ADVANCED MANUFACTURING OFFICE

Continuous Energy
Improvement in
Motor Driven Systems

A GUIDEBOOK FOR INDUSTRY

DISCLAIMER
This publication was prepared by the Washington State University Energy Program and the National Renewable Energy Laboratory
for the U.S. Department of Energy’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. Neither the United States, DOE, the Copper
Development Association, the Washington State University Energy Program, National Electrical Manufacturers Association, nor
any of their contractors, subcontractors, or employees makes any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal responsibility
for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus, product, or process described in this guidebook. In
addition, no product endorsement is implied by the use of examples, figures, or courtesy photos.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems and its companion publication, the Premium Efficiency Motor Selection
and Application Guide, have been developed by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy (EERE) with support from the Copper Development Association (CDA). Thanks are extended to the EERE Advanced Manu-
facturing Office (AMO) and to Rolf Butters, Scott Hutchins, and Paul Scheihing for their support and guidance. Thanks are also due
to Prakash Rao of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Rolf Butters (AMO) and Vestal Tutterow of Project Performance Corpo-
ration for reviewing and providing publication comments.

The primary authors of this publication are Gilbert A. McCoy and John G. Douglass of the Washington State University (WSU)
Energy Program. Helpful reviews and comments were provided by Rob Penney of WSU, Vestal Tutterow of Project Performance
Corporation, and Richard deFay of CDA. Technical editing, review, and publishing were provided by DOE’s National Renewable
Energy Laboratory (NREL).

DOE, CDA, WSU, and NREL thank the staff at the many organizations that generously contributed information and/or review for
this publication. Contributions of the following participants are especially appreciated.
• Bruce Benkhart, Director, Applied Proactive Solutions
• Rob Boteler, Director of Marketing, Nidec Motor Corporation
• Dave Brender, National Program Manager, Electrical Applications, CDA
• Wally Brithinee, Brithinee Electric
• Kitt Butler, Director, Motors and Drives, Advanced Energy
• John Caroff, Product Manager, National Electric Manufacturers Association (NEMA) Frame Motors, Siemens Energy and Automation
• Ken Gettman, NEMA
• William Hoyt, Industry Director, NEMA
• John Malinowski, Senior Product Manager AC Motors, Baldor Electric Company
• Howard Penrose, Engineering and Reliability Services, Dreisilker Electric Motors
• Linda Raynes, President and CEO, Electrical Apparatus Service Association

Prepared for: U.S. Department of Energy

Prepared by: WSU Energy Program

This document supersedes and updates DOE’s 1997 publication Energy Management for Motor Driven Systems.

This update includes the following overarching principles within the update:

• All facilities with motor-driven assets are encouraged to use a systems-based approach within any motor management activ-
ity regardless of whether that entails new design, assessment of existing systems, or modifications to those systems. Thereby
all motor-driven systems and the related motors, drives, and related components are selected and operated in such a way as to
match motor-driven system energy needs with the energy delivered by the motor, drive, and related components for optimum
life-cycle costs.

• All businesses, as well as public and private entities that either own, manage, or facilitate motor-driven asset efficiency should
consider both life-cycle energy costs and the energy management approach contained within the International Organization
for Standardization (ISO) 50001-2011 Energy Management Standard and the related American Society of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME) assessment standards for pump, fan (under development), and compressor systems.

Cover photos (top to bottom, left to right) from iStock 22180686; Gates; iStock 15631110; iStock 3667220; David Parsons, NREL 05685; iStock 6962363

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | iii

INTRODUCTION
Energy Management Overview The Department is also working to create a network of
Manufacturing Innovation Institutes (www1.eere.energy.gov/
An energy management system is a systematic approach manufacturing/amp/index.html), each of which will create
to continuously improve energy efficiency through: collaborative communities to target a unique technology
• Gathering and tracking energy use data in advanced manufacturing (www1.eere.energy.gov/
manufacturing/innovation/index.html)
• Establishing a benchmark energy performance
indicator (EnPI) for your facility DOE’s eGuide addresses such topics as:
• Understanding how and where energy is used in • Securing top management commitment to
your plant energy savings
• Conducting energy audits and technical assessments • Appointing an energy manager and energy champions
to identify energy savings opportunities
• Establishing an energy team
• Establishing energy savings targets, objectives,
and goals • Collecting energy use data

