astronomical time.
EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.
Civil Time. Astronomical Time.
h m s h m s
1. June 5th 4 10 3 A.M. is June 4th 16 10 3
2. Dec. 29th 327 P.M Dec. 29th 327
3. Aug. 14th 6 28 40 P.M Aug. 14th 62840
4. Feb. 26th 9 58 3 A.M Feb. 25th 21 58 3
5. July 7th 7 12 56 A.M July 6th 19 12 56

PROBLEM IV.
From the time at any place, and the longitude of that place, to find
the corresponding Greenwich time.
Reduce the longitude into time by Problem I. ; and if west, add it

to the astronomical time at the given place, but subtract it if east, and
the sum or remainder will be the Greenwich time.
If, in adding, the sum should exceed 24 hours, the excess will be the
Greenwich time, ; and if, in subtracting,
past noon, of the following day
the longitude in time should exceed the astronomical time at the place,
subtract the longitude in time from the given tjjne, increased by 24
206 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

hours, and the remainder will be the Greenwich time, past noon, of the
preceding day.
EXAMPLES.
1. In longitude 21 w, on September 13th, at 8h
4' 40m 3s A.M.,
required the astronomical time at Greenwich ?
h m
Astronomical time, September 12th 20 40 3
Longitude in time w 1 24 16

Astronomical time at Greenwich . . 22 419

2. In longitude 85 24' E, on July 20th, at 3h 35m 7s P.M., required
the Greenwich time?
h in a

Given time P.M 3 35 7

24
27 35 7
Longitude in time E 5 41 36
Greenwich time, July 19th 21 53 31

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

Civil Time,
li m
1. Oct. 17th 4 23 4 A.M.
2. Feb. 4th 9 16 22 P.M.
3. May 30th 11 34 A.M.
4. July 26th 4 00 00 A.M.
5. Dec. 27th 6 13 51 P.M.
6. Aug. 1st 1 00 8 P.M.
 PKKPAIIATORY PROBLEMS. 207

tiiiu- In- found at which any object passes the meridian ; but if the time
of the moon's meridian passage be required, merely to prepare for ob-
serving her meridian altitude, or to determine the latitude from an ob-
served meridian altitude, it
may be found with sufficient exactness for
nautical purposes, by adding to the time of her passing the meridian of

Greenwich, the correction from Table 17, in west, but subtracting it in

east longitude.

EXAMPLE I.

At what time will Altair pass the meridian of Petersburg, October

llth, 1823?
h m 8 "
*'s B A Jan. 1st, 1820, Table 23, 19 42 + 2-93 annual variation.
2-93 x 3-8 years = + 11 '1

* 's RA at given time 19 42 1 1 1

O's H A at noon, Tab. 21 13 4 1+ 3m 41s. Tab. 30-8140

Required time nearly 6 38 10' 1

Longitude 30 19' E in time 2 1 16

Greenwich time 43654 Log Table 30.. '7159
Cor. sub. fr.
required time nearly 42 5 prop, log 1 5299
Required time 6 37 27 -6

EXAMPLE II.

Required the time at which the moon will pass the meridian of 40 w,
September 10th, 1823?
h m
Per Naut. Aim. (see Tab. 31) J) on the meridian of Greenwich 4 32
And on the following day 5 23

Difference 51

To 51m and long 40 w, in Table 17, corresponds 5m, which added

to 4h 32m gives the required time, 4h 37m.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

At whattime will the following celestial objects pass the meridian of
the places respectively named in each question on the given day ?
Answer.
Object. Date. Place. Time of culminating.
h m a
1. Fomalhaut ..April 14th, 1839. .Capeof Good Hope. .21 17 21
2. Sinus Oct. llth, 1857.. Genoa 17 29 24
3. Capella Nov. 5th, 1824. New York . 14 18 11
4. Aldebaran. . .Dec. 10th, 1869. .Canton 11 17 41
S.Pollux Aug. 5th, 1873.. Cadiz 223141 <

6. }> Sept. lltb, 1823. .Rio Janeiro 5 28 00

7. D Sept. 26th, 1823. .Constantinople 17 40 00
208 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

PROBLEM VI.
From the observed altitude of a fixed star to find its true altitude.

Correct the observed altitude for the index error of the instrument,
subtract the dip (Table 7) if the altitude be taken by a fore observa-

tion, but add it if by a back observation, and the sum or remainder will
be the apparent altitude ; from which subtract the refraction (Table 9)
corresponding the altitude, correcting the refraction by Table 1 1 ,
to
when necessary, and the remainder will be the true altitude.
REMARK. When it is not otherwise stated, the altitudes in every
example in this book are to be understood as taken by afore obser-
vation.
EXAMPLE.
If the altitude of a star be 43 12', height of the eye 18 feet,

required its true altitude, the index error of the instrument being
3' 46" - ?

43 12' 00" observed altitude.

3 46 index error of the instrument.
43 8 14
4 11 dip
43 4 3 apparent altitude.
1 1 refraction

43 3 2 true altitude.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

The true altitude of the star is required in each of the following
examples ?
Answer.
*'s observed Alt Index Error,
o i i ii

1. 48 26 5 3
2. 39 17
3. 86 23
4. 4 48
5. 7 20
6. 24 00

PROBLEM VII.
From the observed altitude of the sun's lower or upper limb, to find the

apparent and true altitude of his centre.

Correct the observed altitude of the limb for the index error of the
instrument and the dip, as in the last problem, and the result will be
the apparent altitude of the limb ;
to which add the semidiameter, if
the lower, but subtract it if the upper limb is observed, and the sum or
 PREPARATORY PROBLEMS.

remainder will be the apparent altitude of the centre. From this sub-
tract the difference between the parallax (Table 10) and the refraction

(Table 9), corresponding to the altitude of the observed limb, and the
remainder will be the true altitude.
REMARK. The difference between the parallax and refraction cor-
responding to the altitude of the centre, is the correction of altitude
which must be used in computing the true altitude, when it is required
for clearing the apparent distance between the moon and the sun or a

star, from the effects of parallax 4nd refraction.

EXAMPLE.
If the altitude of }be 24 2' 40" on May 17th, index error of the
instrument 2' 23" -J-; height of the eye 15 feet, required the true alti-
tude of his centre ?

24 2' 40" observed altitude.

+ 2 23 index error.
24 5 3
3 49 dip (Table 7).
24 1 14
+ 15 50 semidiameter, (Nautical Almanac or Table 16).

24 17 4
2 00 cor of alt for ref and par (Tables 9 and 10).
24 15 4 true altitude.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

In each of the following examples the true altitude of the sun's centre
is ?
required
Answer.
Date. Observed Alt. Index Error. Height of the Eye. True Alt.
Feet.
o i n i n o i a

Sept. 5th. Q. 40 3 40 - 2 12 16 40 12 26
Oct. llth. U 28 16 22 + 4 8 12 27 59 24
Dec. 14th. Q 14 3 46 - 5 7 10 14 8 12
Sept. 22nd. Q. 80 45 10 + 6 3 23 81 2 20
Jan. 4th. U 17 36 12 - 2 40 25 17 9 27

PROBLEM VIII.
From the observed altitude of the moon's upfter or loicer limb, her semi-

diameter and horizontal parallax at given in the Nautical Almanac,

and the latitude of the place of observation, to find the true altitude.

To the semidiameter from the Nautical Almanac, apply the aug-

mentation corresponding to the altitude from Table 14; and from the
r
210 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

horizontal parallax, as given in the Nautical Almanac, subtract the

reduction corresponding to the latitude, Table 12.
Then correct the altitude for index error and dip, as in the pre-

ceding problems, and add or subtract the augmented semidiameter

according as the lower or upper limb is observed, and the sum or
remainder will be the apparent altitude of her centre, to which add the
correction of altitude from Table 24, and the sum will be the true alti-
tude.
EXAMPLE.
If the apparent altitude of the moon's lower limb be 40 26' in lati-
tude 74, her semidiameter, from the Nautical Almanac, being 16' 2",
and horizontal parallax 58' 47", the index error of the instrument 5' 2"
+ ,
and height of the eye 14 feet, required the tnie altitude?

))'s semidiameter. . 16' 2" Horizontal parallax 58' 47"

.

Aug Table 14 11 Reduction, Table 12 11

Aug semidiameter . 16 13

In each of the
quired ?

Lat. Observed Alt.

o o i n

48 3. 53 18 20
20 a
49 2 48
67 T7 57 14 23
32 .a 63 42 4
10 ^20 4 57
39 D. 6 3 28
 PREPAKATOHYJ>ROBLEM8. 211

tlu- same name, subtract the declination from 90, and the sum or re-

iiniiuli-r \\ill be the polar distance.

EXAMPLES.
Lat. Declination. Polar Dist.
N 28 14' S 118 14'
N 16 3 N 73 57
8 10 40 s 79 20
s 6 32 N 96 32

PROBLEM X.
To find the apparent Greenwich time when the sun is on a given
meridian.
The longitude in time, if west, is the Greenwich apparent time, after
noon of the given day but if east, subtract the longitude in time
;

from 24 hours, and the remainder is the Greenwich apparent time,

after noon of the preceding day.
Thus, on May 20 east, the sun is on the meridian
4th, in longitude
at 24 Ih 20m =
22h 40m, Greenwich apparent time May 3rd. If
the longitude had been west, the app time at Greenwich would have
been Ih 20m May 4th.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

Required the apparent Greenwich time date, when the sun is on the
following meridians, on the days named ?
Long. Answer.
1. April 4th 139" E 14h 44m April 3rd.
2. May 17th '. 48 w 3 12 May 17th.
3. October 4th ... 76 w 5 4 October 4th.
4. March 16th ... 42 E 21 12 March 15th.

This problem is used in getting a Greenwich date for correcting the

sun's declination, when the latitude is found by the meridian altitude
of the sun, or the error of a chronometer by equal altitudes of the sun.

PROBLEM XI.
To find the apparent Greenwich time when any star is on a given
meridian.
To the time of its passing the given meridian, found by Problem 5,
apply the longitude in time as in Problem 4, and the result is the re-
quired a|)|i:iiviit time at Greenwich.
Thus it appears by Prob. 5. that Altair is on the meridian of Peters-
burg 6h 37m 27'6s; and the long, of Petersburg, 2h 1m 16s east,
at
subtracted from this, leaves 4h 36m 11 '6s, the it-quired Greenwich
time.
r2
212 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

EXAMPLES FOR EXEBCISE.

At what Greenwich time will the under-named stars pass the respec-
tive meridians on the given day ?

Answer.
Star. Day. Place. li. m. t.

1. Fomalhaut. . .
April 14th, 1839, Cape of Good Hope? 20 3 59
2. Sirius Oct. llth, 1857, Genoa? 165348
3. Capella Nov. 5th, 1824, New York ? 1914 7
4. Aldebaran. . . Dec. 10th, 1869, Canton ? 3 44 33
5. Pollux Aug. 5th, 1873, Cadiz ? 22 56 50

PROBLEM XII.
To find the Greenwich time on any day when the moon is on a given
meridian.

Take mean time of the moon's passing the meridian of Green-

the
wich and daily retardation, from the Nautical Almanac, and to the
tiie

longitude in time add the correction from Table 17. Add this sum to
the time of meridian passage at Greenwich, if the longitude is west,
but subtractit from that time if the
longitude is east, and the sum or
the remainder will be the Greenwich mean time when the moon is on
the given meridian.

EXAMPLE.
The moon passing the meridian of Greenwich in March, 1836, as
under, required the Greenwich time when she is on the meridian of
43 w on March 4th ?

March 1836.

Day. Mer. passage at Greenwich.

1
 PREPARATORY PROBLEMS. 213

EXAMPLES FOK EXERCISE.

Required the mean Greenwich time when the moon is on the follow-
ing meridians, on the days respectively named ?

1836. Long. Answer.

214 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

sum the log of the correction in the same Table, taken in the same
is

manner as the daily change is found. Add' this to the value at the
preceding noon, if increasing, but subtract it, if decreasing,
and the
result is the value at the given time.

EXAMPLE.
Required the sun's right ascension and declination, and the equation
of time, Aug. 24th, 1823, at 13h 40m Greenwich time?
Greenwich time 13h 40m Tab. 30, 2446
0's declin Aug. 24, 1823, Tab. 19, 1 1 19' 10" 20' 21" ditto 717
Cor. - 11 35 ditto 3163
11 7 35 Declination.
Here 20' 21" is taken as 20h 21m ; and 11' 35" is put for llh 35m.
Greenwich time 13h 40m Tab. 30, 2446
's R. A. Aug. 24, 1 823, Tab. 21 , lOh 10m 9s + 3m 41s ditto 8140
Cor 2 5 ditto 10586
10 12 14 Right asc.

Here 3m 41s is 2m 5s is put for 2h 5m.

taken as 3h 4lm, and
Greenwich time 13h 40m Tab. 20, 2446
Eq.Time, Aug. 24, 1823, Tab. 22, 2m 19s - 16s ditto 1761
Cor. 9jl
ditto
ji207
2 9-9 Eq. time.

Here 16s is taken as 16h, and the correction, which in the Table is

9h 7m, is taken as 9s 7thirds =

9' Is nearly.
When the daily change exceeds the limits of the Table, enter with
one-half of it, and double the result.

In the same way may the right ascension and declination of a planet
be taken from the Nautical Almanac.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

Required the sun's right ascension, declination, and the equation of
time for the Greenwich apparent time dates in each of the following
examples ?
Answer.
Greenwich App. Time. Declination. Rt. Asc. Eq. Time,
b. m. s. h. m. s. m. s.

1. Oct. 6th, 1824 6 42 12 5 18 33 s 12 49 27 11 58-7 sub

2. May 27th, 1825 20 46 15 21 26 31 N 4 19 14 3 9'0 sub
3. Nov. 14th, 1822 18 3 40 IS 22 34 s 15 19 44 15 16-5 sub
4. Feb. 6th, 1823 i! 12 18 15 44 18 s 21 18 4 14 24-4 add
 PREPARATORY PROBLEMS. 215

PROBLEM XV.
To find proportional parts of the change of the moon's right ascension,
declination, fyc.,for intervals between every third hour.

To the proportional logarithm, Tab. 29, of the change in 3h, add

the proportional logarithm of the time past the preceding third hour,
and the sum is the proportional logarithm of the required proportional
part.
*
EXAMPLE.
What is the change of the moon's right ascension in Ih 47m 20s,
when in 3h it is 1 36' 35"?

Ih 47m 20s prop log '2245

1 36' 35" ditto -2704

Req change 57' 36" ditto -4949

This change applied to the value at the preceding third hour will
give the value at the given instant, second differences (that is, the
variations in the rate of change during the interval) being neglected.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

Required the moon's right ascension and declination at each of the

following Greenwich dates, using only even proportion, and taking
them for every third hour from Table 32 ?
Answer.
Rt. Asc. Declination,
h. m. s. h. m. s. ' "

1. Sept. 4th, 1823 . . 4 20 10 . . 10 33 15 . . 5 28 39 N

2. Sept. 19th, 1823 . . 14 3 55 . . 23 27 6 . . 1 4 4 N
3. Sept. 7th, 1823 . . 8 26 9 . . 13 15 46 . . 13 32 52 s
4. Sept. 22nd, 1823 . . 22 5 46 . . 2 10 42 . . 18 27 8 N

PROBLEM XVI.
The moon's right ascension, declination, Sfc., being given for every
third hour, to find them exactly at intermediate times.

Find, as in the last problem, the approximate value, which, in

general, will be sufficiently exact for ordinary purposes. But when the
greatest precision is required, take the two values which precede, and
the two which follow the given time, and half the difference between
the sum of the tir>t and fourth, and that of the second and third, is the
second difference. Reduce this into seconds, and multiply it by the
216 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

number from the following table, taking the argument at the top, and
sum of the first and fourth is the less, add the product to the
if the

approximate value of the right ascension already found if the reverse,

;

subtract it;and the sum or the remainder will be the correct value.
But always add the correction to the approximate, to find the correct
declination.

Note. When the declination changes from north to south, the

correction for second differences may be disregarded.

Table of multipliers for second differences for intervals of three

hours and one hour.
 PREPARATORY PROBLEMS. 217

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

Required the correct right ascension and declination of the moon in
each of the examples to the last problem ?
Answer.
Rt. Asc. Declin.
' "
h. m. s.

1. 10 33 15-2 5 28 41 N
2. 23 27 5-9 1 4 4N
3. 13 15 46-0 13 32 55 s
4. 2 10 41-6 18 27 12 N

PROBLEM XVII.

To find the right ascension and declination of the moon for any given
Greenwich time, when given for every hour, as they are now in the
Nautical Almanac.
Take the right ascension and declination for the given hour, and
the change to the succeeding one, from the Nautical Almanac; and
to the proportional log of this change, add the proportional log of the
minutes and seconds in the given Greenwich date, and the constant
log. 9-5229, and the sum, rejecting 10 from the index, will be the
proportional log of the part for minutes and seconds, to be added to or
subtracted from the element at the given hour, according as it is

increasing or decreasing.
The proportional part of the right ascension may be found more
conveniently and accurately, if the decimals of seconds in the hourly
difference be reduced to thirds, and the minutes, seconds, and thirds be
then taken as hours, minutes, and seconds and the hours, minutes,
;

and seconds in the result be accordingly taken as minutes, seconds,

and thirds, respectively.

EXAMPLE.
Let be required to find the right ascension and declination of the
it

moon on a given day at 4h 1 3m 46s, when on that day at the corre-

sponding hours the Nautical Almanac shows the right ascension and
declination to be as follows :

Rt. Asc. Declin.

b.
 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

right ascension 1m 54'66s = 1m 54s 39'6th, which take as Ih 54m

39-6s.

Timepat4h, Oh 13m 46 1-1. 1-1164 1-1164

Hrly. ch. of R. A. Ih 54m 39-6s PL 1958 Hrly. ch. of Decliu. 11' 9"1 PL 1-2079
Comt. 9-5229 9- 5229

Cor. H. A. 26m 19 PL ~~8351 Cor. Declin. 2' 23"-5 PL 7-8472

Or 26i 19th = 26-32s Declin. at 4h 15 10' 5"-2

B. A. at 4h 2h 52m 17'78s Req. Declin. 15 12' '28"'7

Req. R. A. 2h 52m 44- 10

In cases where extreme precision is required, these results may be

corrected for second differences as in the last problem, the argument
for the multiplier in this case being found at the bottom of the table
given in the last problem.
Thus, reverting to the extract above given from the Nautical
Almanac example under consideration, we have the sum of the
in the

right ascensions at 3h and Gli =

5h 46m 30'56s, and at 4h and 5h,
5h 46m 30 22s, half the difference of which is '17s
-

,
and for declina-
tion the second difference found in the same way is 3"-8.
Now in the above table the multiplier corresponding to 13m 46s, is
about -088, therefore '17s x '088 =
-015s, the correction of R. A. ;
and 3"-8 x '088, = '3" the correction of declination.

o "
h. m. s.
'

Approx. R. A. as above 2 52 44- 10 Declin. 15 12 38-7

Cor. for second diff. . . -015 + *3
True B. A.. . 2 52 44-085 Declin. 15 12 39

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

The right ascension and declination of the moon being given in the
Nautical Almanac as under, for the corresponding hours of mean
Greenwich time, viz. :

September 13th, 1835.

Hours. Is Rt. Asc. \t Declin.
h. m. ..
o ' "

0. 3 59 31-53 20 34 34 -6 N
1. 4 32-77 1 20 42 59-1
2. 43 34-24 20 51 18-3
3. 45 35-93 20 59 32-1
4. 47 37-85 21 7 40-6
5. 49 39-99 21 15 43-6
6. 4 11 42-36 21 23 41-2
7. 4 13 47-79 21 39 19-6
 PilEPAHATOUY PROBLEMS. 219

It is
required to find them accurately for each of the following
Greenwich dates ?
220 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

Required the senridiameter and horizontal parallax of the moon at

each of the following dates, Greenwich mean time.

Answer.
 ON FINDING THE LATITUDE. 221

but they be of different names their difference

if is the latitude, and it

is always of the same name as the greater.

The declination of the sun, moon, planets, and principal fixed stars
are given in the Nautical Almanac, the sun's both for apparent and
mean noon, the moon's for every hour, the planets' for every hour of
mean Greenwich time, and those of the fixed stars for the Greenwich
time of meridian passage for every tentli day in the year.
The declination of the sun may be taken with sufficient exactness
for practice at sea from Tables, 19 and 20 of this book, and the decli-
nations of the fixed stars from Table 23.
Note. It is perhaps difficult, under any circumstances, to obtain at
sea an altitude that can be depended on to much nearer than a
minute : it will therefore, in general, be sufficiently exact in sea

practice to take the semidiameter and other corrections to the nearest

minute ; and, in finding the latitude at sea, the small corrections for
the parallax of the sun and the planets may be safely disregarded.

EXAMPLE I.

If the meridian altitude of 1 be 56 20' 30" s, on May 4th, 1845,

in longitude 31 w, the height of the eye 20 feet, required the
latitude?

Ai the long 31 w the Greenwich)

time is
i

2h 4in P.M. May 4 . . f

' -ifio20"W "
Alt
&
/~v 8>

4 24 dip.

56 16 6
38 refraction.

56 15 28
'
dec for noon, Greenwich time, + 15 52 semidiameter.

May 4, 1825, Table 19 ... 15 57' 37" + 17' 15"

Reduction to 1845, Table 20 . . + 2 33 563120
+ 5 parallax.
16 00 10
Cor for Green time, Table 30 . . + 1 29 56 31 25 true altitude.

True declination 16 1 39 N.
33 28 35 zenith dist N.
16 I 39 declination N.

49 30 14 latitude N.
222 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

EXAMPLE II.

On September 19th, 1823, in longitude 51 E, the meridian altitude

of L was 36 52' N, height of the eye 30 feet, required the latitude ?
Per Nautical Almanac (see Table 32), J's mer J>OM at Greenwich 11 h 37 m + 44ra
Long in time K 3 h '24 . m . .
\

*
Red Tab. 17. .6 ...I
Greenwich time 8 7

D's declination at 6h Greenwich time . 048'26" s

9k 6 41 s

Change in 3 hours 41 45 prop log G34G

Time post 6 hours 2h7m 1515

Change of J's declination in 2 h 7 m . 29' 27" prop log 7861

Declination at 6 hours , . . 48 26 S

Declination at time of observation . . 18 59 s disregarding second

difl'erences.

The horizontal parallax and semidiameter taken from the same

Table, or from the Nautical Almanac, are 55' 49" and 15' 13".
Observed altitude D. ... 36 52' 0" N
Semidiameter 15' 13"i
Aug 9i /\
. . + 15 22

37 7 22
Din . - 5 21

37 1 58
Correction (Table 24) . . . +43 18
-

True altitude . . . . . 37 45 16
90

Zenith distance . . . . 52 14 44 s
Declination . 18 59 s

Latitude 52 33 43 s

EXAMPLE III.
If the meridian altitude of Rigel be 85 6' s, on November 25th,
1848, height of the eye 20 feet, required the latitude?
* 's dec Jan. 1, 1820 (Table 23) 8 25' 2" s Observed alt, 85 6' 0" a
. .

Annual var 4" -74 x 28-9 years = 2 17 Dip ... 4 24

Declination at time of Observation . 8 22 45 s 85 1 36

Refraction . 5

85 1 31
90

Zenith dist. . 4 53 29 u
Declination 8 2.' 45 a

Latitude . 3 24 16 s
 ON FINDING THE LATITUDE.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

In each of the following: examples the latitude is
required.

No.
224 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

July 4, 1822, longitude 21 w, height of the eye 18 feet, required the

latitude?
h. m.
12 l'g declination at noon. .2256' 5"N-5'17"
Long in time w + I 24 Cor for Green, time, Tab. 30 2 56

Greenwich time 13 21 Reduced declination . . 22 53 ON

00

Co-declination .67 6 51

Observed altitude 6 26

Dip - 4 11

6 21 40
Correction for parallax and refraction . - 7 51

6 13 55
Semidiameter 15 46

True altitude 6 20 41
Co-declination . . . 67 6 51

Latitude 73 36 32 N

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

In each of the following examples the latitude is
required.

No.
 ON FINDING THE LATITUDE. 225

right-angled plane triangle, of which the jwrpendicular is the differ-

ence between its altitude and that of the pole, and the acute angle
included by those sides is the star's least distance from the meridian.
To the apparent time at the place of observation add the son's right
ascension, and the sum is the sidereal time; from this subtract the
star's right ascension, (increasing the sidereal time by 24 hours, if
necessary,) and the remainder is the star's
westerly meridian distance.
Reduce this meridian distance into degrees, and, if less than 90,
consider it as a course ; if between 90 and 270, consider the differ-

ence' between it and 180 as a course; and, if it exceed 270, consider

the difference between it and 360 as a course with this course, and the
;

star's polar distance in miifutes as a distance, take from Tab. 2 the diff
lat, and add it to the star's altitude when the meridian distance is
between 6 and 18 hours; otherwise subtract it, and the sum or re-
mainder is the latitude, always north.
Note. An error of a few minutes in the apparent time, or in the

right ascension, will, in any case, produce but a trifling error in the
result but the nearer the star is to the meridian, the less effect will
:

any mistake in the time have on the latitude; and the right ascension

may always be taken to the nearest minute.

EXAMPLE.

If the altitude of the pole star be 46 18', at 9h 26m P.M., October

7, 1836, in longitude 16 w, height of the eye 13 feet, required the
latitude?
The Greenwich time of the observation is lOh 30m, and the sun's
right ascension reduced to that time is about 12h 54m, the star's Ih 1m,

and its polar distance 94'.

Hence 9h 26m + 12h 54m Ih 1m = 21h 19m = the star's
meridian distance, and it is therefore above the pole. Now, 21 h 19m
= 320? nearly, and 360 320 =
40, with which, as a course, and
94 as a distance, in Table 2, we have nearly 71' in the latitude column
to be subtracted from the star's true altitude.