• Prioritizing energy savings opportunities to create • Defining a normalized facility energy use baseline
an action plan or benchmark

• Implementing recommended energy savings measures • Establishing an energy tracking system

• Verifying that expected energy savings occur • Conducting assessments to identify and prioritize
energy savings opportunities
• Monitoring and evaluating progress and reporting
results to upper management. • Developing plans to address staff training needs
• Defining purchasing specifications
Interest in establishing energy management systems at the
corporate and individual plant levels has intensified with • Reviewing and reporting progress to upper
the adoption of the International Organization for Standard- management
ization (ISO) 50001–2011 Energy Management Standard, • Integrating energy management best practices into
the American National Standards Institute Energy Man- the corporate culture.
agement Standard (ANSI/MSE) 50021–2012, and with
the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) facilitated Superior AMO also has established a program to enable partnering
Energy Performance Program (SEP).I-1, I-2 manufacturers to obtain technical support and gain national
recognition for their energy management efforts. Under
A number of paper and electronic publications and guid- the Better Plants (www.eere.energy.gov/manufacturing/tech_
ance document are available to assist industries with assistance/betterplants/) program, partners demonstrate
organizing and establishing their energy management their commitment to saving energy by signing a voluntary
systems.I-3, I-4, I-5, I-6 Some provide a “how-to” guide on pledge to reduce their corporate energy intensity (energy
creating, strengthening, building, launching, and maintain- use per unit of product) by 25% over 10 years.
ing an energy management team as well as an outline of the
process and procedural issues. One such resource is DOE’s SEP is a certification program that provides facilities with
eGuide for ISO 50001. For additional information, visit guidance toward achieving continual improvement in
DOE’s Advanced Manufacturing Office (AMO) website at energy efficiency while maintaining competitiveness. A
www.manufacturing.energy.gov. basic element of SEP is implementation of the ISO 50001
energy management standard with additional requirements
The U.S. Department of Energy funds the research, devel- to achieve and document energy performance improve-
opment, and demonstration of highly efficient and innova- ment. Certification requires third party verification of
tive manufacturing technologies. conformance to ISO 50001 and energy performance
improvement. Learn more about SEP (www.superior
energyperformance.net) and the energy management
standard (www.eere.energy.gov/energymanagement).

iv | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

ASME (www.asme.org) has developed a set of standards After completing motor management planning activi-
that support the energy management planning process by ties, plant staff should know their annual electrical energy
providing guidance and protocols for conducting system- use and operating costs associated with all motor-driven
level energy efficiency assessments. While use of these equipment. They should be able to track energy flows in
standards is not required for ISO or SEP certification, their their plant to major energy consuming loads, and sum-
use helps to ensure that energy efficiency opportunities marize energy use by plant process or type of end use
are properly identified, analyzed, and implemented in a equipment (fans, pumps, air compressors, and convey-
systems-focused and life-cycle cost prioritized fashion. ance systems). This information is of use when scheduling
The standards are available through ASME and include: energy assessments or targeting major energy consuming
processes for future study.
• ASME EA-1-2009—Energy Assessment for Process
Heating Systems Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems
• ASME EA-2-2009—Energy Assessment for Pumping takes the reader through the steps necessary to develop
Systems a motor improvement action plan. An action plan indi-
cates which motors should be replaced immediately with
• ASME EA-3-2009—Energy Assessment for Steam NEMA Premium® efficiency models; which should be
Systems replaced with premium efficient motors when they fail and
• ASME EA-4-2010—Energy Assessment for would otherwise require repair; and which motors should
Compressed Air Systems. be repaired (following best practice repair standards) and
returned to service. The action plan also identifies which
DOE also has developed material designed to assist energy motors offer potential adjustable speed drive flow con-
managers with achieving results. An energy assessment trol energy savings opportunities, makes recommenda-
is only the initial step toward project implementation tions regarding establishing a premium efficiency-ready
and the achievement of energy savings. The publication spares inventory, discusses the benefits of accelerated
Guiding Principles for Successfully Implementing Indus- replacement of old standard efficiency motors, discusses
trial Energy Assessment Recommendations contains 11 improvements in maintenance practices and activities,
“implementation principles” that help to define assessment and indicates opportunities for power transmission system
expectations and prepare plant staff for ultimate project efficiency upgrades, and identifies applications suitable for
implementation.I-9 In addition to the resources available adjustable speed drive retrofits.
through DOE, useful publications are also available from
other organizations on related topics such as the depre- Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Sys-
ciation aspects of the tax code, itemizing the “lost tax tems is the successor to DOE’s 1997 publication Energy
revenue” and other “lost revenue streams” that occur when Management for Motor Driven Systems. The updated
efficiency projects are not installed.I-10 publication is revised to focus not only on motors, but
also includes such topics as power transmission systems
Motor management—summarized in Chapter 1—is a (belts and gears), matching driven equipment to process
subset of broader energy management planning activi- requirements, and the application of adjustable speed
ties. It is a logical starting point for initiating an energy drives. While the original publication did include chap-
management program as it includes such common data ters on “tuning” your in-plant distribution systems and the
gathering elements as understanding your utility bill- benefits of power factor correction, a component approach
ing statement and rate schedule; determining incremen- that considers just the motor within a wire-to-work system
tal, time-of-day, or seasonal costs for energy in kilowatt is inadequate. Those conducting energy assessments as
hours (kWh), demand (kW), and power factor penalties; part of an energy management program must consider a
conducting a motor survey; taking field measurements systems approach and recognize and understand compo-
(voltage, amperage, kW); estimating annual motor-driven nent interactions.
equipment operating hours; and identifying and analyzing
motor and drive energy efficiency opportunities. Energy
savings verification often involves taking additional mea-
surements or power logging at the motor control center.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | v

To support the systems approach, this publication indi- MotorMaster+ also contains inventory management, main-
cates how motors of different efficiency classes respond tenance logging, life-cycle costing, energy accounting,
to constant and variable torque loads, illustrates energy energy savings tracking and trending, and environmental
efficient power transmission opportunities, and discusses reporting capabilities. The tool includes a manufacturers
how adjustable speed drives can save energy and reduce database that lists motor price and performance data for
costs in fan applications where flow control is currently thousands of motors sold in North America. Obtain Motor-
achieved with inlet guide vanes or discharge dampers and Master+ at no cost from AMO’s Energy Resource Cen-
in pumping applications where throttling valves are used. ter. The software runs on local or wide-area networks for
Many other DOE publications, including energy tip sheets, access by multiple users.
case studies, sourcebooks, and guidebooks are available
on completing fan, pumping, chilled water, steam, com- This document and the MotorMaster+ software were
pressed air, and process heating assessments I-11, I-12, I-13, developed through AMO as tools to assist manufacturing
I-14, I-15, I-16, I-17, I-18, I-19 Access these publications at AMO’s and process industries with saving energy and remain-
Energy Resource Center (www.eere.energy.gov/ ing competitive. They are most frequently used by plant
manufacturing/tech_assistance/ecenter.html). engineers, facility energy managers, procurement person-
nel, electricians, and maintenance staff. These tools also
Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems are used by energy managers at military bases, federal
also is designed to complement and support DOE’s Motor- buildings, water supply and wastewater treatment plants,
Master+ motor selection and motor management software irrigation districts, utility power plants, hospitals, universi-
tool. MotorMaster+ allows users to create or import an ties, and commercial buildings.
inventory of in-plant operating and spare motors. Motor
load, efficiency at that load point, annual energy use, and
annual operating costs are determined when field measure-
ments are available. The software helps you to identify
inefficient or oversized motors and computes the savings
that would be obtained by replacing older, standard effi-
ciency motors with their premium efficiency counterparts.
The software tool can complete energy savings analyses
for motors with constant or variable loads. Other DOE
software tools are available to help users identify savings
associated with replacing inefficient pumps, fans, and air
compressors.

vi | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

References
I-1 
International Organization for Standardization I-10 
U.S. Department of Energy, Improving Motor
(ISO), Energy Management Systems—Requirements and Drive System Performance: A Sourcebook for
with Guidance for Use, ISO 50001: 2011, June Industry, September 2008.
2011.
I-11 
U.S. Department of Energy, Premium Efficiency
I-2 
U.S. Department of Energy, Superior Energy Electric Motor Selection and Application Guide,
Performancecm Certification Protocol, April 2012. Date to come.