Observed altitude 46 18'

Dip and refraction 4

True altitude 46 14
Correction, Table 2 -1 11

Latitude . . 45 3 N
226 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

In to the nearest
the following examples the latitude is required
minute ?

No.
 ON FINDING THE LATITUDE. 227

of the true altitudes, and the fine of half their difference, and the
MIIH, ri'jreting the tens from the index, will be the sine of arc third,
oata
4. Add together the secant of arc first, the sine of half the sum of

the true altitudes, the cosine of half their difference, and the secant of
arc third, and the sum, rejecting the tens from the index, will be the
ne of arc fourth, acute.
5. The difference of arc second and ore fourth is arc fifth, when the
zenith and the elevated pole are on the same side of the great circle

passing through the places of the sun at the times of observation ;

otherwise, their sum is arc fifth, acute.
6. Add the cosine of arc third to the cosine of arc fifth, and the
sum, rejecting 10 from the index, will be the sine of the latitude.
Note 1. When there is any doubt whether the zenith and elevated
pole are on the same side of the great circle passing through the places
of the sun, the latitude may be computed on both suppositions, and
that considered as the true latitude which most nearly agrees with
the latitude by account. This additional computation will give very
little trouble, for it is only arc fifth and its cosine that will require

alteration.
Note 2. method the latitude may be determined from two
By this

altitudes of the same fixed star, with the interval of time between the
observations but if .the interval be in solar, it must be reduced to
;

sidereal time, which may be done with sufficient exactness by increas-

ing the observed interval one second of time for every six minutes, or
ten seconds for every hour.
Note 3. It will expedite the calculation, if all the logarithms v Inch
are found at the same opening of the book be taken out at the same
time ;
and any little mistake in the observations will produce a less
error in the result, if the greater altitude be observed when the sun is
not far distant from the meridian.

EXAMPLE.
If,on the 28th of February, 1868, in latitude by estimation 48 x,
longitude 37 vr, at 8h 9m 4s A.M., the altitude of L be 27 31',
bearing s i E; and after running KE, 8 miles an hour, till 1 Ih 30m 18s
A.M. the altitude of L be 32 40', height of the eye 20 feet, required
the latitude at the time of taking the second observation ?
As the angle between the sun's bearing and the course is 11 J points,
the ship has sailed within 4} points of the direction opposite to the
sun ; therefore, if the first altitude had been observed at' the place at
which the second was observed, it would have been less than it was
ob>erved to be by the distance which the ship has sailed directly from
the sun. Now the distance run in the interval is nearly 27 miles,
Q 2
228 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.
with which, as a distance, and 4J points as a course, in Table 1, we
column 18' for the correction of the first altitude,
find in the latitude
or the distance which the ship has sailed
directly from the sun.
First alt } . . .

Dip
 ON FINDING THE LATITUDE. 229

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

The true latitude is
required in each of the following examples, both
altitudes being taken at the same place ?

No.
230 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

To compute the reduction to the meridian, and thence to find the lati-
tude from an altitude observed when an object is near the nn r idhni.
For the Greenwich time, by account, take the object's declination,
and add it to the latitude by account, when they are of different names :

otherwise, take the difference of the declination and the latitude by

account, and the sum or the remainder is the meridian zenith distance

by account.
If the object be the sun, the apparent time from noon is the meridian
distance :
for any other object, add the sun's right ascension
to the ap-

parent time, and from the sum subtract the object's right ascension, and
the remainder is the meridian distance.
Then add together the cosine of the latitude by account, the cosine
of the declination, the cosec of the meridian zenith distance by account,
and twice the sine of half the meridian distance, in degrees, &c. and
5 '615455, and the sum, rejecting the tens from the index, is the loga-
rithm of a number of seconds, which subtracted from the true zenith
distance, deduced from the observation, gives the meridian zenith distance.
If this and the decimation are of the same name, their sum, otherwise
their difference, is the latitude, and of the same name with the greater.
EXAMPLE.
If in latitude by account 48 12' N, when the sun's declination is

16 10' s, at Oh 16m
P.M., apparent time, the sun's true zenith dist. be
64 40' N, required the true latitude ?
Lat by acct 48 12' N. cos 9-823821
Declination 16 10 S. 9-982477
cos
Mer zen dist acct .... 64 22 10-044995
cosect
Half mer dist. . 20 2 sin 17-085638
.

Const log 5-615455

60)357" log 2-552386

5' 57" reduction.
64 40' 0" zen dist from obs.

True mer zen dist 64 34 3 N.

Declination.. . 16 10 s.

Latitude 48 24 3 N.

EXAMPLES FOB EXERCISE.

In the following examples the latitude is required to the nearest
minute?

No.
 ON FINDING THE VARIATION OF THE COMPASS.

Note. If, when the sun passes the meridian near the zenith, equal
altitudes be taken a short time before and after his meridian passage,
luilf the difference of the times may be taken as the meridian distance
to be used with either altitude in
computing the latitude by this

problem.

IF the bearing of a celestial object, as shown by a compass, be the

same as the true bearing which the object is known to have at the same

time, it is evident that the points of the compass are directed to the
corresponding points of the horizon, and the compass has therefore
no variation. If the compass show a bearing different from the known
true bearing of the object, that difference is the variation of the compass.

Thus, an object bear ENE by a compass, at a time which its true

if

bearing is E, the ENE point of the compass is directed to the E

point of the horizon, and consequently every point of the compass is
turned two points to the right of the corresponding point of the horizon,
or the compass has two points easterly variation. But if an object should
bear NW by a compass, at the time that its true bearing is known to be
WNW, the NW
point of the compass, to produce this effect, must be
turned two points to the left, or the compass will have two points
westerly variation.
We may hence infer, generally, that when the true bearing of any
object is to the left of its bearing by the compass, the compass has
westerly, and when to the right, it has easterly variation.

To find the variation of the compass by the bearing of a celestial object

when on the meridian.
The sun is always on the meridian at apparent noon, and the
time at which any other object will pass the meridian on any given day
may be found by Problem 5, page 206. If, then, the error of the
watch for apparent time be known, the time by it will be known when
the object is on the true meridian, at which time the angle included
between the magnetic meridian and the point on which the object
bears, by the compass, will be the variation of the compass, westerly if
the object is to the right, but easterly if it is to the left of the magnetic
meridian.
For example, if an object on the meridian bear, by the compass,
s 18 40' w, the variation is 18 40' w ; if it bear N 14 E, the variation

is 14 w ; if it bear 9 38 t, the variation is 38* E ; if it bear N 2r w,

the variation is 21 E.
232 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

To find the variaticn

of the compass by the amplitude of the sun or
a star.
From the effect of refraction, celestial objects appear on the horizon
when they are 33' below it, and therefore the altitude of the sun's

centre, or the altitude of a star, should be about 33' + the dip, when
the amplitude is observed to find the variation ; or the altitude of the
sun's lower limb should be about 17' + the dip.

To compute the true amplitude.

With the given time and longitude find the Greenwich time, and for
that time take the object's declination ;
then to the sine of this decli-
nation add the secant of the latitude of the place of observation, and the
sum, rejecting 10 from the index, will be the sine of the true amplitude,
to be estimated from the east when the object is rising, and from the
west when it is setting ; and towards the north or south,
according as the
declination is north or south.
Then, the computed amplitude and that by the compass be both
if

north or both south, their difference will be the variation ; but, if one
be north and the other south, the sum will be the variation, easterly
when the true amplitude is to the right, and tvesterly when it is to the
left of the observed.

EXAMPLE.

On January 24, 1822, at 6h 45m A.M., in latitude 21 14' N,

longi-
7
tude 31 w, the sun's rising amplitude was E 35 20 s; required the
variation ?

Astronomical time, January 23 18 h 45 m.

.........
.

Longitude in time w.. 2 4

Greenwich time 20 49

}'g declination afnoon, January 23, 1822, 19 30' 26" s 14' 13"
Correction for 20h 49m (Table 30) . . 12 20

Reduced declination 19 18 6 s sin 9-519190

Latitude . . . 21 14 sec 10*030531

True amplitude ........ E 20 46 s sin 9-549721

Observed amplitude . ..... E 35 20 Os

Variation 14 34 w
 ON FINDING THi: VARIATION OF THE COMPASS. 233

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

In each of the following examples the variation of the compass is

required ?

No.
234 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

Ship time, April 19 21h Om t'i dec. April 19, 1822 . . 11 4' 26" N + 20' 43"
Longitude hi time, w +52 Red. to 1858 (Table 20) . . + 5 35

Greenwich time . 21 52 11 10 1
Cor for Green, time (Tab. 30) + 18 52

Corrected declination 11 28 53 N
90

Polar distance 78 31 7

Altitude 1 .
 ON FINDING THE VARIATION OF THE COMPASS. 235

On shipboard, however, the direction of the needle is affected by

the local attraction of the iron in the ship. If the iron is
equally dis-
tributed, it produces no effect when the ship's head lies N or s oy the
compass, and the deviation is greatest when the head lies E or w. In
ships of war, where the guns and other masses of iron present a large
attracting surface, the effect of this local attraction on the needle is
very considerable ; it has been observed, in the Channel, to amount to
more than half a point.
If the iron were distributed in the ship, the effect of the
uniformly
local attractionon the needle would be nothing when the course is on
the magnetic meridian, and greatest when the compass course is east
or west ; and in practice the deviation might be taken as
equal to the
greatest deviation multiplied by the sine of the compass course.
But in general there is nothing like uniformity in the distribution of
the masses of iron on ship board, and the deviation produced by local
attractionis
generally found experimentally thus :
A compass being sent to a distant place, visible from the ship, and
out of the reach of local attraction, the bearing from each other of the

compass so sent and the binnacle compass are taken simultaneously at

each point of the compass as the ship's head is warped round, and
the difference of these bearings gives the deviation on each point
of the compass.
Thus, if, with the ship's head north, the bearing of the distant com-
pass from the binnacle is NN\V, and the bearing of the binnacle
compass from the distant one is SE b s then the opposite point to this
;

being NW b N, it is plain that the binnacle compass which gave NNW

for the bearing, had a local deviation of one point towards the west.
It is desirable to find this correction at every convenient oppor-

tunity.

ON THE PRINCIPLES OF THE METHODS OF FINDING THE

LONGITUDE AT SEA BY CELESTIAL OBSERVATION.

As the longitude of any place is measured by the arc of the equator,

or the angle at the pole, included between the meridian of that place
and the first meridian and the difference between the time at any
:

place, and that at the first meridian, is measured by a like arc of the
celestial equator, or a like angle at the celestial pole, the longitude of
any place would be known, if the mean, the sidereal, or the apparent
time at the place, and at the first meridian, could be found at the same
instant. Now, during the apparent diurnal revolution of the heavens,
the distances of celestial objects from the horizon are continually

varying, increasing from the time at which they rise till they pass the
 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

meridian, and then decreasing in like manner till they set. Hence, at
a given place, any proposed altitude of a known celestial object, east-
ward or westward of the meridian, corresponds to a determinate instant
of time ; and the time at any given place may therefore be inferred
from the observed altitude of a known celestial object. But an alti-
tude for determining the time should not be observed when the object
isnear the meridian, as the altitude then varies so slowly, that a small
mistake in measuring it will produce a considerable error in the com-
puted time ; and the nearer the bearing of an object is to the east or
west, the less effect will any mistake in measuring its altitude produce
in the time computed from it.

Now, if a chronometer, keeping mean time, were set to the time at

the first meridian, it would continue to show the time at that meridian
to whatever place it might afterwards be carried ; and therefore the
difference between the time shown by such an instrument, and the
mean time at any other meridian, determined by observation, or other-

wise, would be the longitude of that meridian in time, twenty-four

hours of time corresponding to the circumference of the equator, or to
360 of longitude.
The simplicity of this method of finding the longitude at sea, and
the perfection to which the construction of chronometers has been

brought, have combined to introduce it into very general practice, and

its usefulness has been amply proved. But so delicate a machine as a

chronometer must be peculiarly liable to be put out of order, even by

causes which are difficult to detect and impossible to avoid ; it is
therefore desirable that, if possible, we should have some independent
method of ascertaining the time at the first meridian.
Now, the moon revolves round the earth, or appears to revolve

among the stars, from west to east, with an angular velocity so con-
siderable that the instant of time when she is at a given distance from

a celestial object, lying in the direction of her motion, may be deter-

mined with considerable precision ; and from the principles of Phy-
sical Astronomy, aided by observations, her place in the heavens can

now be predicted with sufficient exactness for the practical

purposes
of navigation and, in fact, in the Nautical Almanac, the distances of
;

her centre from that of the sun, four of the planets, and some of the
that lie in the direction in which she moves, are
principal fixed stars
given, and published for several years in advance, for every three
hours of mean Greenwich time, except near the change, when she
cannot be seen.
Hence, if an observer can determine by observation the moon's
distance from the sun, or any of these stars, he may easily find the
mean time at Greenwich, by comparing the observed distance with the
distances given in the Nautical Almanac.
 ON FINDING THE LONGITUDE. 237

But the distances there given are those which would be seen at the
centre of the earth ;
and therefore before any comparison can be insti-
tuted between them, and distances observed upon the surface, for the

purpose of determining the Greenwich time, the distances observed on

tin- Mirface must be reduced to what they would have been if seen at
tin- centre. Now the places of celestial objects, as seen at the surface,
differ from their places as seen from the centre by the effects of
parallax and refraction, which vary with the altitude of the objects ;
the moon's place, as seen from the centre being above and that of any
other celestial object belowits place as seen from the surface.
(See
p. 203.)
Hence, before the true distance can be computed, the altitudes of
the objects, as well as their apparent distance, must be known.
In practice, the altitudes and distances of the objects are generally
measured at the same instant, by three different observers, while a fourth
notes, by a watch, the times at which the observations are taken.
Several sets of observations should, if possible, be taken, and a mean
of the whole used as a single observation.
Such an observation is called a lunar observation ; and this method
of finding the longitude, by the distance of the moon from the sun or a
star, is called the method offinding the longitude by lunar observations.
In altitudes used only for computing the true distance, no great
precisionis
necessary ; but an altitude for computing the time ought to
be taken as exactly as possible. The greatest carej however, is re-
quired in measuring the distance, as an error of 1' in it will generally
produce an error of about 2m of time, or or about half a degree in the
longitude deduced from it. The distance of the nearest limbs of the
sun and [moon always measured, and their semidiameters added to
is

obtain the apparent distance of their centres. The distance of a star is

measured from the round or enlightened edge or limb of the moon,
whether that limb be the nearest to or farthest from the star and the ;

moon's semidiameter is added to the observed distance when it is mea-

sured from the nearest limb, but subtracted when from the farthest
limb, to obtain the apparent distance of the star from the moon's
centre.
A dexterous observer may himself obtain both the altitudes and
distance, by taking the altitudes of tiie objects both before and after he
measures the distance, noting the time of each observation, and then
computing, by proportion, from the change of the altitudes, what they
must have been at the time at which the distance was observed.
Various other methods have been proposed for finding the longitude
by observation at sea, but none of them have yet been found capable of
being reduced to practice, except perhaps the method of occultations,
a simple mode of computing the longitude from which will be given
 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

in a subsequent part of this work. The methods of which we have

here sketched the principles are therefore those to which the attention
of the practical mariner ought chiefly to be directed.
We may re-state that, to find tlie longitude, we must be able to do
two things which are perfectly distinct in themselves viz., to Jind the
;

time at the place at which we are, and to Jind the time at tJie same
instant at a place whose situation we know. The former of these is
found at sea from the observed altitudes of celestial objects, and the
latterby the aid of a clironometer, or by the distance of the moon
from the sun or a fixed star, from which her distance is computed in
the Nautical Almanac.
When the apparent motion of a planet is
contrary to that of the
moon, the longitude can be more correctly deduced by a lunar distance
from it than by one from a fixed star and, besides, Venus, Jupiter,
;

Mars, and Saturn, (the planets whose distances from the moon are
given,) can often be seen where there is daylight enough to take their
altitudes with every requisite degree of exactness, either for clearing
the distance or computing the time.
Altitudes can seldom be obtained at night at sea with sufficient
exactness for computing the time ; it will therefore be generally found

preferable to find the error of the watch from altitudes of the sun
during the day, arid then to find the time at the ship at which a lunar
distance is taken, by allowing for the error of the watch and the differ-

ence of longitude between the places where the altitude for the time
and the lunar distance are measured. It will often, indeed, be found
take altitudes at night with sufficient precision for the
difficult to

purpose of clearing the distance but, as the time may be inferred

;

from the altitudes of celestial objects, so, conversely, their altitudes

may be inferred from the time ;
and it will often be found that, at sea,
the altitudes of stars can be determined by computation with greater
correctness than they can be observed. Having said this much by
way of we proceed now to give, in order, the various
introduction,
practical problems connected with and subservient to the method of

finding the longitude by observation by any method practicable at sea.

Adding in the first place a few observations on longitude as deduced
from time.
Let r G be the meridian of Greenwich
p E a meridian in east longitude
p w a meridian in west longitude
Then o P E is the longitude of any place on
the meridian p E, G p w is the longitude of any

place on the meridian PW.

Let P M be the meridian passing over the mean place of the sun,
 ON FINDING TI1E TIME. 239

p T the meridian passing over his true place, and p A the meridian
passing over the first point of Aries, all at the same instant of time.
Then M p o is the mean time at Greenwich,
M p w is the mean time at the meridian p w,
M P E is the mean time at the meridian p i:.

and MPT the equation of time.

is

T P G i* the apparent time at the meridian p

;,
<

T P w is the apparent time at the meridian P w,

T P E is the apparent time at the meridian p E,
A P G is the sidereal time at the meridian p G,
A P w is the sidereal time at the meridian P w,
A P E is the sidereal time at the meridian P >:,
WPG the long, of p W=M PG M p w = TPG TPW = APG AP w,
G P E the long. ofpE = MPE M P G = T P E T P G=A P E A P G.
Hence the difference between the mean time at Greenwich and the
mean time at the place or between the apparent time at Greenwich
:

and the apparent time at the place ; or between the sidereal time at
Greenwich and the sidereal time, at the place, is the longitude of the
place in time west when the Greenwich time is the greater, and east
:

when the Greenwich time is the less. Both times being reckoned
from the same noon, whether mean, apparent, or sidereal.

ON FINDING THE TIME.

To deduce the mean and apparent time at any place from the altitude

of any known celestial object, when at a distance from the meridian

on a given day ; the latitude being known, and the longitude as well
as the time at the place nearly.

RULE. With the supposed time and longitude find the Greenwich
mean time by account, and for that time take from the Nautical
Almanac the equation of time, and the declination of the object, and
from the declination find the polar distance. If the object is not the
sun, take the sun's right ascension, and the object's right ascension,
from the Nautical Almanac, and, having found the object's true alti-
tude, proceed with the computation as follows. From half the sum of
the object's true altitude, its polar distance, and the latitude of the

place of observation, subtract the altitude.

Then add together the secant of the latitude, the cosecant of the
polar distance, the cosine of the half sum, and tin- sine of the remainder,
and the sum (rejecting the tens from the index) found in Table 5* \vill
give the object's westerly meridian distance in time, to be taken from
the top of the table when the altitude is decreasing, and from the bot-
tom when increasing.
240 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

If the object the sun, this meridian distance is the apparent time.
is

If it any other object, to the meridian distance add the object's right
is

ascension, and the sum is the sidereal time. From the sidereal time
subtract the sun's right ascension, and the remainder is the apparent
time. To the apparent time apply the equation of time with the proper
sign to reduce it to mean time.
The equation of time and the right ascension and declination of the
sun and the principal fixed stars maybe found, with sufficient exactness
for practice at sea, from Tables 19 to 23.
If the altitude of the moon be used for finding time, her right ascen-
sion and declination must be taken from the Nautical Almanac, in which
they are now given for every hour of mean Greenwich time. The right
ascensions and declinations of the planets are given for every noo?i, as
well as the distances of Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, from the
moon for every three hours of MEAN Greenwich Except for ob-
time.
servations of the sun on the meridian, the Almanac must be entered
with a mean time Greenwich date.
There are some small periodical corrections of the right ascensions
and declinations of the fixed stars for the motion of light, and the effect
of the attraction of the sun andmoon on the position of the earth's axis,
which corrections are not included in the places of the stars given in
Table 23. But the true apparent right ascensions and declinations of
100 of the principal fixed stars, for every tenth day of the month, are
now given in the Nautical Almanac and in deducing the error of a
;

chronometer on land by altitudes taken from an artificial horizon, it

will be proper to take the right ascensions and declinations from that
table in the Nautical Almanac ; but observations taken for finding time
at sea admit of no such precision in their results as to render these
minute corrections an object worth regard the right ascensions and ;

declinations in Table 23 being, for nautical purposes, sufficiently

accurate.

EXAMPLES.
1. If on May 4th, 1840, at 7h 2m 50s A.M. by watch, in lat 37 10' N,

long by acct 25 E, the altitude of } be 21 45' -f , height of the eye

14 feet, required the true apparent and mean time at that place?

19h 2m 50s time by watch May 3rd. Q Jeclin May 3rd, 182-1,
] 40 long in time E. at noon Gr time . . 15 44' 30" + 17 23"
Red to 1840, Tab. 20. 2 5
17 22 50 Gr time by acct.
15 46 33
Kq time May 3rd, 1824. 3m 19. +6 Cor for Grti Tab>30 ] 2 39
Red to 1840. . . .

Truedecliu 15 59 14
3 20
90
Cor for Gr time . . 4

Polar Uist 74 4G
True equation 3 24
 >N FINDING THK TIME. 241

Alt . . 21 C 5! 21 45' 0" observed alt.

Ut. . . 37 10 sec 10*098606 3 41 dip.

P..1 dist .74 0-46 cosec 10-017131
21 41 19
2)133 5 42 2 15 cor.

66 32 51 CM 9-599871 21 39 4 true alt Q.

11 37 55 sin 9-846677 15 52 emid.

App time 19h 2m 40 Tab. 5* 9-562285 21 54 56 alt Q's centre.

Equation 3 24

Mean time 18 59 16

L'. If on the 20th of February, 1863, at 9h 27m 4s P.M., the alti-

tude of the star Menkar be 13 50' decreasing, latitude 52 30' N, longi-
tude 36 w, height of the eye 15 feet ; required the apparent and mean
time?
% 27m 4s PH time by watch. ... 's KA 1820 2h 52m 53s + 3 -12s
2 24 w longitude in time. Cor for 43 yeais . 2 14

11 51 4 PM Green time. RA for 1863 2 55

s KA Feb. 20, 1823,

at noon,. Green time 221i 12m36s+3m50s #'s decl 1820 3 22' 40" N + 14 -59s
Red to 1863 1 13 Cor for 43 years 10 27

22 13 49 *'sdecl 1863 3 33 7 N
Cor for Green time . 1 54 90

True right ascension 22 15 43 Polar distance 86 26 53

True alt. , 13 42' 29" Equa of time. Feb. 20, 1823, Add.
Latitude , 52 30 sec 215553 noon, Greenwich time . 14m 7s 7
Polar dist 86 26 53 cosec 000835 Red to 1863 (Table '.0)
- 3

2)152 39 22 iT~T
Cor for Greenwich time - 3
76 19 41 cos 9-373578
True equation .... 14 1
62 37 12 sin 9*948401

#'smerdist, Tab. 5* 4h47m56s 9-53P367 Observed Altitude

True altitude . .
242 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

No.
 ON FINDING THE TIME. 243

To coiii/>nti'
t/n'
equation of equal altitudes.

Thf equation of equal altitudes is a correction for the change of the

- be applied to the middle time between the instants,
dt -I'liiKUion, to

by a chronometer, at which on a given day the sun has equal altitudes,

to find the time by the chronometer when he is upon the meridian. It
is, in fact, half the difference of the forenoon and afternoon hour angles
when the sun on the same day has equal altitudes.
To compute this correction, take the logs A and B answering to the
elapsed time from Table 18 ; and to each add the logs of the seconds
in the change of the sun's declination, between the noon of the day

preceding, and the noon of the day following the given one. And
further add to log A the tangent of the latitude ; and to log B, the co-

tangent of the sun's polar distance ; and the sums, rejecting tens from
the indices, are the logarithms of the two parts of the equation of equal
altitudes. The first part, that under log A, is -f when the polar dis-
tance is increasing, and when it is decreasing and the second ;

part, that under log B, is when the polar distance is acute and in-
creasing, or obtuse and decreasing and + when the polar distance is
;

obtuse and increasing, or acute and decreasing.