I-3 
U.S. Department of Energy, eGuide for ISO 50001, I-12 
U.S. Department of Energy, Improving Process
December 2011. Heating Performance: A Sourcebook for Industry,
February 2008.
I-4  .S. Department of Energy, eGuide Lite,
U
December 2011 ecenter.ee.doe.gov/EM/SSPM/Pages/ I-13 
U.S. Department of Energy, Improving Pumping
home.aspx. System Performance: A Sourcebook for Industry,
May 2006.
I-5 
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Guide-
lines for Energy Management, www.energystar. I-14 
Casada, Don, “Field Monitoring of Pumping
gov/buildings/about-us/how-can-we-help-you/ Systems and Application of the Pumping System
build-energy-program. Assessment Tool,” prepared for the U.S. Department
of Energy, Office of Industrial Technologies.
I-6 
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Teaming Up
to Save Energy: Protect Our Environment Through I-15 
U.S. Department of Energy, Improving Fan
Energy Efficiency, Document #430-K-04-007. System Performance: A Sourcebook for Industry,
April 2003.
I-7 
U.S. Department of Energy, Superior Energy Per-
formance Measurement and Verification Protocol I-16 U
 .S. Department of Energy, Improving Compressed
for Industry, November 19, 2012, Georgia Tech Air System Performance: A Sourcebook for Industry,
Research Corporation, “Industrial Facility Best November 2003.
Practice Scorecard,” December 2011.
I-17 U
 .S. Department of Energy, Improving Steam
I-8 
U.S. Department of Energy, Guiding Principles for System Performance: A Sourcebook for Industry,
Successfully Implementing Industrial Energy Assess- February 2012.
ment Recommendations, April 2011.
I-18 
Harrell, Greg, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
I-9 
Sachs, Harvey M., Christopher Russell, Ethan A. Steam System Survey Guide, prepared for the
Rogers, and Steven Nadel, Depreciation: Impacts U.S. Department of Energy Best Practices Steam
of Tax Policy, American Council for an Energy- Program, ORNL/TM-2001/263, May 2002.
Efficient Economy, April 2012.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | vii

CONTENTS
GLOSSARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

LIST OF ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv

CHAPTER 1: STARTING YOUR MOTOR MANAGEMENT PROGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1

Benefits of Motor Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
Motor Energy Management Best Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2
Getting Started: Assembling Your Motor Management Team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Analyzing Your Utility Bills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Conducting a Motor Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3
Motor Load and Operating Hour Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4

Identifying Motor Energy Efficiency Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5

Creating Your Motor Management Action Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6
System Efficiency Improvement Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
Power Factor Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-10

CHAPTER 2: UNDERSTAND YOUR UTILITY BILL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

Organize Utility Bills and Production Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2
Establish your Facility Baseline Energy Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
Interpret Utility Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
Service Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
Energy Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7
Demand Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7
Power Factor Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-9
Optional Rate Schedules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Time-of-Use Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Interruptible, Curtailment, and Customer Generator Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
Use Billing Data to Identify Savings Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-11
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-14

CHAPTER 3: CONDUCTING A MOTOR SURVEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1

Motor Survey Techniques and Information Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2
Acquiring Motor Nameplate Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Obtaining Application Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Annual Operating Hour Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Estimating Motor Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
Taking Field Measurements of In-Service Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
Safety Issues in Data Gathering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8
Voltage Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10

viii | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 Current Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11
Power Factor Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-11
Motor Testing Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Voltage Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Current Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-12
Tachometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13
Power and Power Factor Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-13
Motor Analyzers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-14
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-15