Note. The polar distance used in the computation may be taken,
without reduction to the meridian, for the noon of the given day,
Greenwich time.
EXAMPLE.
On July 25, 1823, in latitude 54 20' N, at 8h 59m 4s A.M., and 3h
Om 40s P.M., the sun had equal altitudes ; required the equation of equal
altitudes?
20h 59m 4s declin July 24th 20 1' 4" N
27 40 26th 19 35 35 N
Interval . 6 1 36 Change in two days 25 29 = 1529"

pol dist July 25th . . . . 70 12'

To 6h 1m 36s, in Tab. 18, we have-

Log. A 7-7707 Logs 7-6187
1529 log .... 3-1844 3-1844
Lat 54 2O' tan . . .10- 1441 Pol dist 70 12* cot . . 9 -5563
First part + 1 2-57 log . 1 0992 Second part -2-29 log 0-3594
-2-29
+ 10-28 Equation of equal altitudes.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

In each of the following examples the equation of
equal altitudes is

required?
R 2
244 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

No.
 OX FINDING TOE TIME. 245

Add.
A.M. 3P 30'Q3h Itn 15s P.M. Equation of time Oh 6m7i+ls
35
40
45
50

Mean 8 59
12

Mean ,20 59 4
times 127 40
 24fi NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

of ten days 30s slow for mean time at the same place, it has evidently
lost 50s in ten days whence its daily rate is 5s losing. If on a given
;

day a chronometer be 12s fast, and at the end of thirteen days 57s fast
for mean time at any place, it must have gained 45s in thirteen days, or
its rateabout 3 5s per day gaining.
is Hence the method of finding the
rate of a chronometer is evident.
When the longitude of a place at which observations are taken for
the error of a chronometer is accurately known, it will be found conve-
nient in all cases to find its error for Greenwich time, which may be
done by finding (Problem 4, Greenwich corre-
page 205) the time at

sponding computed from observation,

to the time at the given place as
and comparing that time with the time shown by the chronometer. When
the errors are all referred to Greenwich time, the rate can easily be found
from observations taken at different places and it is often desirable to
;

do this : for a seaman cannot always stop long enough at one place to

obtain a rate that is entitled to confidence ;

as the unavoidable errors of

any observation render it advisable that a rate should not be deduced

from observations separated from each other by a very short interval of
time. If more than two sets of observations can be obtained, it will be
seen from the results whether the rate of the chronometer is uniform or
not ; and for this purpose the mariner should lose no opportunity to
multiply observations, that any change in the rate may be detected and
allowed for.
The student, if acquainted with the preceding problems, will, from
what has been said, experience no difficulty in finding the rate in each
of the following examples, or indeed in any case that can arise in
practice.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

It is required, from the observed altitudes of the sun, to find the error
of the chronometer for mean time at Greenwich, and its rate, in each of
the following examples ?

No.
 ON FINDING THE TIME. 247

In each of the following examples it is required to find the error of

the chronometer for mean time at Greenwich, and its rate, from the
at which the sun had equal altitudes? .

No
248 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.
li. in s.

Time of 1st observation 10 15 26

2nd do 9 43 38
No. of days 8) 3F48 diff.

3 58-5
3 55-91
Rate losing 2' 59
The nearer the object, whose altitude is observed, is to the prime
vertical, the better ; and that the changes in the refraction may not

sensibly affect the result, it is desirable that the altitude should not be
less than 8 or 10 degrees.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

No. Date.
 (IN I IMMNC THE LONGITUDE BY A CHRONOMETER. 249

EXAMPLE.

If on March 4, 1822, a chronometer be 2ra 40s slow, and on April.7,

1m 5s fast for mean time at Greenwich and if on July 14, at 7h 3m 5s, ;

altitude of L be 20 34' , in
latitude
by the same chronometer, the
31 28' N ; height of the eye 18 feet, required the longitude?

March 4, chronometer slow 2tn 40s

5
April 7, chronometer fast . 1

Gain in 34 days . 3 45 and -

o 1
= 6 -Gg, the daily rate, gaining.

From April 7 to July 14 there are 98days, hence 6-6s x 98 = 10m 47s, the gain of
the chronometer since April 7.

Time per chronometer . 7h 3m 5s O's dec. July 14, 1822,

Chron. fast April 7 . . 1 5 (Naut. Alm.orTab. 19),21 45' 40"N-9'9"
Cor for Greenwich time 2 35

Gain from the rate Reduced declination .21 43 5

90
Mean time at Greenwich .651 13
Polar distance . 68 16 55

Add to app.
Equa. of time, July 14, 1822 5m '23s+7
Cor for Greenwich time . 2

Reduced equation 5 25

OUerved alt. of ill 20 34' 0" Altitude 20 43' 38"

Semidiameter + 16 9 Latitude 31 28 ec 069079
Polar dist 68 16 55 cosec -031977
20 50 9
Dip . . . 4 11 2)120 28 33
20 45 58 60 14 17 9-695830
Correction 2 20 39 30 39 9-803610

True altitude 20 43 38 App. time at ship, Tab. 5*, 5h 13m 11s 9-600496

Equat. time add . 5 25

Mean time at ship 5 18 36

Do. at Greenwich 6 51 13

Long, in time w. 1 32 37 = 23 9|'.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

1. my If 3m 20s fast for mean time at Quebec,
chronometer be 5h
on June 24, 1881, and gaining 12s per day and on August 26, at :

7h 2m 20s P.M. by the chronometer, the altitude of Marcab be 16 40'

increasing, in latitude 50 2' N, height of the eye 15 feet, required the
longitude? Answer, 10 12' 15" east.
2. If on February 11, 1825, my chronometer be 48m 37s fast, and

on March 4, 46m 23* fast for Greenwich mean time; and if, on April
18, in latitude 18 24' x, at 7h 2m 40s A.M. by the chronometer, the
250 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

altitude of 1 be 11 26' +, height of the eye 15 feet, required the

longitude ? Answer, 3 20' east.
3. If, on November 2, 1824, my chronometer be 23m 40s fast, and
on November 18, it be 21m 56s fast for mean time at Portsmouth ;
and
on December 21, in latitude 37 28' if, at 2h 40m
10s A.M., the altitude
of Altair be 32 56' , height of the eye 1 7 feet, required the longitude ?
Answer, 135 49' J5" west.
4. If, on May 4, 1838, I find my chronometer Ih 30m slow for mean
time at Cape Town, and on May 29, 5m 37s slow for mean time at
James Town, St. Helena, and in latitude 14 20' N, on my voyage home-
ward, on July 10, at 6h 30m 20s P.M. by the chronometer, the altitude
7
of L be 38 2O height of the eye 26 feet, required the longitude?
,

Answer, 54 40' 45" west.

5. If, on May 4, 1868, my chronometer be Ih 2m 36s slow, and on
June 15, Ih 4m 40s slow for mean time at Cork; and if further, on
July 10, at 7h 2m 30s P.M. by the same chronometer, the altitude of
Antares be 34 12' ,
in latitude 14 26' N, height of the eye 26 feet,

required the longitude ? Answer, 45 28' east.

6. On July 5, 1822, my chronometer was found to be Ih 12m 46s fast
for Greenwich mean time, and gaining 10s per day and on October 10, ;

in latitude 35 12' s, at 6h 40m 8s A.M. by the chronometer, the alti-

tude of L was 14 26' + height of the eye 13 feet, required the longi-
,

tude ? Answer, 22 20' 30" east.

7. If a chronometer be 40m 26s fast for mean time at Portsmouth,

on May 4, 1823 and on arriving at Funchal, on June 2, it be found

;

Ih 37m 55s fast for mean time at that place; what will be my longi-
tude if, on August 24, in latitude 38 4' s, at Oh 14m 45s P.M. by the
chronometer, the altitude of .Q be 23 4' 50" -f , height of the eye 30
feet ? Answer, 47 50' 00" west.
8. On May 3, chronometer was 10m 30s fast for mean
1822, my
time at Yarmouth, longitude 1 44' E, and losing 4 '7s per day; on
June 17, at noon, I was in latitude 38 14' N, and after running sw w
38 miles, I found the altitude of L to be 20 40'-, at 9h 26m 14s
P.M., by the chronometer, height of the eye 30 feet, required the lati-
tude and longitude ?
Answer, latitude 37 50' N, and longitude 56 49' 15" west.

The following approximate methods of finding both the latitude and

the longitude from double altitudes, are the same in principle as those

recently proposed by Capt. Sumner, in America, but they are here

simplified by substituting easy calculations for graphical projections.

To find the latitude.

Assume two latitudes, one certainly greater and the other certainly
 ON FINDING THE LONGITUDE BY A CURONOMETEH. 251

leas than the true latitude ; and with these assumed latitudes compute
from both altitudes, and find in each case the elapsed time.
tlie tiim-

Call the elapsed time by chronometer <, that deduced from the le^s
assumed latitude t', and that from the greater latitude *", and let / and
/ + /' be the latitudes.

Compute x from the equation x = V. (t<^> O

-r-r
<>
- where /' is in minutes
(t t")
of arc, and <^ 1 -"
t") in seconds of time.
(t t'), (t

Then I + x = the required approximate latitude.

To find the longitude.

From the time by chronometer when the less altitude is taken, with
its error and rate, find the Greenwich Mean Time (G.M.T.) when the
less altitude is observed.
Let T := computed app. time to lat /, and T' that to lat I + /', both
deduced from the less altitude. Then the app. time corresponding to
ff cst
f') . X
the true latitude I + x is T ,
the sign + being used

when the altitude is increasing, and when decreasing.

Hence the app. time is known at the place where the less altitude is

observed, and applying to it the equation of time, the mean time at

the place is known, the difference between which and the G. M. T. is
the long, in time.

EXAMPLE FROM ACTUAL OBSERVATION.

April 25th, 1848, at the Nautical School, Greenwich Hospital,
lat 51 28' 50" N., long 8" w. the following were taken. Chronometer
fast for G. M. T. 1m 38'5s, index error of sext. 40" .

Times.
hms Doub.
T*
* Q h
Times.
m s- o' Q
Doub.

19 17 14 44 55 50 20 32 10 67 27
17 30 45 26 29 40
17 46 4 20 38 33
18 3 10 10 47 35 40
18 14 14 55 38 20
18 27 18 50 65 41

19 17 5J-33 45 7 12 20 32 41 17 67 34 7
1 385 - 40 19 17 52-33 - 40

G.M.T. 19 16 13-83 2)45 6 32 t = 1 14 48-84 2)67 33 2

22 33 16 33 46 43

App. alt. 2233'J6" .... 3346' 43"

Cor . . 2 9 1 18

22 31 7 33 45 25
Sem. . 15 54 15 54

2-2 47 1 34 1 19
252 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

With Latitude 51.

t
*

T'

j' >
 ON (.'OMITTING ALT1TI DM '2~>'.'>

ON COMPUTING ALTITUDES.

To compute the true and apparent altitude of any celestial object.

IF the object be the sun, and the time P.M., the apparent time is the
mrn-iiaii distance but if the object be the moon or a star, to the appa-
;

rent time add the sun's right ascension for the given instant, and the
difference between the sum and the right ascension of the object, at the
same instant, is the meridian distance of the object.
Reduce the meridian distance into degrees, &c., take the object's polar
di>tance and the colatitude of the place of observation ; and to compute
the true altitude, proceed as follows.
Add together, twice the sine of half the meridian distance, the sine
of the polar distance, the sine of the colatitude, and twice the secant of
half the difference of the polar distance and the colatitude, and reject-

ing 40 from the sum, half the result is the sine of arc 1 Add the co- .

sine of arc 1 to the cosine of half the difference of the polar distance
and colatitude, and the sum, rejecting 10, is the sine of arc 2. Double
arc 2, and rejecting 90, you have the true altitude.
To the true altitude add the correction of altitude, if the object be
the sun or a star but subtract the correction from the true altitude if
;

the object be the moon, and the sum or remainder is the apparent alti-

tude nearly.
Take, again, the correction corresponding to this apparent altitude,
and apply it as before to the true altitude, and the result will give the
apparent altitude still more nearly. The correction to this last altitude
may be taken again, and applied to the true altitude as before, but this
will scarcely, in any case, be necessary.
Note. If the mean time at the place of observation is
given, it must
be converted into apparent time, before it is used in finding the meri-
dian distance.

EXAMPLES.

On September 11, 1823, at 3h 7m 2s P.M., apparent time,

in lat
but I could not
38* 14' long about 20 w, I took a lunar distance,
8,
obaerve the moon's altitude it is required to determine the altitude by
;

calculation ?

0'S i.A. Hi-oil.

3d Tm 2 apparent time at the ihip, Sept. 11. 1 lb 15m 53 + 3m 35*

I JO longitude in time w. 40 Cor.
'

4 1 ! Greenwich time. 11 16 33 R.A.

254 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

J's H.A. at 3h. D'i declin. at 31..

j)'
hor. |iar.

IGh 34m 20i + 6m 43t 25 43* 25" B -I- 7' 54' 58" - 15"
3 14-7 cor. 3 22 cor. 5 cor.

16 37 34-7 25 46 47 54 53
90

D's pol. dist. 64 13 13

App. time . . 3h 7m 2s
0's R.A. ... 11 16 33

Sid. time. . . 14 23 35
J'SB.A. ... 16 37 34-7

]>'s mer. dist.. 2 13 59-7 = 33 307

Half mer. dist. 16 45' 2 sin 18-919376

J's pol. dist .64 13 sin 9 '9544 57
Colat. . . . 51 46 sin 9*895145
Diff. . . . 12 27
Halfdiff. . . 6 13$ 2 sec 20 -005136 cos 9-997432

2)18-774114

Arc 1 14 7' sin 9-387057 cos 9-986683

Arc 2 74 36' sin 9-984115

2

Less 90 . . 59 12 True alt.

Approximate cor. 28

App. alt. nearly 58 44

True cor. . . 27 64

Correct App. Alt. 58 44 6

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

In the following examples the apparent altitude is required to the

nearest minute ?

No.
 ON COMPUTING ALTITUDES. 255

To find the altitudes when a lunar distance is taken, from altitudes

before and after taking the distance.

be only one observer, let him take the alti-,
If in taking lunars there
twit' of each object both before and after taking the distance, noting by
his watch the time of each observation. Then to find the altitude of
either object at the time of taking the distance, add together the comp
to 10 of the prop log of the interval between taking the altitudes of that
object, the prop log of the interval between taking the first altitude, and
the distance, and the prop log of the observed change of altitude, and
tin- sum,
rejecting 10 from the index, will be the prop log of a correction,
to be added to the first altitude when it is increasing, but subtracted
from it when decreasing, to obtain the altitude of the object at the time
of taking the distance.

EXAMPLE.
Time by WUch.
h. m. *. h. m. s.

4 10 10 Vialt 34 12 10 Req the alts at 4 15 29 when the

4 12 '20 0'salt 57 16 40 distance was taken?
4 15 29 distO and) 80 34 20
4 17 29 "salt 56 50 20
4 19 40 ysalt 34 50 30

Moon. -Sun.
m. i. in. s.

Jut. of alts ... 9 30 P. log. comp 8-7225 5 3 8*4480

Firet alt to diit . . 5 19 P. log 1-5296 3 3 1-7710
Change of alt . +38' 20" p. log 6717 - 26' 20" 8348

Red of alt . . . + 21' 27" F. log 9238 - 15' 54" p. log 1-0538

J'.fintalt . . 34 12 10 ~57 16 40

Vialt attimeofdist 34 33 37 0*8 alt 57 046

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

Required the altitudes at the time of taking the distance in each of
the following examples ?
Time by Watrfi.
b. m. . Answer.
Kx. 1. 9 27 34 Marcab'salt 22 19' 30" )* alt 48 19' 1"
9 28 47 Vsak 48 40 10 *'ialt 21 32 52
9 31 2 ditt > and * 37 29 25
9 33 14 Vialt 47 58 20
9 35 8 Marcab'ialt 21 48 40

Ex. 2. >' alt 30 34' 23"

#'. alt 60 38 53
- ."' NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

ON CLEARING THE LUNAR DISTANCE.

Having given the apparent altitudes of the centres of the moon and
the.sun, or a star, with their apparent distance, and horizontal
parallaxes, to find their true distance, as seen at the centre of the
earth.

METHOD I.

WITH the moon's apparent altitude and horizontal parallax, enter

Table 24, and take out the correction of her altitude and at the same
;

time, from Table 25, on the opposite page, take out the auxiliary arc,

adding the correction of that arc taken from the column on the right of
the table, if the other object is the sun or a fixed star, but from Table
27 if the other object is a planet.
The refraction (Table 9) corresponding to a star's apparent altitude
is its correction of altitude, but the difference of the parallax in altitude
and the refraction is the correction of altitude of the sun or a planet.
Now the sun's parallax in altitude is found in Table 10, and that of a

planet may be taken from Table 26.

Add the difference between the correction of the moon's altitude and
that of the sun or star, to the sum of the apparent altitudes, and the
result is the sum of the true altitudes.
Then place under each other, in order, the sum of the apparent alti-

tudes, the auxiliary arc, and the apparent distance, under which draw
a line, and below this line place, also in order, the sum and difference
of the auxiliary arc and the sum of the apparent altitudes, and the
sum and difference of the auxiliary arc and the apparent distance,
and under all write the sum of the true altitudes, making altogether
five arcs.

Then, from Table 28, take the decimal versed sine of the first four
of these arcs, and the decimal suversed sine of the last one add them ;

together, and the sum, rejecting the tens from the sum of the digits,
on the left, will be the decimal versed sine of the true distance, which
will be found (and must be sought for only) in the column correspond-
ing to the apparent distance, or in one of those immediately adjoining
to it.

METHOD II.

Take the moon's correction of altitude, the auxiliary arc, and the sun
or the star's correction of altitude, as in Method I.
Then add the sum of the corrections of altitude to the difference of
the apparent altitudes, if the moon's altitude is the greater, but take
 ON CLEARING THE LUNAR DISTANCE. 257

their ilitlfivuce when the moon's altitude is the less, and the sum or the
mnuiniltT will be the difference of the true altitudes.
Thenplace under each other, in order, the difference
of the apparent

altitudes, the auxiliary arc, and the apparent distance, under which draw
a line and below this line place, also in order, the sum and difference
;

of the auxiliary arc, and each of the two others, as in Method I., and
under all write the difference of the true altitudes, making altogether
li\ c arcs.

Tlic-n take from Table 28, and add together, the decimal suversed
of the first two of these arcs, and the decimal versed sine of the

last and the sum, rejecting the tens from the sum of the
three,

digits on the left, will be the decimal versed sine of the true distance ;
which will be found in Table 28, either in the column correspond-
ing to the apparent distance, or in one of those immediately adjoining
to it.

Note. In taking the decimal suversed sine from Table. 28, the arc is
conceived to be increased by one minute.
Remarks. 1. If the objects are
vertically over each other that is,

if the difference of their apparent altitude is equal to the apparent

distance, take the sum of the corrections of altitude, and add it to the
apparent distance, if the moon's altitude is the greater, but subtract if
the moon's altitude is the less, and the sum or remainder will be the
true distance.
2. If the distance between the
objects pass through the zenith, or
the objects be on opposite verticals, that is, when the supplement of the
sum of the apparent altitudes is equal to- the apparent distance, take
the difference between the corrections of altitude, and add it to the

apparent distance when the moon's correction is the less, but subtract it
when the moon's correction is the greater, and the sum or remainder
w ill be the true distance.

EXAMPLE I.

If the apparent distance of the centres of the sun and moon be

1 11 27' 1", the apparent altitude of the sun's centre 24 40', of the
moon's 16 53', and her horizontal parallax 54' 56", required the true
distance ?
Min. Vs parallax 54'.
Table 24. Table 25.
,..
(16=50' 48' 33" . . .60 8' 8"
]>. apparent alf.ude
{ 3 Q , , 2
50 48 ... 9
Seconds of parallax
.{ 06 6 ..001
'
Correction of C altitude 49 '28

O' altitude . . . 2-4 40 Correction 1 56 . . .002

Diff. correction* 47 32 CO 8 22 aux. arc.
258 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

To clear the distance by the First Method.

J's apparent altitude 16 53' 0'

s apparent altitude 24 40

Sum of apparent altitudes 41 33

Diff. corrections 47 32

Sum of true altituds 42 20 32

Sum of apparent altitudes

Auxiliary arc . . . .

Apparent distance ....

 ON CLEARING THE LUNAR DISTANCE.

EXAMPLE II.

Given ]> 's apparent altitude 36 28', that of a planet 24 43', their
apparant distance 71 47' 24", >'s horizontal parallax 58' 31", and the

planet's 29", required the true distance ?

Min. ) 's parallax 58'.

Table 24. Table 25.

. 36 20' ..... 45' 21" . . 6018' 53"
) t
apparent
,

alt.tndej
(

8 T . . . ! 1 ..004
.

Jecond, parallax
i 30 ..... 24 . . 10
.{ Q

Parallax, Table 26 ..... 26

'
Q

Sum of corrections ........ 47 25 60 19 14 aux. arc.

To compute the true distance by the Second Method.

>'s apparent altitude 36 28' 0"

Planet'* ditto 24 43

Difference of apparent altitudes ... 11 45

Sum of corrections .......+ 47 25

Difference uf true altitudes 12 32 25

Difference of apparent altitudes . . . 11 45' 00"

Auxiliary arc 60 19 14

Apparent distance 71 46 24
Parts for "
Sum of aux. arc and preceding one . . 72 4' 11" suvers 07633 . . '213

Difference of ditto 48 34 14 suvers 61530 . . 168

Sum of aux. arc and following one . . 132 5 38 vers 70211 . . 136
Difference of ditto 11 27 10 vers 19902 . . 9
Difference of true altitudes 12 32 25 vers 23830 . . 26
Sums of " 552
i>arts for . . . .

Vers true distance . . 83658

71 331 0" vers

29
~
83523
i
Parts for "
. .
135}
(of true dist.
True distance . . 71 33 19

EXAMPLE III.

If the moon's apparent altitude be 6 25', and that of a fixed star

37 40', their apparent distance 50" 27' 86", and ) 's horizontal parallax
55' 14", required the true distance?
s 2
260 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.
Table 24. Min. >' parallax 55'. Table 25.
-., .
(6 24' ... 46' 41" ... 60 2' 39
),.pparental,tude{ , . . . , . . . 1

~ n
Second,
.

parallax
,0 10" ... 10 ... 1

.{ 4 . . . 4 . . .

Correction Ys altitude .... 46 56

*' apparent altitude . . 37 40' cor. 1 14 . . .

Difference of corrections . . 45 42 60 2 41 aux. arc.

D's apparent altitude 6 25' 0'

#'s apparent altitude 37 40

Sum of apparent altitudes ... 44 50

Difference of corrections . . . . 45 42

Sum of true altitudes . . . 44 50 42

To compute the true distance by the First Method.

Sum of apparent altitudes 44 5' 0"

Auxiliary arc ........ 60 2 41
Apparent distance 50 27 36
Parts for "
Sum of aux. arc and preceding one . . 104 7 41 vers 43897 . . 193
Difference of ditto 15 57 41 vers 38498 . . 53
Sum of aux. arc and following one . . 110 30 17 vers 50237 . . 77
Difference of ditto 9 35 5 vers 13955 . . 4
Sum of true altitudes 44 50 42 savers 08956 . . 62
Sum of parts for " 389 . .

Vers true distance 55902

49 54' 0" vers 55876
f Parts for "of
7 . . o\
I true dist.
True distance . 49 54 7

In clearing the distance, to allow for the spheroidal figure of

the Earth.

Observe the azimuths of the objects, reckoning from the south in

north latitude, and from the north in south latitude ; and with the re-
duction of lat from Tab. 13, taken as a distance, in Tab. 2, and the
azimuth of each object as a course, when less, but its supplement when
more than 90, the correction of the object's alt is found in the latitude
column, to be added to the apparent alt when the azimuth is less, but
subtracted fromit when the azimuth is more than 90.

The corrections of alt may be taken to the nearest minute, and no

great precision is required in the azimuths.

With the apparent alts thus corrected, the apparent distance, and
the moon's horizontal parallax adapted to the latitude by Tab. 12, clear
 ON CLEARING THE LUNAR DISTANCE. 261

the distance by either of the preceding methods, and the result will be
the true distance, adapted to the spheroidal figure of the earth.

EXAMPLE.
If the azimuth of the sun in the example (page 257) be 8 24 w,
that of the moon s 126 w, and the lat 40 N, required the true dis-
tance.
The reduction of par* by Tab. 12 is about 5", whence the reduced

par* is 54' 51"; the reduction of lat by Table 13 is 11' 16"= ll'-3
nearly : with which as a dist, and 24, the sun's azimuth, as a course,
and 54, the supplement of the moon's azimuth, as a course, we have
the correction of the sun's altitude =r 10'-3 = 10' 18" +, and the cor-
rection of the moon's altitude = 6' 64 = 6' 38" . Hence the sun's

apparent altitude corrected for the figure of the earth is 24 50' 18",
the moon's 16 46' 22", the moon's reduced par* 54' 51", and the app
distance as before 111" 27' 1". With these data, by either of the fore-

going methods of clearing the distance, the true distance is found

110 58' 48", differing 4 or 5 seconds from that found as before with-
out allowing for the earth's figure.
In sea practice, however, the corrections of altitude for the figure of
the earth are generally neglected, as they are in all the following

examples.
EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.
In each of the following examples the true distance is
required ?

No.
262 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

Prom the moon's known or computed right ascension, or distance from

the sun or a star, to find the Greenwich time, when the right
ascensions or distances are given for every hour.

Take the two right ascensions or distances which the given one falls
between, (and they will always be found on the given day, or the
preceding or following one,) and place them below the given one in
the order of time in which they stand in the Ephemeris, and take the
difference between the middle one and each of the others.
Then to '4771 (the proportional log of 60m) add the proportional

logarithm of the less difference, and the complement to 10 of the pro-

portional logarithm of the greater difference, and the sum, rejecting
10 from the index, will be the proportional logarithm of a portion of
time, which, added to the time corresponding to the first right ascen-
sion or distance, will give the Greenwich time.

EXAMPLE.
If the moon's distance from a star be 47 12' 50" at 9h, and
46 40' 35" at lOh, and the true distance be found by computing from
an observation to be 46 58' 19", what is the Greenwich time?
Truedist 46 58' 19"
Dist at 9h 47 12 50
Following dist ... 46 40 35 -4771
Diff of 1st and 2nd 1431 Prop log 1 '0934
2nd 3rd 32 15 Comp to 10 of Prop log 9-2533
Oh 27m Os Prop log '8238
Time of 1st dist. .9

Greenwich time. .9 27

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

The right ascension of the moon on September 13, 1835, being as
given at p. 218, required the Greenwich time corresponding to each of
the following right ascensions?
Answer.
}'s Right Ascension. Greenwich Time,
h m s h m 8

1. 42 20-23 1 23 26'7
2. 46 12-86 3 18 10-7
3. 4 59-37
11 6 8 8'2
4. 40 46-53 37 8-0

Given the moon's right ascension, or her true distance from the sun or
a star, to find the time at Greenwich, when the right ascensions or
distances are given for every third hour.

For the given day, or in that preceding or following it, take from
 ON CLEARING THE LUNAR DISTANCE. 263

tin- Nautical Almanac the two right ascensions or distances between

which the given one falls, and write them under the given one in the
order of time in which they stand in the Almanac. Take the differ-
ence between the middle one of these three and each of the others, and
-ubtract the proportional log of the greater difference from the p^o-

portional log of the less, and the remainder will be the proportional
log of time to be added to that corresponding to the first right ascension
or distance taken from the Almanac, for the required Greenwich
time.
Note. If the given distance be exactly found in the Almanac, the
time at Greenwich will be found above it.

EXAMPLE.
On Septeml>er 16, 1823, the true distance of the moon's centre
from Antares was 65 49' 30", required the apparent time at Green-
wich ?
True distance .... 6549' 30"
48 "
'

&t 6h 64 34 4 2 '
first diff' l 14> P ro P' lo &- 3814
l ^'".'l
Distance at .. 9h 66 5 2, second diff. 1 30 20, prop. log. . 2994

2h 29m 2s prop, log . 820

Time of first distance . .6 00

Greenwich time . ... 8 29 2

The Greenwich time being computed as above, to find the correction

of
it in account of second differences.

Find the second difference of distance, as in Prob. 16, page 215,

and with the change of distance in three hours, at the top, and the
Greenwich time past 0, 3, 6, &c. hours, computed as above in the side
column, take the number from the following table, and multiply it by
the second difference for the required correction.
Then if the equation of second difference is additive, subtract the
correction in increasing, and add it in decreasing distance ; and the

contrary when the equation of second difference is subtractive.

Hour, Ice.
 264 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

Thus iii the preceding example we have the following distances :

3h 63 4' 31"
6 64 34 42
9 66 5 2
12 67 35 31

130 40 2
130 39 44

2)18
Second diff 9, equa of second diff subtractive.

With 1 30' at the top, and 2h 29m] at the side, we have -13s in the
table. Hence '13s x 9 =
ls'17 the correction of Greenwich time,
additive, as the equation of second difference is subtractive, and the
distances are increasing. Hence the true Greenwich app time is
8h 29m 2s + Is = 8h 29m 3s.
This minute correctionis not
applied in the following examples ;
but has been thought right to show how it may be found when for
it

the sake of insuring extreme accuracy it may be required.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

In each of the following examples the time at Greenwich is re-

quired ?

No.
<>.\ ( I.l.AHING THE LUNAR DISTAXCK.

Augutt 1836. Mean Tim*, Lunar Distances.

266 ON FINDING THE LONGITUDE

TO FIND THE LONGITUDE BY LUNAR

OBSERVATIONS.
WITH the time by the watch when the observations are taken, and the

longitude by account, find the Greenwich time by account, as in Prob-

lem 4, page 205, and for that time take the moon's semidiameter
and horizontal parallax from the Nautical Almanac, correcting the
semidiameter by Table 14, and the parallax by Table 12. Take the
sun's semidiameter for the given day, and correcting the observed
altitudes for semidiameter and dip, call the results the apparent alti-
tudes.
Add the sum of the sun and moon's semidiameters to the observed

distance, if the sun is one of the objects observed ; but if the observed
distance is of the moon's limb from a star, add her semidiameter to the
observed distance, or subtract it, according as the distance is measured
from the nearest or farthest limb, and the result will be the apparent
central distance.
The semidiameters ought, in strictness, to be corrected by Table
15 ; and, in practice, the inclination of the semidiameter to the
horizon, to enter the table, may in general be estimated near enough
by the eye : but this correction, being in all cases small, and in most
cases utterly insignificant, is in sea practice generally disregarded.
From the apparent altitudes, the parallaxes, and apparent distance,
compute the true distance, (see page 256,) and find the mean time
at Greenwich, to which the true distance corresponds, by the last two

problems.
Then the sun or the star be at a proper distance from the meri-
if

dian, compute from its true altitude, &c., the apparent time, and
thence by applying the equation of time, the mean time at the place
of observation, (see page 239 ;) and the difference between this mean
time, and the mean time at Greenwich, found from the distance, will
be the longitude of the place in time west if the Greenwich time is
;

before, but east if the Greenwich time is behind the time at the place
of observation.
The difference between the time found from the distance, and the
time by a chronometer when the distance is taken, will be the error of
the chronometer for mean Greenwich time, if the distance is correctly

observed, and thus the error and rate of a chronometer may be found
at sea.
If the sun or the star be too near the meridian for computing from
its altitude the time with exactness, or if the altitudes have been indif-

ferently observed, the error of the watch by which the times of taking
the distances are noted must be found by altitudes taken for the
 BY LUNAR OBSERVATIONS. 267

', \vlicii the sun or a known fixed star bears nearly east or west,
or i-, at any any considerable azimuthal distance from the
rate, at
meridian. If the watch be found slow for mean time, add its error to

the time which it showed when the distances were observed; but if
fa>t. Mihtract its error, and the sum or remainder will be the mean
time at the meridian where the error of the watch was found, at the
in>tant when the distances are measured: the difference between which
time and the Greenwich time, found as above from the distance, will
be the longitude of the place where the altitudes are taken for finding
the error of the watch.
But it
may sometimes happen that the lunar distance can be mea-
sured, when, from the obscurity of the horizon, the altitudes cannot be
observed at all. In this case, the altitudes for clearing the distance
must be computed ; but, to compute the altitudes, it is necessary that
the time at the place of observation should be known. Let therefore
the error of the watch be found by altitudes taken at some convenient

opportunity, before or after the distances are observed. Compute from

the log the difference of longitude made in the interval between

taking the distances and taking the altitudes for the error of the watch ;
and if the distances are taken to the eastward of the altitudes, add the
difference of longitude in time to the time of taking the distances,
corrected by the error of the watch ; but subtract it if the distances
are taken to the westward of the altitudes ; and the sum or remainder
will be the time at the place where the distances were taken at the
instant at which they were observed. Then with this time, the latitude
at the same instant deduced from the log, the declinations, &c. of the
objects, let their apparent altitudes be computed, as shown at p. 253 ;
and with the altitudes and distance compute the true distance, and
thence find the Greenwich time and longitude as before.
Since 1834, the lunar distances in the Nautical Almanac show the
mean time at Greenwich and the apparent time at the place of ob-
;

servation, deduced from altitudes, must then be converted into mean

time, by applying the equation of time with the sign given in the
Almanac.
In finding the longitude by chronometer, it is not now necessary
to reduce the mean Greenwich time into apparent time, to take the
data from the Almanac the mean time at the place of observation
;

compared with the mean time at Greenwich, shown by the chrono-

meter, will give the longitude of the place in time.
The mean refractions may be corrected for the state of the baro-
meter and thermometer (see Table 11) but very low altitudes should, ;

be avoided, when minute accuracy in the result is desired.

if possible,
268 ON FINDING THE LONGITUDE

EXAMPLE I.

On September 12, 1823, in latitude 26 30' N, longitude by account

24 w, at 5h 34m r.M., per watch, the altitude of 1 was 7 37' ,

of ^ 35 35', distance of their nearest limbs 95 18' 17", height of the

eye 25 feet, required the longitude ?

Time per watch .... 5h34m

Longitude 24 w. in time 1 36

Greenwich time by account . 7 10

semidiameter at noon 14' 52"- 3" ")s hor parallax at noon 54' 31" 9'

V/ I -I v* v*i.vii. vJ
 BY LUNAR OBSERVATIONS. 269

The true
270 ON FINDING THE LONGITUDE

nearest limb 53 35' 39", height of the eye 12 feet the

; required
longitude ?
Time per watch . . . 17h 7m September 26.
Longitude 112 u. in time 7 28

Greenwich time by account . 35 September 27.

Ya semidiameter at noon 16' 6" + 2" }'s hor parallax at noon 59' 7" + 6"
Correction for Green time

16 6 Equatorial parallax . 59 7
Aug for altitude 9 Reduction for latitude 3

Ya true semidiumeter 16 15 Ya red hor par . 59 4

Altitude _}. . . 34020' 0" *'s observed altitude . 10 40' 0"

Semidiameter . + 16 15 Dip
- 3 25

34 36 15 *'s apparent altitude . 10 36 35

Dip - 3 25 Refraction . . 4 58

)'s apparent altitude 34-32 50 *'s true altitude 10 31 37

Min. Ya parallax 59'.

Table 24. Table 25.
30' 47' 10" 60 18' 22"
04..
. .
(34
}'s apparent altitude < Q 1

Sec parallax ... 4" 3 1

Correction Ya altitude . . . . 47 17
*'s apparent altitude 10 37', cor. . 4 58 1

Sum of corrections . . . 52 15 60 18 25 aux. arc.

Ya apparent altitude . 34 32' 50''

*'s apparent altitude . 10 36 35 Observed distance . 53 35' 39"

Diff apparent altitudes 23 56 15 )'s semidiameter . + 16 15

Sum of corrections . 52 15 Apparent central dist 53 5 1 54

Difference of true altitudes 24 48 30

The true distance computed by the second method.

Difference of apparent altitudes . . 23 56' 15" .

Auxiliary arc 60 18 25

Apparent distance 53 51 54
Parts for "
Sum of auxiliary arc and preceding one .84 14 40 suvers 00188 . . . 97
Difference of ditto 36 22 10 suvers 05066 . . . 145
Sum of auxiliary arc and following one 114 10 19 vers 09392 . . . 84
Difference of ditto . . . 6 26 31 vers 06297 . . . 17
Difference of true altitudes . . 24 48 30 vers 92222 60
Sum of parts for" . . 403

Vers tnie distance . . 13568

54 5' 0" vers 13392
" of
45
i
parts for
\ true distance.
True distance 54 5 45
 BY LUNAR OBSERVATIONS. 271

To find the mean time at Greenwich.

True distance 54 5' 43"
Distance at noon, Sept. 27 54 20 29 Pint difference . 14' 44" p. log 10870
Distance at 3h 52 34 58 Second difference .1 45 31 p. log 2319

September 27 . 25 8 p. log 8551

24

Greenwich mean time, September 26 24 25 8; for the astro-

nomical time at the place of observation being on the 26th, the time at Greenwich must
be estimated from the noon of the same day.

To find the mean time at the place of observation.

O's KA, September 27, at noon, Greenwich time . I'lli 13m 2s + 3m 37s
Correction for Oh 25m past noon 005
O's reduced KA 12 13 7

*'SHA, Jan. 1, 1820 9h 58m 47s + 3-2 Is Declination . 12 50' 36" N - 17-23'
3-21s X 3| years = . +12
272 ON FINDING THE LONGITUDE

The distance run from noon till 4h P.M. is 20 miles, and till 7li 40m
38 miles ; and
with the course, 4$ points, and these distances, the diflf
lat made from noon till 4h P.M. is about 13, and the dep 15-5 miles,

and till 7h 40m the diff lat is about 24 miles hence the lat, when the :

's was observed for time, was nearly 28 14' N, and the long by
alt

account 40 17' w and the lat, when the lunar was taken, was 28' 3' N,
;

and the long by account 40 33' nearly.

Again, from 4h P.M. till 7h 40m, the ship had run s w w, about
18 miles, whence the departure which she had made in that time is 14
miles nearly, with which, and the middle latitude, nearly 28, the
difference of longitude which she has made is in time 1m 4s w.

To find the error of the watch from 's altitude.

Time per watch . . 4li 1m 2s 's declination at noon 2 51' 58" N 23' 11"

Long, in time by acct. 2 41 8 Cor. for Green time .0 6 28

Green, time by acct. 6 4210 O's decl. at given time 2 45 30

90

O's polar distance . .87 14 30

Observed alt. 0. 30 3 14' 0" O's altitude . . 30 25' 3"

O's semid. + 15 57 Latitude . 28 14 055010

30 29 57 O's polar distance 87 14 30 cosec 000504

Dip 3 25 2)145 53 33

O's app. alt. .

Cor. of alt. .

O's true alt.

 BY LUNAR OBSERVATIONS. -'73

Apparent time .

g K A
'274 ON FINDING THE LONGITUDE

To compute the true distance and find the Greenwich time.

>*shor. gem id. . .

 BY LUNAR OBSERVATIONS. 275

No.

3
27G ON FINDING THE LONGITUDE

No.
 BY LUNAR OBSEKVATIONS. 277

EXAMPLE.
If on August 1, 1836, the following results were obtained, required
die error of the chronometer for Greenwich mean time?
Time by
Chron.
278 ON FINDING THE LONGITUDE

App Time, Table 5*

Equat time . . .

Mean time at place

Do Greenwich .
 BY U'NAK OBSERVATION-. 271)

It has been generally supposed that these phenomena could not be

observed at sea, from the difficulty of holding steadily a telescope of

MithVicnt magnifying power to observe them but Lieut Lecount, ;

U \., assures us that, with a good sea-telescope, he has often observed

them, and deduced his longitude from the observations very satis-

factorily.

To find the longitude from an observed occultation of a fixed star by

the moon, when the true right ascension and polar distance of the
star are known.

By applying the long by acct in time, to the time at the place of

when the
observation, occultation is observed, find the Greenwich time

by account and for ;

that time take with the greatest exactness the
sun's right ascension, and the moon's polar dist, semidiameter, and
horizontal parallax ; and her right ascension for the preceding and
following hour. To the lat apply the red from Table 13, and to the
parx the reduction from Table 12.
To the app time add the sun's right ascension, and the difference
between the sum and the star's right ascension is its mer dist. Call
this raer dist r, the star's polar dist />, its right ascension R, the re-
duced colat /, the moon's pol dist ,
her reduced hor parx H, and her
soinid *.

Then add together sec --^-, cos

^ and cot -, and the sum,

same -
rejecting 20, will be the tan of arc a, of the affection as .

y
Add
/ + p I ^r> P and cot
--^
P
and the sum,
together cosec y=-,
sin , re-
y ~
~
x
jecting 20, will be the tan of arc b, always acute. When / is
greater
than />, a +
b =: arc c, and when / is less than p, a b = arc c.

Add together tan c, cosec /, cosec p, and prop log H, and the sum,

rejecting tens, is prop log of arc d. When arc c is obtuse, p -f- d =

arc e, and when c acute, p is d arc e.
Add together cosec /, cosec p, and prop log H, and with the sum 8,
and /'. take the correction from the subjoined table, and applying it
with ite proper sign to , call the sum or the remainder ef The .

difference of m and t! is
arc/.
To 8 add sin ',
and the sum, rejecting tens, is the prop
log of arc /

To the prop logs of * 4- /and s /, add twice the sine of arc e',

and half the sum, rejecting the tens, is the prop log of arc //.
Then flic moon
1
* riirhf HMVHMOH = K + g i A, where y is additive
west of the meridian, and snbtractive east ; and h is additive at an
i. and ftiiblractive at an immersion.
280 o\ PI.NUINC; THE LONGITUDE

lining found the moon's right ascension, the Greenwich time is

found by the method given at j>age 262, and thence the longitude is

known.
Whenthe Greenwich time thus found differs considerably from that

by account, take in for a minute or two earlier or later, and repeating

the computations in which menters, find the corresponding Greenwich
time again ; and then, by proportion, the true Greenwich time, or that
to which the declination employed and the resulting right ascension
both correspond, will readily be determined.

Table for Correction of e.

Star's Polar Distance, jp.

 BY LUNAR OBSERVATIONS.

j>
73 3 50'-J9"-4
/ 38 3 8

p+ l 111 53 37-4,
^=55 W 48"- 7

,/
ptsii 35 47 fl*4J17 53 40-7

p 75 30 43-4, =37 45 21-7

-2~

5556'48"-7 sec 10-251841 cosec 10*081698

I

17 53 40-7 coa 9*978465 sin 9-487516

|

37 45 21 '7 cot 10-111006 cot 10-111006

2
a 65 30 2>9 tan 10-341312

6 25 35 18-5 tan 9-680220

b=c 39 54 44-4 tan 9-9225
/ 38 3 8 cosec
-2102] tb3"-l
p 75 30 43-4 cosec -0140> 8Um 7097 s, cor fr

ii 58 51 '4 prop log jJ355j

d 41 59-0 prop log -6322
'
73 50 29 4

p - d= e 73 8 30-4
cor tab + 3*1
e 73 8 33*5 2 sin 19*9618 sin 9-9809
m 73 18 44*1 6906 prop log 0,36' 42"-

exm=/ 10 10-6
* 16 4-3
-8361
+/ -26 14 9 prop log
5 58-7 ditto 1-4818
,-j
2)2-2827
1*1413 prop log A 13' 0" +
* BA663-2'4l"-8
36 4-2, ff-
66 55 59*8
13 0, h +
4771
>' <R A 66 8 59-8 diff 2' 5"-7 prop log 1-9341
Ditto at lOli. 66 654-1 .. 36 19 1 comp do. 9-3048
11 66 43 13-2
Oh 3m 27s7 prop log 1-7160
10

]0 3 27*7 Greenwich time.

10 1 46> 6 Bedford ditto.

Long of Bedford, w.... 1 41-1 = 25' 31" w.

 NAUTICAI, ASTHOXOMY.

INVESTIGATION OF THE TRIGONOMETRICAL FORMULAE WHICH

FORM THE PRECEDING RULES FOR THE PRACTICAL SOLUTION
OF THE MOST USEFUL PROBLEMS IN NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.
Method of finding the latitude from two altitudes of the sun, and the
time elapsed between the observations. (See p. 226.)
LET z or z' be the zenith, i DcH the horizon, p the pole, A and B
the places of the sun at the two times of observation, A D and B c the
true altitudes A z, B z, or A z', B z', the zenith distances ; A P and
B p the polar distances, which, in the practice of this problem, may
be considered as equal. Join A B, and bisect it by the perpendicular
p F ; and to p F, or P F produced, let the perpendicular z E or z' E'
be drawn, and join z F or z' F. Then A p B will be the elapsed
interval of time between the

observations, A P F half the

elapsed time, z p the co-lati-

tude, z p A the sun's Yneridian
distance when the greater,
and ZFB his meridian dis-
tance when the less altitude is I j>

observed, and z PF his meridian distance at" the middle time between

the observations. And P F A being a right angle, z F p or z F K will

be the complement of z F A or s F B.
In the right-angled spherical triangle p F A, we have
sin A P sin A P F .

=: sin A F, arc 1, acute.

sec A F cos A P
.

= cos F p, arc 2, of the same affection as A p.

cos z A, or sin AD = cos A F cos F z + sin A F sin F z sin z F E, and

. . .

cos z B, or sin B c = cos A F cos F z sin A F sin F z sin z F E

. . .

AD
Subtracting, sin sin B c = 2 sin A F sin F z sin z . . F E
Or sin A D sin B c =r 2 sin A F sin z E .
(a)
Adding sin A D + sin B c = 2 cos A F cos F z .

Or sin A D + sin B c = 2 cos A F cos F E cos E z . .

(*)
sin AD sin Bc
From (a) we have sin z E = or
2 sin AF

sin z E *
cosec A F . cos ^ (A D + B c) . sin $ (A D . .
B c)
arc
j
o.

From (o) we have cos F E = 2sincosA AD F-f cos

sin B c

z E .
,
or

COS F E = sec A F . sin (A D -f B c) . cos fr (A P B c) sec z E

r
FF If F E = E r, arc 5.
cos z E . cos E P = cos z P = sin lat.
 INVESTIGATION OK T11K RULES.

I//i-i-Afif/ntion of the method of computing the reduction to the meri-

ttiuH, when the altitude of an object near the meridian is observed.

(Page 230.)
Let / =r lat \
jo
= observed alt j
( d =r declinatiou
/'= colat j
<z = corresponding zen dist >1 p = polar dist
[2'= meridian zen dist

then z /= r, the required reduction

Now cos z r= cos p . cos /' sin + p . sin /' . cos r (1)

When P = 0, cos p = 1 and z becomes z'

Hence cos z' = cos p . cos Z'-f- sin p . sin I'

(2)
cos z' cos z = sin p . sin I' sin p . sin /' . cos p, or

2 sin
z +- z'
.sin -
z z'
- = sin p sin /' cos p), or
. .
(1

r p
2 sin z . sin
&
= 2 sin p . sin I' . sin* nearly, or
&
p
sin z . sin r = 2 . sin p . sin /' sin* nearly ;

ii

p
whence sin r or r" sin 1 "= 2 . cos </ . cos / . cosec z . sin
1
nearly ;
2
2 p
and r" =-; 7
cos d . cos / . cosec z . sin*- nearly.
sin 1 2
2
T, is the constant logarithm given in the rule.
1

Investigation of the method of computing amplitude. (See page 232.)

In the figure preceding Problem VII. in the following " Useful

Miscellaneous Problems" o Q is the declination north, L M the declina-
tion south, OE the amplitude north, LE the amplitude south,
and OEQ=LKM = the colat.
sin o Q sin o Q sec lat
Now sin E o =
.

sin E o Q

To compute the azimuth from the observed altitude, the latitude, and
the polar distance.

In the figure, page 282, z p is the colatitude, P B the polar distance,

B c the altitude. Let the latitude /, the
colatitude /'/the altitude = =
= a, the zenith distance = o', and the polar distance = p. Then
B z i is the azimuth.
284 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

Prop. 18. Spherics, cos/) cos = '

. cos /' + sin a' . sin /' . cos B z r

or, cos p =r sin a sin / cos a . . cos / . cos B z I

or, cos/?

or,
= sin a
cos}) =
. sin /

cos a
- + I+
cos a
-
. cos /+cos a .cos

cos a . cos 1 . 1
I

cos
cos a. cos
Bz i
I . cos B z i

B Z I
or, cos a . cos / . 2 sin* = cos p -f- cos a + /.
IB

_B z
2 -- i
=-2 cos i ( +a+ cos {$(p -\- a + I) p\
-J
or, sin , ,
2 2 cos a . cos I

Bz a
or,
.

sin
i
= 4 //sec
-
. ec / .
-
cos 8 . cos (B p)
/ ;
8 being put

for i (a + I + p).
REMARK. From the colatitude, polar distance, and meridian dis-

tance, the angle at the zenith may be computed, the supplement of

which is the azimuth.

To compute the meridian distance from the observed altitude, tlie

latitude, and the polar distance.

Resuming the notation in the last investigation, we have

Prop. 18. Spherics, cos '= cos /' . cos p sin + /' . sin p . cos z p B,

or, sin a = sin I .

cosp + cos / . sin p . cos z p B

or, sin a=sin /. cosp + cos sin/? cos I . I .

sinp + cos I .
sin/J cos z P B
sin a = sin +p cos sin p (1 I I . . cos z p B), or
zr B
sin a = sin + p 2 cos sin p
I I . . sin
2
,
or

2 cos / . sin p . sin

2 - = sin (I + p) sin ,
or
x

sin
z p B _2 . cos (l+p + a) ;r
. sin
;
{ A
;
(/+/>+) }
, or
2 2 cos / . sin p
z PB
sin
8
= sec / .
cosec/> . cos s . sin 8 a ; s being put
fit

as above for $ ( + /+/>).

Now Table 5* contains the log of sin* ,
or 2 log sin .
2.

The direct solution of the preceding problems by spherics is very

simple. To find the latitude by double altitudes, we have given first
in the isosceles spherical triangle BP A, the two equal polar distances

p B, PA, and the included angle B p A, the elapsed time, to find A B

and the angle FAB. Then in the triangle z A B are given the two
zenith distances B z, AZ, and the side A B, to find the angle ZAB,
the difference between which and p A B is z A P, or the supplement of
rA u + z' A B is z' AP ; hence ZAP or z' A p is known. We have
 INVESTIGATION OF THE RULES. 285

tlu'ii z A ami A P, or z' A and A r, and the included angle in either pa.sp,
to compute z r or z' p, the co-latitude.
For the azimuth and hour angle, in the triangle A z p, all the sides
are given to compute A P z, the hour angle, and A z p, the azimuth,
from n, the supplement of which is A z i, the azimuth from i.

Method of computiny the equation of equal altitudes. (See p. 243.)

Let P represent the pole, z the zenith, A the place of the sun in the

morning, D his place in the afternoon of the same

day, when his zenith distance D z is equal to A z.
Then if the polar distances D p and A P are equal,
the angles A p z and D p z will be equal, and conse-

quently half of A P D, their sum, as measured by a

chronometer, added to the time shown by the same
chronometer when the sun is at A, will be the time by
the chronometer at apparent noon, or when the sun
ison the meridian. But if the polar distances A P
and D p are unequal, the angles A P z and D p z will also be unequal,
one of them exceeding half their sum as much as the other is less,
D p z being greater or less than A p z, according as D p is less or
greater than A p, and half the difference of these two angles is the
equation of equal altitudes.
Now this equation, let B p
to compute D P, and B z D z or = =
A z ; let A B be
part of a parallel of altitude, and B c part of a parallel
of declination, and F G the arc of the equator included between p A
and P B. Then A c will be the change of the polar distance in the
interval measured by APD;
and half FG, or half the angle APB,
will be the
required equation. But F G c B . cosec P B and = :

as P BC and z B A are right angles, if the common angle z c B be taken

from each, the remaining angles p B z and ABC will be equal and ;

the sides of the triangle ABC

being necessarily small, it may be con-
sidered as a rectilinear one, right-angled at c.
Hence c u, which is equal to A c cot A B c, is equal A c . cot p B z, .

AC . COt Z B P F G
-
.

and therefore F G =r : ; or if A c be seconds of arc, in

Mil BP 2
. AC. COt Z B P
seconds oflinieis -
: . Now if d be put for the change of
30 . sin BP
declination from the preceding to the following noon, and T for the
F G
time elapsed between the ol>servations, we have in seconds of time
j

d . T . cot z B P
'

1440 .sin B P
286 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

--By proceeding as in Prop. 22, Spherics, we have cos z B p . sin

z B -f- cos z P B . sin z p cos B p cos z p . sin B P

. =
and as sin z ;
B =
sin z P sin z p B coa
.

, and cot = -^, by substituting and reducing this

sin z B P sin
cot z P sin BP cos z P B cos B p
=
---
. .

expression gives cot z B P ;

PB
FG d T
--
tan lat d T . tan dec
sin z

-
. .

hence- = .

:
7-7-77: I >
and U1 ^ alj 18 - lo S A
2 1440 . sin z P B 1440 . tan z p B
T T
TTTT: TTT^ or lo A
b

IT"
: >
1440 . sin z PB 1440 . tan z P B
T
log
1
' ** ' COS6Ct &nd log B = log ' ^ ' cot
1440 2~' ]~440 2'

Method of computing the altitude of a celestial object. (See page 253.)

Adopting the same notation as in the investigation of the rules for
time and azimuth, we have
cos a' =: cos /' . cos p + sin I' . sin p . cos A.

or, adding and subtracting sin I' . sin p, and reducing,

cos a' = cos V *^>
p 2 sin I' . sin p . sin*.

adding 1 to each side and reducing.

cos
8

2i
= cos* (l'<^> p) sin V . sin p . sin* -,
i

8 8 8
or, cos rr cos* (I'^p) (1 sin /' .
sinj9 . sec ^ (l'<^p) . sin .

2 ^
8 8 *X
cos or, cos cos M;
or, 5-'= cos ^ (V^'p) cos* M, ^= cos J (/' 'J) .

Where sin M = /sin /' . sin p . sec

8
sin* -.

Now
Whence
cos
22
a'
= cos 90 -
the rule is
- o
=
demonstrated.
cos 45
~~o~
2
= sm 45+ a = sin 90+
-
A
a
2,
.

To find under what circumstances, in a given latitude, a small mistake

in observing or correcting the altitude of a celestial object will pro-
duce the smallest error in the time computed from it.
Let z be the zenith, p the pole, r the supposed place, and m the
true place of the object. Let m s be a parallel of altitude, join the
points m and r, and let p q be the arc of the
equator contained between the meridians
p m and p r.
Then as p m
and p r are equal, m r may
be considered as a small portion of a parallel
j>
of declination, r s will be the error in alti-
 INVESTIGATION OF TUB RULES.

tmlc. and /> q the measure of the required error in time. And as the
sides of the triangle m
be small, that triangle may
s r will necessarily

be considered as a rectilineal one right-angled at s and because :

the angle P r m
is also a right-angle, the angles s and P r z, being mr
each the complement of r s, are equal to each other. m
Now we have r 9 r . sin s r, and =m
r p q . cos q r t m m =
Hence r s rr pq cos q r . sin z r p
.

But cos q r . sin z r p := sin z p ^in r z p =s cos lat . . sin r z p.

r 5
Hence r s =pa . cos lat . sin r z p, or pq = ; : .

cos lat . sin r z p

Therefore, when the latitude and the error in altitude are given, the
error in time can be computed. And it is evident that the error in time
will be the least when the sine of the azimuth is greatest : that is,
when the object is on the prime vertical. And as respects the latitude,
the error in time will be the least when the cosine of the latitude is the

greatest ;
that is, when the observer is on the equator.

Methods of clearing the distance of the moon from the sun or a star,

from the effects of parallax and refraction. (See p. 256.)

METHOD I.
Let m be the apparent, and M the true place of the moon, s the
apparent, and s the true place of the sun : then m
A, s B will be the
apparent altitudes, in z, s z the appa-
rent zenith distances, M A, s B the true
altitudes, and M z, s z, the true zenith
distances; m Mwill be the correction
of the moon's altitude, * s that of the
sun or star, ms the apparent distance,
and M s the true distance.

Put d =r ms t
D =M 8, A m A, /*

= B *, H = M A, H' = B s. Then
(Prop. 18, Spherics) cos m z * = cos

= COS TO 8 COS mZ . COS * Z COS M8 COS MZ . COS S Z

MZ8
sin m z . sin s z sin M z . sin s z
cos d sin h . sin h' cos D sin H . sin H'
r
cos h . cos h' cos H . cos H'
COB d sin h sin h' cos D sin H sin H'
Hence 1 +
.

=1 H
.

'
cos A . cos h cos . cos H'
cm d -f cos h . cos h' sin h' . >in //

cos A . cos It

cos P + cos n .
coajtt*
sin H . sin H'

cos n . cos H'

or,
cos </ + cos A + A' cos D + cos H -4

em h . cos h' COS H . COS II

1
 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

cos H cos H'

,
cos D = (cos d + cos A + h') .

cos h
.

. cos h'
COS II + H'.

COS COS H'

Put
II .
= 2 COS N.
cos h . cos k'

Then cos D =: (cos d + cos h + k") 2 cos . N cos H -f H' = 2 cos

d . cos N + 2 cos N . cos h+h cos H +
1

11'.

But (Form. 2, p. 65) 2 cos d cos N = cos d + N + cos d<^>N, and .

2 cos N . cos h + A' =

cos (N + A -f- A') + cos (N <-" h -f A').
Therefore cos D =r cos rf + N + cos d ex N -{- cos (N + A + '*') +
cos (NcxA + A') cos H + n' ; or 1 cos D = + COSH + H'
1

cos d + N cos rf cx N cos (N + h + A') cos (N cx A + A'),

orversD = suversii + u' (1 vers d + N) (1 vers d ^>

N)
(1
- vers (N + /*
-f- A')) (1 vers (N^ A -f^A )),
7
or vers D =
suvers n + H' + vers d + N -f vers N -f vers (N + A + A') + vers

(N A -f- A') 4 ; the formula which, in words, is the first method

given for clearing the distance.
Table 25 gives N, and Table 28 gives the versed and suversed sine
of any arc, the first figure being omitted as unnecessary in the solution
of this problem ; for as d and D cannot, in any case, differ much more
than a degree, vers D will always be found, either in the same column
with vers d, or in one of the adjoining columns, and therefore the
leading figure in the versed sine can never be required to determine
the arc to which vers D corresponds.

METHOD II.

Resuming the
equation,
cos d sin A . sin A' cos D sin H . sin H r

,
we have
cos A . cos A' cos H . cos H'

d
cos sin A . sin A'
= 1 --cos D sin H . sin
or
cos A . cos A' cos H . cos

cos A . cos A' + sin A . sin A' cos d

cos A . cos A'

cos H . cos H' + sin n . sin 11' cos D

or
cos H . cos H'

cos A -o A' cos d cos H 4"3 n' cos D

cos A . cos A' COS H COS . H'

COS II . COS II'

Whence cos D =: cos u <^ H' (cos A cx> A' cos d) .
-
, ,,
cos A . cos A'
cos H cos H'
As before, put
.
- -.-
,
= 2 cos N.
cos A . sin A
 i \\KSTIGATION OF THE RULES.

Then cos D = cos H oo H' 2 cos N . cos h <^ h' -f 2 cos N . cos /,

or cos D = cos H ex n' cos (A <^ A' -f N) cos (h " A' "
N) 4-
COS N -f + CO9
</ N "
rf, OF 1 COS D = 1 COS II <" H' + COS

(A
^ A' 4- N) 4- cos (A
<" A' <-" N) cos N 4- d cos N " rf, or
1 cos D = 1 cos H oo H' 4- 1 4 cos (A oo A' 4. N) 4- 1 4- cos

(A
" A' cxi N) 4- 1 cos N 4- rf 4 1 cos N cx rf 4, or vers D =
\ . r> H" H' + suvers (A <-" A'
4- N) 4- suvers (A <" A' cx N) 4- vers
N 4- d + vers N oo rf 4.

This formula, in words, gives the second practical method of

clearing the distance.
Remark. The method of computing M s directly by spherical tri-

gonometry is obvious ; for in the triangle msz all the sides are

given, viz. #, the apparent distance, and wz, sz, the apparent zenith
distances, tocompute the angle m z s and in the triangle M z s there ;

are given MZ and sz, the true zenith distances, and the included angle
M z s, before found from the triangle mzs, to find M s the true
distance.
The computation may be readily made by the following rule deduced

from the expressions for cos ,

and sin -, Propositions XIX. and
XX. Spherics.
Call half the sum of the true zenith distances arc i, and from half
the sum of
the apparent zenith distances, and the apparent distance,
subtract the apparent distance.
Then add together the cosects of the apparent zenith distances, and
the tines of the half sum, the remainder, and the true zenith distances ;

reject 40 from the sum, and half the remainder will be the sine of
arc n.
Add together the sines of the sum and the difference of arcs I and
n, and half the sum will be the sine of half the true distance.
Take for exercise the examples at p. 261.

Investigation of the method of computing the moon's right ascension

from an occupation of a fixed star. (Page 279.)
In the annexed figure let A be the first point of Aries, z the reduced
'
place of the zenith, ) the apparent, and ) the
true place of the moon's centre, s the observed
s' the true place of the
and point of occultation,
s' draw
and from perps on r s and p 1' or on
those arcs produced. Then z p s is the star's
mer dist, rs its pol (list, and APS its right

ascension, r V is the moon's pol dist, s V

her semid, and )' r A her right ascension, s' p s is arc g in the rulr,
 290 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

and s' p V is arc h, s D is arc rf, >'c is arc /, z s P is arc e, z P is /,

p 8 id p, )' m,p is Vs
the moon's par iu alt.
is s, and s s' is

Now the formulae for computing arcs a and b are Napier's ana-
s' D
logics, investigated at Prop. 22, Spherics, and s' p s = sin
- 7
s' P
=
s' s . sin z s p H . sin z s . sin z s p H . sin z P . sin z P8
sin s' p sin s' p sin s' P
H
Hence s' D =:
cosec z p . cosec z p s . sin s' p*
H S'P
, and s n ~
cosec z P . cosec z p s tan s' s D
H C 8'

tan s' s D . cosec z p . cosec z p s*

-r
Lastly s p >
, '

= sin
-
s P
= ;

f *f
's -4- . s ~

r-r, On these formulae it is only necessary to remark

sin* s' P
that the sines, &c., in the denominators are to be added to the pro-

portional logs of the numerators.

If p D = a, D s' := b, and p s' =: a + x, x being in all cases a small

quantity ; then cos a . cos b =: cos a + x = cos a - sin a . sin x

nearly.
sin 1"
Whence x in seconds is nearly = b* cot .
,
the expression

from which the table for correction of e is computed.

USEFUL MISCELLANEOUS NAUTICAL PROBLEMS SOLVED BY THE

DIRECT APPLICATION OF SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY.
IN the annexed figure let A represent the first point of Aries, AD the
firstquadrant of the ecliptic, E its north pole, A c the first quadrant
of the equator, and p its north pole let :

s be the place of the sun in the ecliptic,

8 H a perpendicular from 8 on A c, and

M. i, and o the places of any other celes-

tial objects. Let EMF, PMB be great

circles drawn to the ecliptic and equator
from the poles E and p, making of course
the angles at B and F right angles; and
let great circles be drawn, as in the figure

from i and o, to E and P. Then D A c

measured by D equal E P, is the obliquity of the ecliptic ;
c, or its

As the sun's longitude, A H his right ascension, and s H his north

is

declination; AP the longitude, M F the latitude, the co-latitude, ME

AB the right ascension, B M the declination, and M P the polar dis-
 USEFUL MISCELLANEOUS I'UOBLEMS. 291

tance of M ; M E i the difference of longitude, and M p i the differ-

is

ence of right ascension of M and i ; M K <; is the difference of longitude,

and MPG the difference of right ascension of M and o; OKI is
the difference of longitude, and Gp i the difference of right ascension
of G and i.

The quadrants only of the ecliptic and equator are drawn in the
first

figure ; but these circles may be conceived to be produced round the

globe, forming two great circles, of which the poles are E and p.
The longitudes and right ascensions of celestial objects are reckoned
from A, in the direction A , A c, quite round to A again : the latitude
is north when the object and E are on the same side of the ecliptic,
and south when they are on different sides ; the declination is north
when the object and P are on the same side of the equator, and south
when they are on different sides.

The figure appropriate to any given problem will be readily con-

ceived by referring the data to a celestial globe.

PROBLEM I.

Given the obliquity of the ecliptic, and the sun's longitude, to find his

right ascension and declination.

Here in the spherical triangle ASH, right-angled at H, are given
A s,and the angle s A H, to find A H and s H.

If the longitude exceed six signs, or 180, there will be formed ou

the other side of A c a right-angled spherical triangle, whose base on
the equator is the sun's right ascension from j, the hypothenuse, on
the ecliptic, the sun's distance from =:, or the excess of his longitude
above 180, the included angle being the obliquity of the ecliptic, and
the perpendicular from the sun's place on the equator the south decli-
nation. If 180 be added to the right ascension, computed from sCs,

(he sum willbe the right ascension from qp.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

obliquity of the ecliptic being 23 27' 50", it is required to
The
compute the sun's right ascension and declination in each of the fol-
lowing examples?

No.
292 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

PROBLEM II.

From the obliquity of the ecliptic, and the latitudeand longitude of

any celestial object, to find its right ascension and declination.
Let M (see the be the object then in the right-angled
last figure) :

spherical triangle A FM
are given A r the longitude, and M p the
latitude, to find A M the distance of the object from Y and the angle .

M A F. The sum or difference of M A F and FAB

is M A B ; and in

the right-angled triangle M A B there are then given A M and MA B, to

find A B the right ascension, and B M the declination.

Or, in the triangle MEP are given E P, the obliquity of the ecliptic,
E M the co-latitude, and M E p the co-longitude of M, to find M p
the polar distance, and E p M the supplement of M P c, the co-right
ascension.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

1

The obliquity of the ecliptic being 23 27' 50", it is required to

compute the right ascensions and declinations of the objects whose
latitudes and longitudes are given in the following examples ?

No.
 fSEFl'L .MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS. 293

No.
294 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

EXAMPLES FOR EXEIU :i-; .

In each of the following example:}, A and Bare two stars, from whose
right ascensions and declinations their distance is to be computed ?
 rSEFl'J. MUGBLLANBOUI PROBLEMS. 295

Let the annexed figure represent the celestial sphere, A z B N A

being tlu> im-ridian of an ob-

server whose zenith is z, and v Z
nadir N. Let p be the north,
and s the south pole, and let

A z, B z, PC, and p D be qua-

drants. Then the eye in viewing
the figure being conceived to
be vertically over E, the point
on the surface which is the ap-
parent centre of A z B N A, all

great circles, as A B, r i>, PS,

z N, drawn through E, will appear
in the figure as straight lines ;

AB will
represent the rational

horizon, CD the equator, ZN the prime vertical, and PS the six

o'clock hour circle, or the hour circle at right angles to the meridian.
The great circles drawn through z will be perpendicular to
A B,
and those drawn through p will be perpendicular to c D. c z =
p B = N D =
A s is the latitude, and ZP AC the co- = BD=SN =
latitude of the observer, whose zenith is z ; the arcs measuring their

corresponding angles at the apparent centre E, or the spherical

angles on the surface of the sphere at E. F K is the altitude of an
object at F, FZ its zenith distance, F H its north declination, F p its
polar distance, F p z its meridian distance, F z p its azimuth from
the north, and F z c its azimuth from the south. G K is the alti-
tude of an object at G, oz its zenith distance, G i its south declina-

tion, oP its polar distance, G P z its meridian distance, Gz P its

azimuth from the north, and G z c its azimuth from the south. F p o
is the difference of the meridian distances or of the right ascensions

of F and G ; CQ, the measure of z r o. is the semidiurnal arc of an

object which rises or sets at o ; and E Q, the complement of c Q, is

the ascensional difference of o, or the measure of the time between
its rising or setting and passing the six o'clock hour circle ; E o is
the amplitude of o, and E i. the amplitude of L T u, a small circle ;

parallel to A B, and 18 below it, is the twilight circle, or that on which

the sun is at the beginning and end of twilight.

PROBLEM VII.
t-n the declination of a celestial object, to Jind it* altitude and
bearing when on the six o'clock hour circle in a given latitude.
In this problem the latitude and declination must be of the same
<U nomination, otherwise the object will pass the six o'clock hour circle
below the hori/mi
296 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

Iii the triangle w o (see the last figure) right-angled at u, are

given w the declination, and w
E o the latitude, to find w o the
altitude, and E o the bearing from the prime vertical, southward or
northward, according as the latitude is south or north.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

In each of the following examples it is required to compute the

altitude of the object, and its bearing from the east or west, when on
the six o'clock hour circle.

No.
 .MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS. 297

PROBLEM IX.
Tofind the semidiurnal arc, or the time between a known celestial object's

rising or setting, and its passing the meridian, neglecting the effects

of dip, refraction, and parallax.

Let o (see thelast figure) be the object at rising or setting ; then

in the quadrantal triangle o rz are given oz a quadrant, ZP the co-

latitude, and o P the object's polar distance, to find z r o, the angle
whose measure is the semidiurnal arc. Or in the triangle EQO right-
angled at Q, are given Q EO the co-latitude, and Qo the declination, to
lintl EQ, the time between the object's rising or setting, and its passing
the six o'clock hour circle and the sum or difference of E Q and six
;

hours, according as the latitude and declination are of the same or dif-
ferent names, is the semidiurnal arc.

By this problem the time of the sun's rising and setting, and the
length of the day are found for the semidiurnal arc shows the time of
;

setting, and deducted from twelve hours, leaves the time of rising ; and
the semidiurnal arc of any object, added to the time of its passing the

meridian, shows the time of its setting ; and, subtracted, shows the time
of its rising.
When equal to or exceeds the co-latitude the
the declination
is

object willbe always above, or always below the horizon of the place,
according as the declination and latitude are of the same or of contrary
denominations.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

In each of the following examples the semidiurnal arc is
required ?

No.
 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

zenith distance, o r, the i>olar distance, and z p, tlie co-latitude, given

to compute z p o, the meridian distance, or the time from noon at which
his centre rises or sets.

Note. The declination used in the computation should be that which

the sun has at the time of rising or setting. If therefore the semi-
diurnal arc be computed from the declination at the noon of the given

day, by the last problem, the approximate time of rising or setting may
be found from it and thence, by applying the longitude, the corre-
;

sponding Greenwich time will be obtained. The declination may then

be corrected for that time, and the true time of rising or setting found
as above.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

In each of the following examples the apparent time at which the
sun's centre rises and sets is required ?
 USEFUL MISCELLANEOUS PHOBLKM8.

PROBLEM XII.
I (lie altitude of a known star, token another known star if on the
same vertical with it, to find the latitude.
Let o and F (see the last figure) be the places of the two stars, a
being that whose altitude G K, or zenith distance G z, is given. Then,
in the triangle G p r are
given G r and p F, the polar distances, and
OFF the difference of the right ascension of the two stars, to find the
angle p G F and in the triangle z c P are then given z G and p G, the
;

zenith distance and polar distance of G, and the included angle z G p,

to find z P, the co-latitude.

EXAMPLES FOR EXEHCISE.

In each of the following examples the true latitude is required?

No.
300 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

In each of the following examples the true latitude is
required ?

No.
 rsEFUL MISCELLANEOrS PROBLEMS.

In each of the following examples the altitudes of two stars, and the
interval between the observations, are given to find the latitude.

No.
302 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

1. If in N latitude the altitude of26 48' +, and of 1 be72* n
10' +, when is 53 32' 40" on Sep-
the distance of their nearest limbs
tember 29, 1823, height of the eye 20 feet, required the latitude and
?
longitude
Answer, latitude 32 44' N, and longitude 32 38' K.
2. On
September 8, 1823, in N latitude, the altitude of L was

26 50' -, and of H 31 30' , the distance of their nearest limbs

47 25' 49", height of the eye 26 feet; required the latitude and
?
longitude
Answer, latitude 37 50' N, and longitude 19 20' E.

PROMISCUOUS QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE.

1. Given the sun's declination 3 16' 6" s + and right ascension ,

12h 30m 14* 4s; required his longitude and the obliquity of the
ecliptic ?
Answer, longitude 6s 8 13' 57", and obliquity 23 27' 46".
In latitude 40 48' N, the sun bore s 79 16' w, at 3h 37m 59s
2.

F.M. ; required his altitude and declination ?

Answer, altitude 37 24', and declination 16 32' N.
3. In N latitude, when the sun's declination was 14 20' N, his alti-

tudes, at two different times, on the same forenoon, were 43 7' -{-,

and 67 10' +> ar>d the change of his azimuth in the interval 45 2' ;

required the latitude ? Answer, 34 20' N.

4. In latitude 16 4' N, when the sun's declination is 23" 2' N,
required the time in the afternoon, and the sun's altitude and bearing,
when his azimuth neither increases nor decreases ?
Answer, time 3h 9m 26s P.M., altitude 45 1', and bearing s 73 16' w.
5. The sun set sw^s, when his declination was 16" 4'; required
the latitude? Answer, 69 1'.

6. The altitude of the sun, when on the equator, was 14 28' +,

bearing ESE ; required the latitude and time ?
Answer, latitude56 1', and time 7h 46m 12s A.M.
7. The altitude of the sun was 20 41', at 2h 20m P.M., when his
declination was 10 28' s ; required his azimuth and the latitude ?
Answer, azimuth s 37 5' w, latitude 51 58' N.
8. If, on August 11, 1840, Spica set 2h 26m 14s before Arcturus,

height of the eye 15 feet, required the north latitude?

Answer, 36 46' .

on November 14, 1829, Menkar rise 48m 3s before Alde-

9. If,

baran, height of the eye 17 feet, required the north latitude ?

Answer, 39 43' 30" N.
 IS QUESTIONS FOB EXERCISE.

10. If, on January 4, 1825, Castor and Alphard be observed on the

same the eastern hemisphere, at the same time that Betel-
vertical in

geuse and Rigel are on the same vertical in the western hemisphere,
required the N latitude ? Answer, 35 12' N.
11. In latitude 16 4(X N, when the sun's declination was 23 18' N,
I observed him twice, in the same forenoon, bearing N 68 30' E ; re-

quired the times of observation, and his altitude at each time ?

Answer, times 6h 15m 40s A.M. and lOh 32m 48s A.M., altitude*
9 59* 36" and 68 29' 42".
12. The diff long between two places, both in lat 33 51' s, is
1 36 10' ; how much shorter is the distance between them on the arc

of a great circle than on their common parallel, and what is the highest
latitude attained by the ship in sailing from the one place to the other
on the arc of a great circle?
Answer, diff of distances 637 geographical miles ; highest latitude
60 54' 8.

13. What is the highest latitude attained by a ship in sailing on a

great circle from

Port Jackson, lat 33 51' s, to Cape Horn, lat 55
58' 8, the diff of their longitudes being 140 27' ?
Answer, lat 72 41' a.
14. If the altitude of the sun when due w be 27 24', and at 6
o'clock 14 43' 30", required the latitude and declination ?
Answer, lat 48 N, decl 20 x.
15. If the altitude of the sun at 6 o'clock be 14 43' 30", and his
amplitude w
30 44' 30", required the latitude and declination ?
Answer, lat 42 or 48, decl 22 20' or 20.
16. If the sun's altitude at 6 o'clock be 14 43' 30", and he set at

7h 35m 22s app time, required the latitude and declination ?

Answer, lat 48 1', and decl 20.
17. The sun is w at 4h 43m 28s, and sets at 7h 35m 22s, required

the latitude and declination ? Answer, lat 48* N, decl 20 jr.

18. When the sun's declination was 20 N, he set 2h 51m 54s after
he passed the prime vertical ; required the latitude ?

Answer, 48 n or 42 x.
19. Given 62, and his altitude at 6
the sun's meridian altitude
o'clock 14 43' 30", to find the latitude and declination ?
Answer, lat 48 N, decl 20 w .

20. In lat 45 N the meridian altitude of the sun was 30 show ;

that the tangent of quarter the length of the day = ?

V3
At a certain place the sun rose at 7 A.M., and his meridian
21.
zenith distance was twice the latitude ; required the latitude?
Answer, lat 26 58'.
22. The latitude of Dublin is 53 21' N, longitude 6 19' w, the
latitude of Pernatnbuco 8 13' H, longitude 35 5' w; what is the
304 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

sun's declination when he

on the horizon of both places at the same
is

instant ? Answer, 18 6'.

23. In Example II. p. 107 of this book, supposing c D measured
358*5 yards, and the angles at A and B as given in the question, it is
required to compute the distance between A and B.
24. The latitude of a place A is 40 N, of B 50 N, and their distance
from each other 20 ; the longitude of A is 1 5 E required the lati- ;

tude and longitude of another place c to the north of and 20 distant

both from A and B ?
Answer, lat 59 37' N, long 21 13' E, or 8 47' E.

PROBLEMS REQUIRING THE USE OF A TRANSIT

INSTRUMENT.
A TRANSIT instrument is a
telescope which revolves in the plane of
the meridian on a horizontal axis ; and it has in its focus generally five
wires, but sometimes only three ; the middle one in the plane of the

meridian, and the others parallel to and equidistant from it and the ;

mean of the times at which a celestial object is observed on each wire

is the instant of its being on the meridian, if the time by the clock be
correct.
This is one of the capital instruments in an observatory, as, with it

and a sidereal clock, the right ascensions of all celestial objects are
determined : for when an object is on the meridian, the sidereal time
at the place of observation is that object's right ascension.
From their resemblance to the letter Y, the sockets in which the
horizontal axis revolves are called Ys.
much used by
Portable instruments of this kind have of late been
persons engaged and
in extensive nautical
geodetic surveys, to deter-
mine the longitudes of important points, and the errors and rates of
chronometers.
The principal adjustments of this instrument are, to level the axis,
to place the middle wire perpendicular to the horizon, and the line of
collimation, or the line of sight, perpendicular to the horizontal axis.
For making these adjustments, the following directions, drawn up by
Capt. Kater for the use of the officers engaged in the Polar expedi-

tions, may suffice.

Slide the eye-piece in or out till the wires are seen distinctly.
'

Direct the telescope to some distant and well-defined object, and turn
the milled head on the side of the transit till the object is seen with

perfect distinctness. Place the level on the

axis, and bring the bubWe
to the middle by the screw which elevates or depresses one of the Ys.
The axis of the transit will then be parallel to the horizon.
'
Having brought the object to the central vertical wire by means of
the screws which act horizontally on one of the Ys, observe whether
 r
PROBLEMS REQUIRING A TRANSIT INSTRUMENT. 3<>. >

tin-same part of the object is covered by the wire while the telescope
iselevated or depressed, and, if not, correct half the apparent devia-
"

tion by
turning round the cell which contains the wires.
'
The middle wire covering some well-defined distant object, take
the instrument out of the Ys, and carefully invert it, when, if the wire
no longer covers the same part of the object, correct half the error by
means of the screws which act horizontally upon the wires, and the
remaining half by the screws which act horizontally upon the Ys.
Repeat this operation till the vertical wire covers the same part of the
object in both positions of the telescope, and the line of sight will then
be perpendicular to the axis.'

These adjustments may be supposed to be made with the telescope

nearly in the plane of the meridian. To bring it exactly so, find the
time at which any star will be on the meridian, and at that instant, by
means of the screw acting horizontally on one of the Ys, make the
middle wire bisect the star ; repeat the operation with several stars,
until you are satisfied that the adjustment is perfect.
For furtlier information on the use of this and other astronomical
work on Practical Astronomy,
instruments, see Dr. Pearson's large
and on Instruments, by Mr. P. W. Simms,
the useful little it'orks

C.E., and Mr. Heather, of the Royal Military Academy.

PROBLEM I.

To find the longitude on land, from the interval between the sidereal
times of tJie transit of the moon's bright limb and a fixed star, the

corresponding interval being observed at, or computed for, a known

meridian.
Note. In practice the stars observed are such only as differ but little
in right ascension and declination from the moon. A
list of such
"
(called moon-culminating stars ") as are proper to be observed with
the moon now given in
for this purpose, is the Nautical Almanac, for

every day on which the moon can be seen. The right ascensions of
the stars, and of the moon's bright limb at the instant of passing the
meridian of Greenwich, are also given with all practicable accuracy:
so that if the intervals are not observed at Greenwich, the difference of
the right ascensions of the star and the moon's bright limb, as given in
'the Nautical Almanac, may be taken as the Greenwich interval.
And if the star is one whose place is well determined, the Greenwich
interval so obtained will iu general be little, if at all, inferior, in point
of accuracy, to one deduced from actual observation.
With respect to the principle of this method of finding the longi-
tude, it isevident that if the moon had no motion in right ascension,
and her declination and semidiumeter did not change, the interval be-
tween the times of transit of her limb and the star will be the same at
x
306 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

both places and that, presuming motion in right ascension only, the
;

difference of the intervals would arise from and be equal to the increase
of her right ascension in the time between the limb's passing the two
meridians, or after the easterly meridian's passing the limb, the westerly
one would have to revolve through an angle, equal to the sum of the
difference of longitude and the increase of the moon's right ascension,
before it would reach the same limb.
If therefore D the diff long, i =
the mean increase, in time, of =
the moon's right ascension in a sidereal hour, and i' the observed in-
crease of her right ascension in the time between her passing the two
h b
meridians, then i : l : : i' : D + i' ; whence i : l i : : i' :
D, or
l"-i
D = . I
,
.
I

We have seen that, the moon's declination and semid. being constant,
i' is the difference of the sidereal interval between the transits of the
moon's bright limb and a star at the two meridians. But if the
declination and semid. be not the same at both times of observation, a
correction for the change must be applied to one of the intervals
before their difference will accurately represent the required increase
of the moon's right ascension.
The effect in seconds of time of a change in the declination may be
computed with sufficient accuracy by the first of the following formulae,
and that of a change in the semid. by the second.

1. cor = 2 s. . tan d + Zt
. sec d + i
.sin

2. cor = s' . sec d . -069

Where d is the declin., d '

its change ;
s the moon's semid. in

seconds of time, and s' its

change in seconds of arc.
The following Table, computed from the first of these formulae, (to
the mean semid. of the moon,) gives the effect of a change of 1 in the
declin. ; and the effect of any other change is found by multiplying
the tabular correction for 1, by the degrees and parts of a degree in
the given change. The Table is entered with the mean of the moon's
declinations at the times of observation. Thus if the declinations are
10 40' and 13 10', the mean
corresponding to which in the
is 11 55',
Table is '234s ; which, multiplied by 2-5, the change of declination,
gives 587s for the correction.
The extreme deviation from the moon's mean semidiameter, to
which the Table adapted, will scarcely ever affect this correction in
is

the second place of decimals : what the moon's actual semidiameter is

at the time is, therefore, of no importance.
From Table 34, which is computed from the second of the preceding
formulae, the effect of a change in the moon's semidiameter may be
taken by inspection. Parts of correction for tenths of seconds in the
 PROBLEMS REQUIRING A TRANSIT INSTRUMENT. 307

change of the moon's semid. are obtained by taking the tenth part of
the correction for the corresponding second.

TABLE.

Effect of a change of 1 in the moon's declination oti the interval

between the transits of her limb and a star.

Mean
308 NAUTICAL ASTRONOMY.

the mean hourly change of the moon's right ascension in the interval,
or the argument for Tab. 33.
Take also the change of declination in the interval, and the declina-
may be both taken roughly by the eye
tion at the middle time, (which
from the Almanac,) and with them, by the aid of the above Table, find
the correction of the interval for the change of declination.

By Tab. 34, find also the correction of the interval for the change
of the moon's semidiameter.
Then apply these two corrections to the interval at the more westerly
meridian, with the sign as directed below.

Signs of correction for change of )'s declination.

Correction
L. ( w limb obs + \
> precedes*
{ E I 1 The contrary signs when
. ,
1 follows * / w - > the declm i I die, easing.
( I E + j

Signs of correction for change of ) 's semidiameter.

Correction

recees
w limb obs

Call the seconds in the difference of the corrected intervals, A, or if

several stars have been observed, call the seconds in the mean of all
the differences of the corresponding intervals A.
Add the logarithm of A. to the logarithm from Table 33, correspond-
ing to the argument for that Table already found, and the sum will be
the logarithm of the difference of longitude, in seconds of time.
Note. The parts for hundredths in Table 33 are found in the column
of Thus, for 1m 42'57s,
'
parts' opposite the corresponding tenths.
the log for 1m 42'5s is 1-534256 and the part for 7 hundredths is
"304: whence the log is 1-533952. Striking off the figures on the
right in the column of remaining figures on the
'
parts,' the left are

parts for thousandths.

If either of the intervals is in mean time, from its 360th part subtract
the 70th part of that part, and the remainder added to the interval in
mean time will give it in sidereal time. If both intervals are in mean
time, reduce their difference to sidereal time by the same rule.
If the moon precede the star at the easterly, and follow it at the
westerly meridian, the sum of the intervals, instead of their difference,
will be A.

EXAMPLE.
If on October 18th, 1836, rj Capricorni pass the meridian of Green-
wich at 20h 55m 6'31s and the moon's w limb at 21h 9m 3-37s
sidereal time ; and on the same
day in long by estimation 50 w, the
 PROBLEMS KIWI KINU A TRANSIT INSTRUMENT. 309

corresponding times were llh 12m 40-74s and llh 34m 51'23s, by a
chronometer gaining on mean time 8'4s per day, required the true
longitude.
Hy (he Nautical Almanac. ")' K.A. J'l Dec.
h in m h m h s m
VmerpaM . . . . 7 21+51 7 20, 21 10 12- 36 2l a 50" Diff-38'
Deduct 1 in for w limb . 1 1047,211826-40 21 !:>

Approx time of trans limb 720 Diff 8 13-84 21 31 Mean

Long in time -f cor,Tab 17 3 27 = 3'45h
Green time of \v transit 1047 8 13*84 m s
X =2 23-14 Vs hourly inc of R A
3-45
Decrease of Vs semid in 3h 27' 6''.

Chronometer Time
Greenwich Time. at \v station.

h m s h m a

20 55 6-31 H 12 40-74
21 9 3-37 11 34 51-23

Interval 13 57-06 22 10-4'J

Cor for rate 13

Interval in mean time ... 22 10*36

Red. to sid. time + 3*64
Interval in sid. time . ... 22 14-00
Correction for ch. of dec . . + '27
2.' 14-27
Correction for cb. semid . . *04

Corrected w interval. ... 22 14-23

Greenwich interval .... 13 57*06

817-17 = 497-17 log* . 2-696540

hourly inc. of RA 2m 23 16s Tab. 30 1-384095

Longitude w 50 10'= 12040s log. . 4-080635

PROBLEM II.

Tojind the longitude on land from the sidereal time at which the moon's
bright limb passes the meridian.
To the sidereal time of the transit apply the sidereal time which the
moon's semidiameter takes in passing the meridian (given in the right

column of the list of moon-culminating stars in the Nautical Almanac),

adding it if the western, and subtracting it if the eastern limb is ob-
served ; and the sum or the remainder will be the sidereal time wln-n
tli.- moon's centre is on the meridian, or the moon's
right ascension at
that instant.
Find by the method given at p. 262 what mean Greenwich time cor-
responds to this right ascension of the moon, to which add the propor-
310 ON WINDS.

tional part of 3m 55'91s, and the sidereal time at mean Greenwich noon
(given in the right-hand column of p. ii. of each month in the Nautical

Almanac), and the sum will be the sidereal time at Greenwich the ;

difference between which and the sidereal time of the transit of the
moon's centre at the place of observation is the longitude of the place
in time.
The "proportional part of 3m 55' 91s for Greenwich time may be
conveniently found thus :

To the log from Tab. 30 of the Greenwich mean time add 7845, and
the sum will be the log, in the same Table, of the required proportional

part ; hours and minutes in the Table being taken as minutes and se-

conds of the proportional part.

For example, if the Greenwich time found from the moon's right
ascension be 2h 29m 6 -18s, and the sidereal time at Greenwich mean
noon be 18h 40m 29 '33s, then we have
Greenwich mean time 2h 29m 6 -18s
. . . Tab. 30 9850
7845
Ii. 11). 8.

24-49 Tab. 30 17695

Mean time at Greenwich 2 29 6-18
Sid time at Gr. mean noon 18 40 29 -33

Sidereal time at Greenwich 21 10 0-00

O.N WINDS.
THE chief causes of winds are the expansion and contraction of the air
from heat and cold ; and, though in our climate nothing is more pro-
verbial than the inconstancy of the winds, in some parts of the earth

they appear to be governed by laws which operate with considerable

regularity.
The most remarkable of these winds are the Trade Winds, which in
a zone extending in general about 30 on each side of the equator,
blow from the eastward nearly quite round the globe ; inclining
towards the north in north latitude, and towards the south in south
latitude,and forming what are called the NK and SE trade winds.
In the intermediate space the wind is variable, but it in general blows
from the eastward. In this space sudden squalls and heavy rains fre-
quently occur.
When the sun has his greatest north declination, the SE trade wind
extends several degrees N of the equator; and, in the opposite season,
the NE trade wind extends in like manner to the south side of the equa-
tor ; but inseasons these winds are found to be greatly modified
all

by local circumstances, particularly near land. In the vast expanse of

the Pacific Ocean they prevail almost uninterruptedly, out at sea ;
but
 OX WINDS. 311

in the Atlantic, on the coast of Brazil, they blow from NE to ENE

from September till March, and from SSE to ESE during the other

half of the year. Near the African coast, the winds in general tend
towards the coast ; but in the Gulf of Guinea there is sometimes found
a moderate breeze from the NE. Off this coast, about 7 N latitude,
and 20" >v a considerable space, where almost con-
longitude, there is

tinual calms are found, attended with thunder and lightning; and the
rains are so frequent and heavy, that the space has acquired the name
of the Rains.
In the Indian Ocean, from about latitude 28 s to "the equator, the
SE trade wind blows pretty constantly; but in the Arabian Sea and
the Bay of Bengal there are certain periodical winds, called monsoons,

which, from April till October, blow from sw, and from the opposite
point from October till April. The sw monsoon is frequently at-
tended with tempests and rain ; but during the prevalence of the NE
monsoon the weather is in general dry and pleasant. About the change
from one monsoon to another very violent storms of wind are usually
met with.
Monsoons are found also in the Mozambique Channel ; but the fair
season there is during the sw, and the rainy season during the NE
monsoon.
On the coasts of Sumatra and Java, and along the coast of China,
monsoons also prevail ; but they blow more nearly from the north and
south than those in the Arabian Sea and they are, besides, much less
;

regular, and are frequently interrupted by violent hurricanes, called

typhoons. Off the western coast of New Holland there are regular
monsoons, which blow from NW from October to April, and from SE
during the remainder of the year.
Beyond the limits to which the trade winds extend the winds are so
variable, that all attempts to deduce the laws by which they are go-
verned have hitherto been unsuccessful ; westerly winds, however, are
observed to be, on the whole, most frequent.
From what has been said, it will readily be perceived that a mariner,
bound to the westward, will avail himself of the trade wind, when he can
reach it without
going too far out of his way ; but this wind, so fa-
vourable in running towards the west, is directly adverse in sailing east-
ward, and it would therefore be a mere waste of time to attempt to sail
to the eastward in the trade winds.

Intliameii, both outward and homeward bound, generally cross the

equator between 18 and 23 west longitude, and thus avoid the coast
of America, as well as the calms off the coast of Africa ; and steering
to the south-westward across the SE trade wind, till
they reach the
latitude where variable winds
prevail, they then make towards the east.
In sailing outwards in the Indian Ocean, they generally run down their
312 ON TIDES.

longitude south of the parallel of the Cape of Good Hope, and

id then
steer across the si: trade wind towards India.

Ships bound from Europe for the West Indies, and the southern
parts of North America, avail themselves of the trade wind, which they
endeavour to reach as soon as possible ; and, in returning, they steer
towards the north, till they get without the limit of the trade wind,
where they find the winds variable, and they then work their way
towards the east.

Ships from the coast of Guinea sail from s to ESE, as the wind will
permit, till they reach the Island of St. Thomas ; and witli the wind
which generally found in that quarter they run to the westward
is till

they meet the SE trade wind.

Near the shore, in tropical climates, there are daily land and sea
wind blowing from the sea during the heat of the day,
breezes, the
and from the land during the night. In very warm weather these
breezes are often observed to blow pretty regularly, even in temperate
climates.

ON TIDES.
TIDES are the daily rising and falling of the waters of the ocean, and

they are produced by the attractions of the sun and moon, but chiefly
by the attraction of the moon.
The attractive force of the moon, like that of every other body,
varies in the inverse proportion of the square of its distance from the

object which it attracts ; and, consequently, the particles of the earth

immediately under the moon are more, and those on the opposite side
less attracted by her, than the intermediate parts are. And as the
attraction of the moon, in the former case, acts in opposition to the
gravity of the particles towards the earth's centre, their tendency
towards the centre will be diminished ; and, consequently, if they were
at liberty to move freely among themselves, they would rise above the
level of the placewhich they would otherwise occupy, and form a
wave, which would follow the moon in her diurnal circuit round the
earth. And although the moon's attractive force is in the same direc-
tion with the gravitating force of the particleson the opposite side of
the earth, yet as she exerts a greater force in the same direction, on
the central parts, the relative gravitation of the central parts, and the

particles on the opposite side towards each other, will also be dimi-
nished ; and, therefore, if at liberty to move freely, these particles will
also rise above the general level, and form a wave or tide on the side
opposite the moon.
The tide on the side next the moon, or that which happens when the
 ON TIDES. 313

moon is above the horizon, is called the superior, and the other the
inferior tide.
Now it is only the particles of fluids that cau be sensibly affected by
such small variations in the gravitating forces and it is only in the ;

ocean, and large seas, that there is sufficient water to admit the effect,
even in fluids, to be distinctly observable.
The time of full tide, however, even if the earth were covered with
water, would not be at the time at which the moon is on the meridian
of any place for the waters, having been once put in motion, would
:

continue to rise for some time, even if the moon's action were to cease
altogether and they, of course, continue longer to rise when her force
;

is
only a little diminished.
The waters of the ocean are similarly affected by the attraction of
the sun but though his attractive force on the earth is immensely
;

greater than the moon's, yet, from his great distance, the effect is more
nearly equal upon every particle, and therefore the tides which he pro-
duces are, with respect to the moon's, comparatively small ; and, in
fact, they are only perceived in the modifications which they produce
in the times and the heights of those which are primarily regulated

by the moon.
In the interval between two successive transits of the moon she pro-
duces two tides ; and the sun, in every twenty-four hours, produces two
tides also. The tides produced by the sun and moon coincide at the
times of full and new moon ; and the consequence is, that the tides at
those times are higher. At the quarter of the moon, the effect of the
solar is to diminish the lunar tide ; and hence, at those times, we find
the tides are below the average height. The tides at full and change
are called spring tides, and those at the quarters neap tides; but the

highest and lowest tides are generally about the third tide after the full
and change, and the quarters.
As the action of the sun increases or diminishes the height of the
it also accelerates or retards the times at which
lunar tide, so high water
happens.
When the moon is in the first and third quarters, the observed tide,
or that compounded of the solar and lunar ones, is to the westward, and
in the second and fourth quarters to the eastward of that raised by

the moon alone hence the action of the sun makes high water earlier
;

in the former, and

later in the latter cae. This explanation will be
received with a slight modification, arising from the consideration, that
the solar and lunar tides are eastward of the places of the sun and moon,
and consequently this acceleration and retardation, like the times of the
highest spring and the lowest neap tides, will take place a little after
the moon enters the quarters mentioned.
When the moon is at her least distance from the earth, the tides of
314 ON TIDES.

course are greater than usual ; and when the full or change of the
moon happens about the beginning of January, when the sun also is
nearest the earth, the tides are the greatest of all. The nearer the
moon passes the zenith of any place, the greater are the tides which she
produces at that place.
In small seas which are much enclosed by land, such as the North
Sea, the observed tides are supplied from those raised in the adjoining
ocean ; and the Baltic, the Mediterranean, and such other seas as
communicate with the ocean by very small mouths, cannot receive a suf-
ficientsupply of water in a tide to produce a material elevation in their
surfaces in these seas, in consequence, the tides are found to be very
:

trifling.
The times of high water at any individual place are greatly influ-
enced by its local situation ; but there is at every place a mean relation

between the time of high water and that of the moon's passing the
meridian, which relation is subject to periodical variations, depending
on the distances and relative positions of the sun and moon. The time
of high water too often is materially affected by the wind ; but it may
be found, with sufficient exactness for any practical purpose in naviga-
tion, by means of the following problems.

PROBLEM I.

To find the moons age on any day betweenthe years 1800 and 1900.
The time of a mean lunation is nearly 29d 12h 44m, twelve of
which make about 354d 9h, or about lOd 21 h less than a solar year
of 365d 6h. Hence the age of the moon, at the beginning of any
year, will be lOd 2lh greater than at the beginning of the preceding
one, reach a complete lunation, when its excess above that quan-
till it

tity will be her age. And if the days elapsed from the beginning of the
year were divided by 29d 12h 44m, the remainder would be the age of
the moon, if the new moon happened at the commencement of the
year consequently,
; moon's age at the beginning of the year were
if the

added to that remainder, the sum would be the moon's age 'on the
proposed day.
These remainders, for the beginning of every month, increased by 5,
the moon's age at the beginning of the year 1800, are given in the

following table, both for leap years and common years ; every year
divisible by 4, without a remainder, being a leap year.

'

Jan. Feb. Mar. April. May. June. July. August. Sept. Oct. Nov. I>c.
Common Years 5 6 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 12 14 14
Leap Year* 5 7 6 7 8 9 10 ll 13 13 15 15

To find the moon's age for any time between 1800 and 1900, sub-
 ON TIDES. 315

tract 1800 from the given year, multiply the remainder by 109, and
divide the product by 295, and to the tenth part of the remainder add
the day of the month and the number from the above table, and the
sum, if it does not exceed 30, is the moon's age : if it exceed 30, the
excess above 30 is her age.

PROBLEM II.

To find the time at which the moon passes the meridian on a given day.

If the new moon happen at noon, the sun and moon will be on the
meridian together ;
and as the moon, at a mean rate, is about 49 minutes
later in coming to the meridian every day, if we multiply 49 by her age
in days,and divide the product by 60, the quotient will be the hours,
and the remainder the minutes past noon, when she passes the meridian
on the given day, on the supposition that her motion is uniform, and that
she changes at noon. But as her motion is not uniform, and she seldom

changes precisely at noon, this method of finding the time of her transit
must be considered as only an approximate one. The method of finding
it correctly, with the aid of the Nautical Almanac, has been given at
Problem 5, p. 207, and those who possess the Nautical Almanac will of
course employ that method.

EXAMPLE.
It required to find, by the two preceding problems, the moon's
is

age nearly, and the approximate time of her passing the meridian on
September 10, 1823?
109 x 23 =
2507, which, divided by 295, gives 8 for the quotient
and an integral remainder of 147.
Tenth of the remainder . 14
No. for September, 1823 12
Day of the month 10

36
Deduct 30
6 x 49
Moon's age 6, and = 4h 54m, the time
. - Ox/
of her passing the meridian.

EXAMPLES FOE EXERCISE.

It required from the two preceding Problem*, without the aid
is

of the Nautical Almanac, to determine approximately the moon's

age, and the time of her passing the meridian on each of the following
days ?
316 ON TIDES.

D*.
 ON TIDES. 317

EXAMPLE.
Required the time of high water September 10, 1823, at Quebec?
> 's meridian pass., Nautical Almanac,
(see Table 32) 4h 32m + 51ui, semid 15'
Correction for longitude, Table 17 + 10
4 42
Correction from the above Table - 1 12
~3 30
High water at full and change, Tab. 35 .. 7 30
Answer 11

The same computed by the other meihod.

In the example to Problem 2, the time of the moon's
passing the meridian is computed to be 4h 54m
Cor. from the middle column of the above Table 1 7

3 47
Time from Table 33 add 7 30
Answer 11 17

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

The time of high water is required in the afternoon at eacli of the
places mentioned in the following examples, on the respective days
mentioned, the requisite data from the Nautical Almanac being given
in Table 32?

Time. Place. Time of High Water.

h
September 20, 1823 Amazon, R. Ent. 6 3 P.M.
September 23, 1823 Lisbon 3 56
September 14, 1823 Rio Janeiro 10 12
September 7, 1823 Funchal 1 33
September -25, Cape Town 5 44

The time of high water in the afternoon is required in each of the

following examples, computing the moon's age, and the time of her
meridian passage, by the two preceding problems ?

Moon's Tine of
Time. Place. !
MOM* Ag*. Mer> !>, High Water.

fUyt h m
July 10, 1829 Newcattle 16 13 4 4 24 P.M.
Nov. 4, 1818 Liverpool 11 8 59 7 56
Feb. 3, JP8-2 SiromueM 17 13 53 9 56
Apiil 28, 1870 Cape Fiuisterre 26 21 14 12 1.'

June 10, Is96 K.tsler I .-'. in -1 1 38 3 11

318 ON TIDES.

PROBLEM IV.

From the observed time at high water at any place on a given day, to

find the time of high water at full and change.

To the time at which the moon passes the .meridian of the given
place, found by Prob. 5, p. 206, or Prob. 2,p. 315, apply the correction
from the preceding table, and the result, subtracted from the observed
time of high water, will leave the time of high water on the afternoon of
the days of full and change.
If the time to be subtracted exceed the observed time of high water,
let 12h 24m, or 24h 49m (whichever is necessary to make it greater),
be added to the observed time before the subtraction is made.

EXAMPLE.
Itwas observed to be high water at Quebec, on September 10, 1823,
at llh Om, required the time of high water at full and change?
In the last problem, the time of the moon's passing the meridian on
the given day, corrected by the equation from the table, was found to
be 3h 30m, which, subtracted from llh Om, leaves 7h 30m for the
required time of high water at full and change.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

The time of high water, at full and change, is required in each of

the following examples, from the time at which it was observed on the
?
given day

Place.
 ON TIDES. 319

PROBLEM V.
From the mean height of the spring and neap tides at any place, to

find the height of any other tide at that place.

With the moon's semidiameter at the top, and the apparent time of
her meridian passage in the side column of the following table, take
out the numbers below A and B ; and multiply the number below A

by the mean height of the spring tide, and that below B by the mean
height of the neap tide, and the sum of the products will be nearly the
height of the required tide, independent of winds, freshes, &c., of
which it is
impossible to- estimate the effects. This table is due to
Bernoulli.
320 ON TIDES.

EXAMPLES FOR EXERCISE.

In each of the following examples the height of the tide is re-

quired ?

No.
TABLES

2 n
 INDEX TO THE TABLES.

TABLE PACE
I. Difference of latitude and departure for points 5

II. Difference of latitude and departure for degrees 21

MI. Meridional parts 66

every quarter point of the

73
IV. Logarithmic sines, tangents, &c. to compass
ib-
V. Logarithms of numbers
V.* To find the hour angle from altitudes 89
VI. Logarithmic sines, tangents, &c. to degrees and minutes 90
VII. Dip of the sea horizon 135
VIII. Dip of the sea horizon at different distances from it ib.

IX. Mean refraction of celestial objects ib.

X. Sun's parallax in altitude ib.

XI. Correction of mean refraction 136

XII Reduction of the moon's equatorial parallax il>.

XIII. Reduction of latitude ill

XIV. Augmentation of the moon's semi-diameter il>.

XV. Contraction of the semi-diameters of the sun and moon from refraction 137
XVI. The sun's semi-diameter.. ib.

XVII. Correction of the lime of the moon's meridian passage il>.

XVIII. Equation of equal altitudes 13S

X(X. The sun's declination when on the meridian of Greenwich, for eveiy day in the

years 1822, 1823, 1824, and 1825 139

XX. To reduce the sun's declination, right ascension, and the equation of time,

to the noon of any day, Greenwich time, till the year 1886 143 ;

XXI. The sun's right ascension when on the meridian of Greenwich, for every day
in the year* 1822, 1823, 1S24. and 1825 144
XXII. Equation of time when the sun is on the meridian of Greenwich, for every d .y
in the
years 1822, 1823, 1824, and 1825 148
."XIII. Mean right ascension and declination of the principal fixed star*, on January

lit, 1820, with their annual variations . 152

XXIV. Correction of the moon's apparent altitude 153
\ \ V. Auxiliary arcs u*ed in clearing the lunar distance 154
NOTE. Table* XXIV. and XXV. are printed on alternate pages.

XXVI. Parallax of tlie

planet* in altitude 174
XXVII. Correction* to be added to the arcs from Table XX V. in ctenring Iht liit'anct

between the moon and a planet ib.

TABLE !'.*
XV 111 Decimal verged and suvened sines . 175

\ X Proportional logarithms
1 98
V\\ [^ogarithms for compuvng the proportional parts of the change of the righ

aNcrnsi >n, declination, &c. of the sun or moon, for any given instant of
Greenwich time 214

\.\\I. Distances of the moon from the sun and fixed stars, for September 1823,
(extracted from the Nautical Almanac) 216
XXXII. Right ascension, declination, &c. of (he moon, fur September, 1823, (deduced

from the Nautical Almanac') 2l8

XXXIII. Logarithm* U> compute the longitude from the difference between the intervals

of transit of the moon's blight limb and a star 220

\\X1V. Effect of a change in the moon's semi-diameter on the time of her passing the
nierid an.. . ... . 222
\ XXV. Latitudes and longitudes of places, with the time of high water at the full and

change of the moon, where it is known 223

XXXVI. The lime of high water on the full and change of the moon at the principal

ports and places on the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland, with the rise of

the spring tide in feet 242

Explanation of the manner of using the Table* 244

TABLE J. 5
G TABLE J.
TABLE I.
7
8 TABLE I.
TABLE I. 9
10 TABLI-: 1.
TABLE I. 11
12 TABLE I.
TAIILI-: i. i:i
1-1 TABLE I.
TAKLK I. 15
10 TABLE I.
TABLE I. 17
18 TABLE I.
TABLE 1. 19
 1
20 TABU-: I.
TABLE II. -Jl
22 TABLE II.
TABLE II. _>;i
24 TABLE II.
TABLE II. 25
26 TABLE II.
i<LU II.
27
28 TABLE II.
TAHLi: II. 29
30 TA15LE II.
TABLE 11. :<]
32 TABLE II.
TABLE 11. 33
34 TABLE 11.
TABLE II. 35
36 TABLE II.
TABLE II. 37
38 TABLE 11.
TABU: n. :.
40 TABLE 11.
TABLE 11. 41
42 TABLE II.
TABLE II. -13
44 TABLE II.
TABLE II. 45
40 TABLE U.
TABLE II. 47
48 TABLE II.
TAULE 11. 49
50 TABLE II.
TAI'.Li: II. 51
.VJ TABLE II.
TABLE II. >;*
54 TABLE II.
TABLE 11. :,;,
51) TABLE 11.
TABLE II. f>7
TABU-; 11. ;,D
GO TABLE 11.
TABLE 11. Gl
(52 TABLE 11.
TAJiLE 11. .;:;
04 TABLE 11.
TAJJLE II. of,
66 TABLE III.
TAHLi: III. (',7
OS 1 ABLE III.
TABLE: in. oy
70 TABLE JII.
TAIJLE III. 71
72 TABLE III.
TABLE IV. 73
71 TABLE V.
TABLE V. 73
70 TABLE V.
TABU: v. 77
78 TABLE V.
TABLE V. 70
80 TABLE V.
TABLE V. M
82 TABLE V.
TABLE V. 83
84 TABLE V.
TABLE V. 85
86 TABLE V.
88 TABLE V.
TAH1.K V.* To find the Hour Anj-le from Altitudes. 89
90 TABLE VI.
TABLE VI <J1
J-2 TABLE VI.
TABLE VI. (
.):i
94 TABLE VI.
TABLE VI. <:>
96 TABLE VI
TABLE VI. (
J7
98 TABLE VI.
TABLE VI. 99
100 TABLE VI.
TABLE VI. 101
K2 TABLE VI.
TABLE VI. 103
1C4 TABLE VI.
TABLE VI. 105
106 TABLE VI.
TABLE VI. J07
108 TABLE VI.
TABLE VI. 109
110 TABLE VI.
TABLE VI. Ill
11J TABLE VI.
TABLE VI. 11:
114 TABLE VI.
TABLE VI. 115
116 TABLE VI.
TABLE VI. 117
118 TABLE VI.
TUiLE VI. ll
(
.l
120 TABLE VI.
TABLE VI. 121
122 TABLE VI.
TABLE VI. 123
Ui TABLE VI.
TABLE VI. 1-j.j
\'2G TABLE VI.
TABLE VI. 1^7
128 TABLE VI.
TABLE VI. 129
130 TABLE VI.
TABLE VI. 131
132 TABLE VI
TABLE VI. 133
134 TABLE VI.
 TABLE VII.
Dip of ile Sea Horizon.
136
 137

TABLE XV. TABLE XVI.

Contraction of Semidiameters of
138 TABLE XVI 1 1.
TABLE XIX. 1W
1 10 TABLE XIX.
TABLE XIX. 141
142 TABLE XIX.
 TABLE XX. 143

To reduce 0's Declination from Table XIX. to the Noon of any Day,
Greenwich time, till the Year 1886.
It may also be used to reduce the Equation of Time, from Table XXII.
to subsequent Years.
144 TABLE XXI.
TABLE XXI. 1 J.">
14G TABLE XXI.
TABLE XXI. 1
17
148
150
J52 TABLIS XXIII.
 TABLES XXIV. AND XXV.

CORRECTION
OF

'*
APPARENT ALTITUDE,
AND AUXILIARY ARCS USED IN CLEARING THE LUNAR DISTANCE.

A* THESE TABLES HAVE THE SAME GENERAL ARGUMENTS, AND ARE USED JOINTLY IN Till
I TSAR PHOBI.EM, THEY ARE SO PRINTED THAT THE DEGREES, &C. WANTED IN HACK
TABU. MAY APPEAR AT ONE OPF.MNO OF THE BOOK; TABLE XXIV. BEING ON
THE LEFT BAND PAGE, AND TABLE XXV. ON THE ftlGHT.
154 TABLE XXIV.
TABLE XXV. 155
156 TABLE XXiV.
TABLE XXV. i;,7
160 TABLE XXIV.
'

Correction of > Apparent Altitude.

 TAMLK XXV. Kil

Auxiliary Arcs used in clearing the Lunar Distance.

 TABLE XXV. Hi,',

Auxiliary Arcs used in clearing the Lunar Distance.

w
172 TABLE XXIV.
Correction of )" Apparent Altitude.
174
i;e> TABU: xxvm.
TABLE XXVIII. 177
17H TABLE XXVIII.
TABLE XX VI II. 17<J
180 TABLE XXVIII.
TA15LK XXVIII. I 1
182 TABLE XXVIII.
TABLI;- xxvni. is;*
184 TABLE XXVIII.
186 TABLE XXVI IF.
TAB U'. XXVIII.
188 TABLE XXVIII.
190 TABLE XXV11I.
TABU-: \\vin. in
192 TABLE XX VI 11.
TABLE XXVIII.
1JM TABLE XXVIII.
TABLE XXVlll.
196 TAKLL: xxvm.
TABLE XXVIII. 197
11)8 TABLE XXIX.
TABLE XXIX. 199
200 TABLE XXIX.
TABU-; XXIX. 1201
202 TABLE XXIX.
TABLE XXIX. L><
204 TABLE XXIX.
TABLE XXIX. 205
200 TABLE XXIX.
TABLE XXIX. 'J07
208 TABLE XXIX.
TABLE XXIX. 209
210 TABLE XXIX.
 TABLE XXIX. Jll
Proportional Logarithms.

ft.
-M-J TABLE XXIX.
TABLE XXIX. 213
214 TABLE XXX.
TAHLK XXX. 215
210

TABLE XXXI.
Distances of the Moon from the Sun and fixed Stars, for September, 1823,

(extracted from the Nautical Almanack.)

218
Moon
220 TABLE XXXIII.
TABLE XXXIII. 221
222 TABLE XXXIII.
Logarithms to compute the Longitude from the Difference between the Intervals of Transit
of the Moon's bright Limb and a Star.
 i \BLE XKXV. 223
Latitudes and Longitudes of Places, with the time of High Water at the full and change of the
Moon, where it is known
224 TABLE XXXV.
Latttudes and Longitudes or Places, &c.
 TAHLK XXXV. 225
Latitudes and Longitudes of Places, &c.
226 TABLE XXXV.
Latitudes and longitudes of Places, &c.
 TABLE XXXV. 227
Latitudes and Longitudes of Places, &c.
228 TABLE XXXV.
latitudes ami Longitudes of Places, &c.
 TAHLE XXXV. '22V

latitudes and Longitudes of Places, &c

230 TABLE XXXV.
Latitudes and Longitudes of Places, &c.
 TABLE XXXV. 231
Latitudes and Longitudes or Places, Ac.
232 TAHLE XXXV.
latitudes and Longitudes of Places, ,\c.
 TABLE XXXV -j:j:j

Latitudes and Longitudes of Place.-, &c

'
 TABLE XXXV. 235
Latitudes and Longitudes of Places, &c.
23G TABLE XXXV.
latitudes and longitudes of Places, &c.
33 TABLE XXXV.
latitudes and Longitudes of Places, &c.
 TABLE XXXV. 239
Latitudes and Longitudes of Places, &c
10 TABLE XXXV.
Latitudes and Longitudes of Places, &c.
 TABLE XXXV. -j n
Latitudes and Longitudes of Places, Ac.
242 TABLE XXXV.
Latitudes and Longitudes >f
Places, &c.

Coast, Sea, or Time

Places. Latitude. Longitude.
Country. II. W.

Whitsuntide Island .... New Hebrides . . ... 1544' 0"S 16820' 15"E
\Vic.klovv Light Ireland , 52 59 N 6 21 W
Woahoo Island Sandwich Isles 21 40 30 N 158 1 5 W
Wolf Island Labrador 53 42 ON 55 36 W
Wood ham's Isles Newfoundland ,
49 55 N 53 30 W
Woody Point W. Coast of America, 50 6 3 N 127 57 W
Wjlingoe (Great) Light Norway ,
59 4 N 5 21 30 E

Xam Hay China 31 16 N 121 32 E

Xulla (Great) S. End Indian Archipelago 1 51 S 124 52 E

Yap Island PacificOcean. 9 35 138 8 ON E

Velio w River, Entrance China 34 3 N 120 E
York (New) Battery United States. 40 42 6 N 73 59 W 54
York Fort New Wales . . 57 1 48 N 92 31 4') W 10
York Island, Mount Adolphus Torres' Straits 10 36 30 S 142 40 K

Zacheo Island .... Porto Rico 18 23 48 N 67 34 1 W

Zaute Island, Town Mediterranean 37 47 17 N 20 54 42 E
Zanzibar Fort .... E. Coast of Africa . . , 6 9 36 S 39 9 24 E 4 30
Ziaret Cape Syria 35 37 ON 35 34 E

TABLE XXXVI.
THE TIME OF HIGH WATER.
On the Full and Change of the Moon, at the principal Ports and Places on the Coasts of
Great Britain and Ireland, with the rise of the Spring Tide, in Feet.

Time Rise Time Rise

Places. Situation. Places. Situation.
Feet Feet.

Aberdeen Scotland . . Boston England

Aberdovy Wales Brassa Sound. . ,
Shetland....
Aberistwith ,
Wales Bree Bank North Sea...
Acbill Head .... Ireland Bridgewater. .. .
England .... 22
Agnes (St.) Sr.illy Isles Bridlington. England ....
Air Point Isle of Man. 10 30 Bridport England ....
Aldborough England . . , 10 45 Brighton England .... 10
Alne River England . . . 2 45 Bristol England .... 42
Amlwick Point. . . Anglesea. . . 10 30 Burnt Island. . . . Scotland . . . 2 30 14
Arrsn Isle Scotland . . . 11 15
Arundel Bar England . . , 11 15 Caernarvon Bar . Wales 9 22
Cairston Orkney ...... 9 12
Balta Shetland. . . 3 Calf of Man .. . St. Geo. Chan. 10 30
Baltimore Ireland 3 45 Cantire(Mull).. Scotland 9 5
Bamff Scotland. . . 11 30 Cardigan Bar . . . Wales 7 20
Bantry Bay Ireland . . . . 3 45 Carlingford Ireland 9 14
Karmouth Wale 8 0! Carmarthen .... Wales 6 10 24
Barnstaple Bar. . . . England . . . 5 30' Chatham England 1

Beachy, on Shore . ,
England . . . 10 15 Chester Bar .... England 10 30 M
Beachy Offing . . . . England . . . 11 Ol Chichester Harb. England 11 30 18
Beaumaria Wales 10 15 24 Clear Cape Ireland 4 30 11
Berwick England . . . 2 18: 16 Cornwall Cape. . England 4 25 22
Blaketiey Harbour, England . . . 6 50 16 Cork Harb. Ent.. Ireland 4 30 18
Blythe England . . . 2 45[ 12 Cowes Isle of Wight . 10 45 18
Bolt Head England . . . 5 55* 20 ('romantic.. .., Scotland 11 45 14
 TABLE XXXV 1. U1H
THE TIME OF HIGH WATER, &c.
 244

EXPLANATION

THE MANNER OF USING THE TABLES.

TABLES I. and II. Difference of Latitude and Departure.

TH ESE Tables contain the parts of right angled plane triangles, whose greatest sides are
integers, not exceeding 300 ; the angles in Table I. being given to every quarter point of
the compass, and those in Table II. to every degree of the quadrant. If the sides of the

proposed triangle should exceed the limits of the Table, they may
be divided by any number
that will bringthem within these limits and then the results from the Table, multiplied by
;

the same number, will give the required parts of the proposed triangle observing that the;

angles must in no case be multiplied or divided.

These are very useful tables in the practical resolution of problems in which right angled
plane triangles are concerned, when minute accuracy it not required ; and from their use in
facilitatingthe reduction of compound courses to single ones, they are called Traverte
Tablet.
Each angle at the top or the bottom of the page may be considered as the vertical angle
of a right angled plane triangle ; and the side opposite that angle is found in the column
marked Dep., the other side in the column marked Lat., and the hypothenuse in the column
marked Ditt., all adjoining each other on the same line.
Thus with the vertical angle 28 and the base 92, the perpendicular is found 173-1, and
the hypothenuse 196. With the perpendicular 114'1 and the base 163, the vertical angle is
found 55 and the hypothenuse 199.
With a course of 3J points and a distance of 215, the difference of latitude is found 1727,
in the column of Lat., and the departure 128*1, in the column marked Dep. With a middle
latitude 39 considered as the vertical angle of a right angled plane triangle, and a departure
of 14 1*2, considered as the perpendicular of the same triangle, we have the difference of

longitude nearly 182, as the hypothenuse

in the column of Dist. With a course of 18 and
a meridional difference of latitude of 217 in the column of Lat., we have in the column of
Dep. nearly 70'5 for the difference of Longitude.

TABLE III. Meridional Part*.

This Table is used in laying down the meridians in the construction of charts according to
Mercator's projection of the globe, and also in the solution of problems on the principle of
that projection.The degrees of latitude are found at the top of the Table, and the minutes in
the side column. Under the degrees, and opposite the minutes, stand the meridional parts.
Thus, for latitude 48 12', the meridional parts are 3309.

TABLE IV. Log. Sine*, tfc. to every Quarter Point of the Compatt.

When the course given, or required, in points of the compass, the log. sine, tangent,
is

Sic. to the given course, or the required course to a given log. sine, tangent, &c. may be
found from tnis Table. The points, &c., if not exceeding four, are found in the left-hand
column ; and in that case the denomination tine, tangent, ficc. of the log. is to be looked for
If the points exceed four,
at the top of the Table. they will be found in the right-hand
olumn ;
and the denomination of the required numbers at the bottom of the Table.

Thus the log. sin. of 24

1\ points is 9-673387
tan. of 5} ,10325171
 EXPLANATION, &C. 245

TABLE V. Logarithm* of Number*.

This Table contains the decimal part of the logarithm of every integer below 10,000,
carried to six places of figures. The index of the logarithm is easily supplied, as it is always
less by one than the number of digits in the integral part of the number. If the number
consist wholly of decimals, the index of the logarithm is then negative, and it is indicated by
the place occupied by the first figure in the decimal. Thus the index of the logarithm of
04 is 2 ; of 006, 3, &c. But to avoid the confusion that might arise by the addition
and subtraction of negative indices, it is customary to take the arithmetical complement of
the negative indices, and to consider these complements as positive. Thus 8 is put as the
index of 04, 7 as the index of -006, &c.

To find the Logarithm of any Number.

If the number eontitt of only one or two figures, its logarithm will be found at once in the
firstpage of the Table. Thus, in the column marked No., we find 66, and in the adjoining
column marked Log. we have 1 '81 9544, which is the log. of 66. And in the same way,
opposite 7 we find -845098, the log. of 7.
If the number consul of three figure*, the decimal part of its logarithm may also be found
at once. For if the number be found in the column marked No., the decimal part of its
logarithm will be found in the adjoining column under 0. Thus the decimal part of the log.
of 382 is '582063 ; and as the number consists of three digit*, the index of the logarithm is
2 therefore the log. of 382 is 2-582063. It must be observed that when there is a blank
;

space in the column of logar thms, the figures immediately above it are to be understood as
repeated in every line below
If the number contiilt of four figures ; opposite the first three figures, in the No. column,
and below the fourth figure, at the top of the Table, is the decimal part of the logarithm.
Thus, to find the lof . of 7218 we have opposite 721 in the No. column, and below 8 at the
;

top of the Table, 858417, for the decimal part of the required logarithm. And as 7218
consists of four digits, the index of its logarithm is 3 ; and therefore the log. of 7218 is
3858417.
If the number contitl of five figuret, or more ; seek the decimal part of the log. of the
first four figures, as above; then multiply the number from the column marked Diff. on the
right of the Table, by tlie remaining digits of the given number; strike off as many figures
from the right of the product as are contained in the number by which you multiply ; add the
remaining figures of the product to the decimal part of the log. of the first four digits already
found, and the proper index being prefixed to the sum, you will have the required logarithm.
Let it be required, as an example, to find the logarithm of 682473. With 6824 we find
834039 ; and in the column of Diff. on the right, we have 64. Now 64 multiplied by 73,
the remaining digits of the proposed number, gives 4672. And if the last two figures be
rejected, we have 46, or nearly 47, to add to '834039. The sum, with the proper index 5, is
5 534086, the required log. of 682473.

To find the Number corresponding to a given Logarithm.

The index always show how many digits are contained in the integral part of the
will

required number; and if the number of dig ts required do not exceed four, the number will
:

be found in the Table without trouble. For seek the nearest logarithm in (he Table to that
which is given, and the first three digits of the required number will be found on the same
line in the column of No., and the fourth figure at the
top of the Table, over the nearest
logarithm. Thus the No. to 3 476874 is 2672, the No. to 2 993877 is 986, and the No. to
0-S74123 is 7-484, Ac.
But if the number be required to a greater number of placet than four, take the number
answering to the next le logarithm, and to the difference between that logarithm and the
given one, affix a many cypher* as there are digits wanted above four, and divide the result
by the Diff. taken from tlie-same line as the logarithm, and the quotient will be the remaining
figure* of the required number.
For example, let the number to log. 4*827639 be required to six places of figure*. The
log. in the Table next lest than the given one i* '827628, to which the corresponding number
is 6724. Now this logarithm, taken from the given logarithm, leaves a remainder of 1 1 ami
;

as six figures are required in the answer, two cyphers must be aonexeri to this remainder.
246 EXPLANATION OF THE
We have thus 1to be divided by 6'), the difference in the right-hand column of the Table.
100
The quotient nearly 17.
is Hence 67^417 are the digits in the required number, and a* the
index of the logarithm is 4, the number must contain five figures in integers; and therefore
67241*7 is the required number.

TABLE V.* To find the hour angle from Altttttdft.

This Table is intended to facilitate the computation of time; the logarithms in it are
twice the log. sines of half the hour angles, for such distances from the meridian as observa-
tions for time may with propriety be taken ; but the times in the Table are the whole hour
angles or meridian distances reckoned westerly.
Having found the log. for Table V.* according to the rule, page 243, S3 exemplified in the
examples on pages 244 and 245 ; if the altitude is decreasing take the hour at the top and
the minute on the left which on the Table corresponds with the log. next /M. than the given
one, and to the difference between that next less and the given logarithm annex two ciphers,
and divide by the adjoining t/ijf. to 100 sec. in the Table, and the quotient will be the
seconds in the required hour angle. If decimals of seconds are required, add more ciphers

and continue the division.

When the altitude is increasing take the hnnr at the bottom and the minute on the right
which in the Table corresponds with the logarithm next greater than the given one, and to
the difference between that next greater and the given logarithm annex two ciphers, and
proceed as above for seconds and decimals.

TABLE VI. Log. Sines, Tangents, Sfc.

When the degrees in this Table are found at the top, the denomination of the log. will also
be found at the top, and the minutes of the arc in the column on the left; but when the
degrees are found at the bottom, the name of the log. will be found at the bottom, and the
minutes of the arc in the column on the right. The column marked Diff. is the change of
either of the logarithms between which it is placed, corresponding to a change of 100" in the
arc. The decimals in the logarithms are carried to six places of figures, an extent quite
adequate to the solution of any problem to which in this work it is proposed to apply them.
When the log. stne of an obtuse angle is
required, take the cosine of its complement or of i

the difference between it and 90; when the log. cotangent of an obtuse angle is required,
take the log. tangent of its complement, &c. Thus, instead of seeking for the secant of
]

121" 4^ 20", an arc which is not to be found in the Table, seek the cosecant of 31 4' 2W.

EXAMPLES.

Log. sine.. of 40 4' is 9-808669

cosine 21 38 .. 9-968278
tangent 84 13 . . 10-994466
cotangent 55 58 . . 9 829532
secant 7020 .. 10-472954
cosecant 835 .. 10826092
Cosine 143 24' = sine 53 24 is 9*904617
In this manner may the fog. tine, tangent, &c. be taken out for degrees and minutes. If
the given arc contain seconds also, the proportional part of the logarithm for them
may be
obtained thus: Multiply the number taken from the column of Diff. between the given and
the next following minute, by the number of seconds ; reject two figures from the right of
the product, and add the remaining figures to the log. corresponding to the given
degrees and
i

minutes, when the logarithm is increasing, but subtract them when the logarithm is decreas- I

ing, and the sum or the difference will be the required logarithm.
EXAMPLE. What is the log. cotangent of 36 34' 27"?
The log. cotangent of 36 10-129735, and the logarithms in the column decrease as
34' is

the arc increases ; therefore the log. cotangent of 36 34' 27" is less than the log. cotangent
of 36 34'. Now the number in the corresponding column of Diff. between 34' and 35 is
440 which, multiplied by 27, and the two figures on the right rejected from the product,
;

gives 119; and this number subtracted from 10 129735, leaves 10-129616 for the cotangent
of 36 34' 27".
When the log. sine, tangent, Ac. is given to find the corresponding arc, we have
only to
reverse the above process. If the arc is
required only to the nearest minute, seek in the
proper colurr.n for the logarithm which differs least from the given one, and take out the
degrees and minutes corresponding to that logarithm.
 MANNER OF USING THE TABLES. 247
Thus the arc to log. sine.. 9-863724 is 46 57'
secant 10101003 ..37 35

But if the seconds in the arc are also required, we seek in the proper column fur the
logarithm which is next less than the given one, when the logarithms in the column are
increasing, but next greater svhen the logarithms in the column are decreasing, and take the
degrees and minutes corresponding to that logarithm for the degrees and minutes in the
required arc. Then to the difference between the logarithm so found and the giren logarithm
we annex two ciphers, and divide the result by the number taken from the corresponding
part of the adjoining column of DifT. and the quotient is the seconds to be added to the
degrees and minutes before taken out.
EXAMPLE. Required the arc to log. sine 9-641357 ?
The sine of 25 58' is 9-641324, and it is the logarithm next lea than the given one, which
we take, as the logarithms in the column increase with the arc. The difference of these two
logarithms is 33, and if two ciphers be affixed to the difference, and the number then be
divided by 432, taken from the column of Diff. in the Table, we have nearly 8 for the number
of seconds ;
and hence the required arc is 25 58' 8".
Again, letthe arc corresponding to log. cosine 9-126624 be required?
Here we take out 9-127060, the log. cosine of 82 18', as it is the log. cosine in the Table
nrjrt greater than 9-126624, the log. cosines decreasing as the arc increases. The difference
between these two logarithms is 564 ; whence 56400 divided by 1559, the number from the
column of Diff. gives 36 for the number of seconds. Hence the required arc is 82 18' 36".
The above observations may be sufficient to show, in a general way, the manner of using
the Table. But in small arcs, the differences of the log. sines and cosecants are very large
and irregular; and in arcs near a quadrant, the cosines and secants have like large and
irregular differences ; and so in both cases have the tangents and cotangents. The logarithms
of such arcs taken from the Table by even proportions
will, therefore, frequently not be
sufficiently correct. Tne following rules first given by Dr. Maskelyne, may in sucli cases be
| applied with advantage.

To find the Log. Sine of a small Arc,

Add 4-685575 to the common

logarithm of the arc reduced to seconds ; from the sum
subtract one-third of the log. secant less radius of the arc, and the remainder will be the
required log. sine.

To find the Log. Tangent of a tmall Are.

Add together the common logarithm of the arc, reduced to seconds, two-thirds of the log.
secant less radius of the arc, and 4*685575, and the sum will be the required tangent. We
have, hence, the following rules for performing the reverse operations.

To find a tmall Arc wkote L/>ff. Sine it given.

i

To one-third of the log. secant of the arc in the Table, whoso log. sine most nearly corre-
sponds with the given log. sine, add the given log. sine, and 5*31442* and the sum will be
the common log. of the seconds in the required arc.

To find a small Arc when it* Log. Tangent it given.

To the log. tangent add 5*314425, and from the sum subtract two-thirds of the log. ecant
of the arc in the Table whoe
tangent most nearly agrees with the given tangent; and the
rent-under will be the log. of the seconds in the required arc.

EXAMFLKR.

Required the log. sine of 1 28' 13*, or the log. cos. of 88 31' 47" ?
1 28' 13" = 5293" .... log. 3-723702
Constant No 4 685575
*
8 409277
4 log. sec. 1 . 28' sub. -000047
l-28' 18" log. tine 8-409230
248 EXPLANATION OF THE
Required the log. tangent 1 55' 38'', or log cotangent 88 4' 22"?
1 55' 38" = 6938" log. 3 841234
Constant No 4 685575
| log. sec. 1 55'/ add -000163
Ans. b 526972

Required the arc to log. ine 7 963214?

4 log. sec. 32> -000006
7963214
Constant No. 5314425
1895" log. 3277645

Whence the required arc is 31' 35".

Hence the arc to log. cosine 7 963214 is 89 28' 25".

Required the arc to log. tangent 8-400138?

8-400138
Constant No. 14425
5;3
3-714563
j log. sec. 1
26J". . .sub. -000091
5181"... log. 3714472
Required arc 1 26' 21". f
Hence the arc to log. cotangent 8-400138 is 88 33' 39''.

TABLE VII. Dip oft/te Sea Horizon.

This Table contains the depression of the visible norizon arising from the elevation of the
eye above the surface of the earth. Opposite to the height of the eye, in feet, is found the
dip, in minutes and seconds; and the correction is subtract tve fiom altitudes taken by a fore
observation, but additive to those taken by a back one.

TABLE VIII. Dip of the Sea Horizon at different Distance* from it.

In taking an altitude near land, the line from which the alitude is measured, or that sepa-
rating the sea and land is sometimes within the horizon, or apparently depressed below it.
When the height of the eye, and the distance of the line to which the reflected image of the
object observed is
brought down, are given, the corresponding dip may be taken from this
Table.
Thus if the edge of the sea be one mile distant, and the height of the eye 20 feet; then in
the Table opposite one mile, and below 20 feet, stands 12' the corresponding dip.

TABLE IX. Mean Refraction of Ce.lettial Object*.

This Table contains the refraction in what is considered a mean state of the atmosphere*
The correction is always tubtractive, and is found opposite to the given altitude.
Thus at the altitude of 13 20' the mean refraction is 3' 57".

TABLE X. Q't Parallax in Altitude.

The correction from this Table is

always additive to the altitudes of the sun : it is found
opposite to the given altitude.
TABLE XI. Correction of the Mean Refraction.
When great precision is required, and at all times \.hen the altitude is small, the refractions
in Table IX. must be corrected by the numbers in this Table, for the variations in the weight
and temperature of the air, indicated by the heights of the barometer and thermometer. The
correction for the barometer is tubtractive when the height of the mercury in the tube is less
than29*6 inches and additive when it is above; for the thermometer the correction is additive
when the temperature is below 50, but subtractive when it is above.
As an example, let it be required to find the true refraction at the altitude of 6 107 the
thermometer standing at 64, and the barometer at 30*3 inches.
8' 15*
By Table IX. at 6 10', the mean refraction is
In Table XI. opposite 6 and above 30-3 stands 12"+ \ ,._ .
"^ *A
1 r AQ \ IS /UIU,,
i
below 64 lo )

True refraction 8 11
 MANNER OF USING THE TABLES. 2-19

This Table it not earned h'ghcr tnan GO of alt., as above that alt. the corrections arc
too email to I e wor h attending to ; and it is only continued to 6, a- below that alt.
l-'or lower alti udes however they
li t'e confidence can be
pla-ed in the corrections, may
rraiii'y
I e dtt rmined approximately by the following Table, observing that the correction
for thennome'er is + when it is lower, and .
when higher than 50; and that for ba-
rometer -|- wlun it is higher, and when lower than 29 6 inches.
-

be-
Multiply the number corresponding to barometer and the altitude, by the difference
tween the height of the barometer and 29-6 inches, and the product will be the correction
for the height of thf barometer.

Multiply the number corresponding to thermometer and the altitude, by the difference
between the height of the thermometer and50, and the product will be the correction for
the thermometer.

Altitude.
250 EXPLANATION OF THE
If the semi-diameter whose inclination to the horizon is 36 had been required, it would
have been found in the same way to be 15' 55" 3" =
15' 52"; and if in
measuring a lunar
distance, the semi-diameter of either object should be inclined to the horizon, it ought to be
corrected for the effect of contraction before it is applied to the distances.
The inclination may easily be computed from the apparent zenith distances of the objects
and their apparent distance, which form the three sides of a spherical triangle. The difference
between a right angle and the spherical angle at either object, is the inclination of the semi-
diameter to the horizon which is to he applied to the distance, and as no great precision is
requisite in the inclination, the angles may be determined with sufficient exactness
by the
scale. (See the use of the Mariner's Scale.)
TABLE XVI. Contains the sun's semi-diameter for every tenth day of each month. In
computing from delicate observations, the semi-diameter may be taken from this Table if the
observer should not have a Nautical Almanac.

TABLE XVII. Correction of the Moon't Meridian Pattage.

This Table is used to deduce the instant at which the moon passes any given meridian, from
the time at which she passes the meridian of Greenwich, as given in the Nautical Almanac.
In the Table, below the daily change in the time of her transit, and opposite the given lon-
gitude is the correction, to be added to the time of her meridian passage at Greenwich in west
longitude, and subtlacted in east, for the required time. And if the longitude in time be
applied to this time by addition or subtraction, according as it is west or east, the correspond-
ing time at Greenwich will be obtained.
EXAMPLE. Required the time at which the moon passes the meridian of 80 W. on Septem-
ber 9th, 1823?
Per Naut. Aim. (see Table XXXII.) the moon passes the meridian of Greenwich on the
h m m
given day at 3 40 , ai>d on the following day at 4 32, whence the daily diff. of her meridian
m
passage or transit is 52 j below the nearest minute to which and opposite long. 80 is 11,
which added to 3 h 40 gives 3h 51 the required time ; and if 5 h 20 m the long, in time were
added to this time, the sum 9 h ll m would be the instant of Greenwich time at which the
moon passed the given meridian.

TABLE XVIII. To compute the Equation of equal Altitudes.

altitudes of the sun as observed on the same

Opposite the elapsed time between equal
day, the logs.A and B are taken from this Table. Proportional parts for intermediate limes
may be taken out at sight.
Thus to 7 h ll m we have log. A 77907 and log. B. 7-5612.

Log. A = log.
.
cosect -, and log B = log. .
cot see Pag* 296

TABLES XIX., XX., XXI, AND XXII.

Tables XIX., XXI., and XXII. contain the declination and right ascension of the sun, and
the equation of time, for app. noon of every day, Greenwich time, in the years 1822, 1823.
1824, and 1825 ; and with the aid of Table XX. these elements may be found for the noon of
any day till 1886.
When the declination is required at the noon of any day in years subsequent to 1825,
seek the given year in Table XX., and observe which of the years 1822, 1823, 1824, and
1825, is on the same horizontal line with it ;
and take the declination, and the daily change
of it, from Table XIX. for the given day of that year. Then from Part I. Table XX.'opposite
the declination, or the several parts of it, and under the given year, take the corresponding
corrections, and their sum will be the first correction; and in Part II. of the same Table,
opposite the nearest minute of declination, and under the given year, will be found the second
correction. If the declination from Table XIX. is increasing, add, but, if decreasing, subtract
the first correction from it, and in all cases subtract the second correction, and the result will
be the required declination.
The equation of time, and its daily change, are taken in the same way from Table XXII.
for the or 1825, which is on tne same line with the given year in
years 1822, 1823, 1824,
Table XX.; and in the first part of that Table, (considering the seconds of arc in the Table
as seconds of time, in daily change,) below the given year will be found the corresponding
correction ; which added to the equation from Table XXII. when the equation is increasing,
 MANNER OF USING THE TABLES. 251
but subtracted when it is decreasing, will give the equation at the noon of the g'uen day.
The nearest ten seconds in the Table to the daily difference may be taken to find the
correction.
Thesun's right ascension being taken from Table XXI- for the given day of the year corre-
sponding to the given one in the column on the left of Table XX., multiply 7-3" by the

periods of 4 years, above the given year, add the result to the right ascension from Table
XXI., and the sum will be the right ascension at the noon of the given day.
EXAMPLE 1st. Required (he sun's declination, August 14, 1867?
1867 is on the same line \viih 1823, we therefore take the declination and its
daily change
for August 14th, 18'23, and find it 14 33' 48" N. 18' 31".

Daily change 0" CW Correction below 1867 3'

23"")
of 1 8 2 42 STable XX. Part I.

Declination. (_ 31 10 J

1831 Correction, Part I 6 15 sum

O' declination, Aug. 14th, 1823 14 33 48

14 27 33
Opposite 19' the nearest minute to 18' 31" and! TJ r n ir
below the given year in Part II j

Required declination 14 27 20

EXAMPLE 2J. Required the sun's right ascension, May 8th, 1854 ?
1854 is the same line with 1822; and the right ascension for May 8th, 1822, is
in
2 h 59 m 14 1 .Now above 1854, in Table XX., is 8, the periods of 4 years'. Hence 7 3"
4. 8 = 58-4", the correction of the right ascension ; therefore 2 59
h m 14* 58'4" +
= 3h Om 12'4' is the required right ascension.
EXAMPLE Required the equation of time for December 28th, 1876?
3d.
1876 being in the horizontal line, in Table XX., with 1824, we take the equation of time
from Table XXII. for December 28th, 1825, and find it to be 2 m 1 29'. +
To daily change 30", the nearest to 29" in Part I. Table XX., below 1876 stands 12" which
we lak as 12*, the correction -f-.

Equation of time, December 28tli, 1824 2" 1

Correction +12
Ditto, December 28th, 1876 1876. 213

The elements correctedin the above manner will be exact

enough for use at sea, *s they
will in all cases be within a few seconds of the truth ; but persons having the Nautical
Almanac need not of course apply to these Tables, which however
for the given year
may be
of the utmost importance to persons who may be in situations where a Nautical Almanac
cannot be had.
If the data from these Tables, or from the Nautical
Almanac, are required for a given
Greenwich time of day they may readily be found with the aid of Table XXX., as explained
in problem XII., page 222.
From 1834 the hourly change of these elements will be given from day to day in the Nau-
tical Almanac. This multiplied by the hours and decimals of an hour in the Greenwich
date will give the correction for Greenwich time. Thus if the
hourly change be 48-3", and
the Greenwich time be 18 h 24 ro =
18'4 h the correction is 48-3" X 18-4
, 789 7" 13' 97" = =
la be added if increasing and subtracted if
decreasing.

TABLE XXIII. Mean Right Aictnuon and Declination of the principalJixrd Start, 8fc.

The mean right ascension and declination of the stars in this catalogue for years subsequent
to 1820, are determined by multiplying the annual variation by the difference between 1820
and the given year, and applying the product to the right ascension and declination given in
the Table by addition or subtraction according as the sign of the variation is or . Thus +
if it were required to find the right ascension and drcli nation of . Leo, or Regulus for
July,
1856, or about 36 5 yean after the beginning of 1820, we have by Table XXIII.
252 EXPLANATION OF THE
R. A. Regulus, January 1st, 1820 9 h 56 m 47'
Annual variation 3-21' 36 X 5= -f- 1 57

R. A. July, 1856 10 44

Declination, Regulus, January 1st, 1820. 12* 50' 36" N

Annual variation, 17-23" x 36-5 = 10 29

Declin. July, 1856 12 40 7

The stars marked in capitals are those from which the moon's distance is given n the
Nautical Almanac for the purpose of finding the longitude.

TABLE XXIV. Correction of ) 't apparent Altitude.

This Table contains the difference of the moon's refraction and parallax in altitude, or the
correction of altitude, to he added to the apparent, to obtain the true altitude.
The moon's apparent altitude, or the nearest less one in the Table being sought in the j

proper column ; on the same line, below the minutes of parallax, will be found the first part
of the correction ; and in the column on the left the seconds of correction corresponding to
the difference between the altitude before taken and the given one; and in the column of
parts for seconds of parallax will be found the parts of correction for every ten seconds, and
also for every single second of parallax ; and the sum of these four parts is the whole correc-
tion.
EXAMPLE 1st. The moon's apparent altitude is 40 35', and her horizontal parallax
58' 37", required the correction of her altitude ?
Opposite 40 30' of ) 's alt. and below 58' is 42* 54"
5 of alt. in the column on the left 3 parts.
30" of parallax in "parts for seconds of parallax". . 22 do.
7 . 5 do.

Correction . . 43 24

EXAMPLE 2d. Given the moon's apparent altitude 58 40', and horizontal parallax 59'23"
to find the correction of her altitude.
5840' below 59' 29' 58"
of alt. in the left column 8 parts.
20" parallax in "parts for seconds of parallax". ... 10
3 2

Correction 30 18

TABLE XXV. Auxiliary Arct used in clearing the Lunar Distance.

If A be the apparent, and // the true altitude of the moon, h' the apparent and //' the true

cos H cos H'

altitude of the sun, then the arc taken from this Table is thai whose cosine is
2 cos h cos h'

This Table is
arranged and used in the same manner as Table
XXIV., requiring only an addi-
tional correction for the altitude of the sun or a star, which correction is found in the column
on the right of the page. To the minutes and seconds taken from the Table, 60 which
stands at the top of each column is to be prefixed. When a planet is one of the objects, in-
stead of the correction for the sun or star's altitude, the correction i.s to be taken from Table
XXVII.
Tables XXIV. and XXV.
being used jointly in the practical methods which we have
selected for clearing the lunar distance from the effects of parallax and refraction, they are
printed on alternate pages, that the same degrees on each Table may appear at one opening of
the book.
EXAMPLE. The moon's app. alt is 67 14', the sun's 30 2', and the moon's horizontal
parallax 54' 55", required the auxiliary arc?
 MANNER OF USING THE TABLES. 253
Ai )' alt. 67 10' and below 54' U 60 27' 37*
at 4' of alt 1
50 seconds of > '* parallax 27
5 ditto 3
To O'* !' 36 corresponds 3

Required arc 60 28 11 sum.

TABLE XXVI. Parallax of the Planelt in Altitude.

Opposite the given altitude of the planet, and below its horizontal parallax, is its parallax
in altitude, which deducted from the refraction corresponding to the same altitude, Table IX.
gives the planet's correction of altitude.

TABLE XXVII. Corrections to be added to the Arcs from Table XXV. in clearing the
Distance between the Moon and a Planet.

When the true distance of the moon from a planet is to be computed, the corrections from
this Table are to be used instead of those for the altitude of or ^f in the column on the
right of Table XXV. This Table is similar iu its form, and used exactly as Table XXVI.

TABLE XXVIII. Decimal Versed and Suversed Sine*.

The figure in each number of this Table is the second decimal figure in the natural
first
versed or suversed sine of the arc to which the number belongs. The Table is used in clear-
ing the distance of the moon from the sun or a star ; and as the true distance never differs
much more than a degree from the apparent one, the figures which are omitted can never be
wanted to discriminate to what degree the versed sine of the true distance belongs, when the
apparent distance is knowr.
To take from the Table the verted sine of a given arc. If the degrees are at the top of the
Table, the minutes will be found in the column on the left; but if the degrees are at the
bottom, the minutes will be found in the column on the right, and the versed sine for the
degrees and minutes will be found in the column "versed" below or above the given degree,
and opposite the given minute and the parts tn be added for the seconds in the given arc are
;

found in the column of "Parts for"" belonging to the given degree, opposite the given
seconds, in the column on the left. This column is marked at the top with', and also both at
//

the top and bottom with [vers] to show that whether the degrees are at the top or bottom of
the Table the secotids are to be sought in the column on the left.
EXAMPLE 1st Required the versed to 63 12' 4.J"?
Below 63 in column "verged", and opposite 12' in the left-hand column stands 49122
Below 63 in column " Parts for"" and opposite 43 in the left-hand column stands 187

Required versed 49J09

EXAMPLE 2d. Required the versed to 138 50' 37"?

Above 138 in column "versed", and opposite 50' in the right-hand column stands 52798
Above 138 in column "Parti for "", and opposite 37 in the column on the left
stands 120

Required versed 52918

Tojtnd Ike Arc corresponding to a given Versed Sine, when the Arc is known to within
about a Degree.
In the column versed corresponding to the given degree, or to one of the degrees imme-
diately adjoining to it, find the versed sine next less than the given one, and the corresponding

degrees and minuted will be those of the required arc. Subtract this versed from the given
and " Parts for""
one, opposite the remainder taken in the belonging to the degree already
taken out, will be fouad the seconds of the required arc in the column on Ike left.
EXAMPLE 1st. The versed sine of an arc known to be within about degree of 54 ii 09237,
required the arc?
In the columns of versed adjacent to 54 we soon find the versed next less than O9'_'.'i7 U

09160, the versed sine of 53 47'.

254 EXPLANATION OF THE
Given versed sine 09237
Versed 53 47' ,. 09160

Difference. 77

To this difference in " Parts for'" corresponds 20" in the column on the If/I, whence the
required arc is 53 47' 20".
EXAMPLE 2d. Required the arc, nearly 113, which corresponds to versed 98341 ?
The versed sine next less than 98341 in the columns adjoining to 1 13 is 98216, the versed
of 113 28', and the difference between this versed sine and the given one is 125, which
found in thecolumn of "Parts for"" belonging to 113 corresponds to 28" in the column un
the left, whence the required arc is 1 13 28' 28".
To find the Suverted Sine of a given Arc,
In taking out the suversed sines the arc it always conceived to be increaied by one minute,
and the parts for seconds are found opposite the given seconds of arc, taken in the column un
the right ; by this means the parts for seconds are made additive in the suversed as well as
in the versed sines.
EXAMPLE 1st. Required the suversed sine of 18 36' 15" ?
Increasing the arc by one minute we have to 18 at the top, and 37' on the left, suversed
"
47676, and in the column of Parts for"" opposite 15" on the right, we have 70 for the parts
for seconds, hence 47676 70 + =
47746 the required suversed sine.
EXAMPLE 2d. Required the suversed sine of 126 19' 34"?
Increasing the arc by one minute we have to 126 at the bottom and 20' on the right,
07518 ;
and in the column of " Parts for"" opposite 34" in the column on the right, we have
102 for the parts for seconds, whence 07518 -\- 102=: 07620 is the required suversed sine.
When the Verted Sine of an Arc exceeding 180 is required, reject "[80 from the Arc and
teek the Suversed Sine of the Remainder.
In taking the sum of several versed and suversed sines, the tens are always to be rejected
from the sum of the left-hand figures, and it will be found convenient to add the sum of the
parts for seconds to ihe sum of those
for degrees and minutes, instead of making a separate
addition for the parts for seconds in each arc.
 MANNER OF USING THE TABLES. 255
When (he first term of the proportion is 3 h or
3, its proportional logarithm being 0, the
the fourth term is obtained by taking the sum of the proportional
proportional logarithm of
logarithms of the second and third ;
and when the second term is 3 h or 3, the proportional
logarithm of the fourth H obtained by subtracting the proportional logarithm of the first term
from that of the third, and it was to facilitate the computing of such proportions that the Table
was originally formed.
Note. From 1834 between every two successive lunar distances in the Nautical Almanac,
the proportional logarithm of their difference will be inserted; and this proportional logarithm
being subtracted from that of the difference between a given lunar distance and the next pre-
ceding one in the Almanac, will give the proportional logarithm of the time to be added to
that corresponding to the said next preceding distance to find the Greenwich time.
As an example we may take that at the bottom of paje 273, where the proportional logarithm
2987 will then be found between the distances 66 5" 2" and 67 35' 31". Hence the com-
putation will stand thus :
True dist. 66 37' 0" diff. 31' 58" prop. log. 7506
Next preceding dist. at 9 h 66 52 subtract '2987

h 3 35
l prop. log. -4519
Time of preceding dist. 9

Greenwich Time 10 3 33

If the of the differences of distance be given to_/Irr places of

proportional logarithms
figures, reject the fifth figure,and increase the fourth by unity if the fifth is 5 or more.
TABLE XXX. To reduce the right Atcention, Declination, Sfc. of the Sun or Moon to any
given Jrutant of Greenwich Time.
One of the chief uses of this Table is that
expressed in the title of it, but it may also be
employed in cases with advantage in taking proportional parts ; for the hours and
many
minutes in the Table may be taken as degrees and minutes, or as minutes and seconds, &c.
Its use in taking
proportional parts of the daily variations in astronomical data is sufficiently
explained at Problem XII., page 222; but as till 1833 the moon's right ascension, &c. are
only given for Greenwich apparent noon and midnight, the following method of finding the
corrections for intermediate times may till that period be useful.
To the logarithm from this Table corresponding to double the given time past noon or mid-
night, add the proportional logarithm of the change of the required number in the 12 hours in
which the given time falls, and the sum will be the proportional logarithm of its change in the
given time, which added to or subtracted from the value of the number for the noon or mid-
night next -preceding the given instant, according as the number is increasing or decreasing,
will give the value of it at the given time. If the change in 12 hours should be too great for
the Table of proportional logarithms, its half, or its third part,
may be taken, and the result
multiplied by 2 or 3 accordingly.
This value, however, when great nicety is required, ought to be further corrected by the
equation of second differences given in the Nautical Almanac.
EXAMPLE. Required the moon's declination, September 16th, 1823, at 4h 10 m A. M.
Greenwich civil time.
*
> declination at midnight, September 15th, (see Table XXXII.) 19 1' 30" S
- 1 57' 58".
Double the time 8 h
given 20, Table log. 4594XXX
Change of declination in 12 hours 1 57' 58" prop. log.. 1835

Correction. . . . 40 57 ditto 6429

19 1 30

Required declination 18 20 33 S.

the of the Table of the Equation of tecond difference* IN the Nautical Almanac far 1831
and 1832.
Prom the Nautical Almanac take four right atcention*, or declinations, two immediately
preceding, and two immediately following the given instant of Greenwich time. Half the
difference between the sum of the first and fo irth, and that of the second and third, will be
the mean second difference ; with which at the top of the Table, and the given time put
noon or midnight inone of the tide column*, the required correction will be obtained;
 256 EXPLANATION, &C.
additive to the right ascension corrected by even proportion, when the sum of the fir<t and
fourth is less, but tubtractive when it is greater, than the sum of the second and third; but
always additive to the declination as corrected by even proportion.
When the four declinations arc not all of the same denomination, the correction of the de-
clination may be found with sufficient exactness by even proportion ; as under such circum-
stances the second differences are always too small to merit regard in nautical practice.

TABLES XXXI. AND XXXII.

These Tables, from the Nautical Almanac, contain the moon's right ascension, declination,
semi-diameter, horizontal parallax, &c., and her distance from the >un and fixed stars used in
finding the longitude for September, 1823; and all the examples in this volume relative to
the moon being adapted to that month, the student is spared the necessity of purchasing a
Nautical Almanac for the mere purpose of being enabled to solve the practical questions given
for exercise. The data in these Tables are for the intervals adopted in the Nautical Almanac
for 1833.

TABLE XXXIII. Logarithm! to compute the Longitude from the difference between the
Transits of the Moon's bright Limb anil a Star.

This Table entered wf th the increase of the moon's right ascension (in time) in an hour
is
of mean The minutes are found at the top, and
time. the seconds and tenths of seconds in
the column below. The parts for hundredtbsof seconds are found in the column of differences

opposite the corresponding tenths cf the second for which the logarithm is sought ; and if
the right hand figure be rejected from the differences, the remaining figures on the left will
be like parts for thousandths of seconds.
Thus if tlie log. corresponding to 2 m 35-479* be required, we have 1 '346928 corresponding
to 2 m 35-4", to 07 we have 204, and to '009 we have 26, both to be subtra. .ed hence the j

correct log. is 1-346698.

TABLE XXXI V. Effect of a Change in the Moon's Semidiameter on the Time of its passing
the Meridian.

Below the moon's declination and opposite the seconds in the change of her semidiameter,
isthe required effect, in seconds of time. For tenths of seconds in the change take the part
answering to the corresponding second, and remove the decimal point one place to the left.
Thus, if the moon's declination be 16 and the change of her semidiameter 4-6*, we have
To 4", below 16 -29'
6 -043

Ans -333

TABLE XXXV. Latitudes and Longitudes of Places, Sfc.

On this Table we shall only observe, that great care has been taken that the information
which it furnishes should be entitled to confidence, as the accuracy of such a Table consti-
tutes its chief value.

TABLE XXXVI. Times of High Witer, 8fc.

The title of this Table so fully explains its

object, that nothing seems wanting in the
way
of explanation.

'I UK KM)

Ix>n Ion: Printed by \V. Cu>wrs. Stamford street.