CHAPTER 4: MOTOR SPECIFICATION AND SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1

Mandatory Motor Full-Load Efficiency Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2
Nameplate Efficiency Labeling Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3
Horsepower Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
Synchronous Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Full-Load and Locked-Rotor Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5
Full-Load and Locked-Rotor Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6
Frame Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
Enclosure Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
Insulation Class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8
Service Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
Definite and Special Purpose Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10

CHAPTER 5: MOTOR LOAD AND EFFICIENCY ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1

Input Power Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2
Line Current Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
The Slip Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
Variable Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
Determining Motor Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
Motor Load and Efficiency Estimation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-9

CHAPTER 6: ANALYZING MOTOR EFFICIENCY OPPORTUNITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

Calculating Annual Energy and Demand Savings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2
Assessing Economic Feasibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5

CHAPTER 7: MOTOR EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT PLANNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1

Establish a New Motor Purchase Policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
In-Service Motor Energy Efficiency Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
When an Operating Motor Fails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3
When an Existing Motor Does Not Fail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | ix

Motor Downsizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7
Upgrade Old U-Frame to Premium Efficiency T-Frame Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10
Establish a Premium Efficiency-Ready Spares Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-10
Accelerated Replacement of Low-Voltage Standard Efficiency Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-11
Improve the Efficiency of your Medium-Voltage Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-13
Examine Motor Repair Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-13
Prepare an Action Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-15
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-16

CHAPTER 8: SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1

Matching Motor Driven-Equipment to Process Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3
Optimizing the Efficiency of Belted Power Transmission Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5
Notched Belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6
Synchronous Belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6
Rotating Equipment Speed Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6
Gear Speed Reducer Efficiency and Choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7
Use Adjustable Speed Drives for Applications with Variable Flow Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-9
Variable and Constant Torque Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11
Fan and Pump Performance Curves, System Curves, and Flow Regulation
with Throttling Valves and Inlet or Outlet Dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-12
Applications with Static Head Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-14
Duty Cycle and Load Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-16
Part-Load Efficiency of Motors and Adjustable Speed Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-18
Conducting an ASD Energy Savings Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20
ASD Selection Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-24

CHAPTER 9: POWER FACTOR CORRECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2
Power Factor Penalties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2
Power Factor Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3
Sizing Capacitors for Individual Motors and Entire Plant Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-6
Benefits of Power Factor Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-9
Secondary Benefits of Power Factor Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-9
Power Factor Correction Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-11
Avoiding Harmonic Resonances When Installing Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-12
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-13

APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1
Appendix A: Motor Nameplate and Field Test Data Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-1
Appendix B: Average Efficiencies for Standard Efficiency Motors at Various Load Points . . . . . . . . A-2
Appendix C: Motor Energy Savings Calculation Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-6
Appendix D: Motor Repair versus Replace Breakpoint Worksheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A-7

x | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

FIGURES
Figure 1-1. Motor Efficiency and Power Factor Versus Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5
Figure 2-1. Energy Use Profile Reports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3
Figure 2-2. Sawmill Energy Consumption Disaggregation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5
Figure 2-3. Utility Billing Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6
Figure 2-4. Electric Demand Meters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8
Figure 2-5. Utility Rate Schedule with High Demand Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
Figure 2-6. Utility Rate Schedule with Moderate Demand Charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-12
Figure 3-1. Motor Nameplate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4
Figure 3-2. A “Motor Tree” for In-Service and Spare Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6
Figure 3-3. Operating Hour Assumptions Versus Measured Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7
Figure 3-4. MotorMaster+ Motor Efficiency Status Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
Figure 3-5. Industrial Three-Phase Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
Figure 3-6. Instrument Connection Locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9
Figure 4-1. Torque-Speed Curves for NEMA Design A-D Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6
Figure 5-1. Relationships Between Power, Current, Power Factor, and Motor Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3
Figure 5-2. Power Logging Data Displayed in Histogram Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
Figure 5-3. Depiction of Motor Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6
Figure 7-1. Repair and New Premium Efficiency Motor Costs
(for 1,800 RPM TEFC Motors, 2011 Prices) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4
Figure 7-2. Motor Performance at Part-Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
Figure 7-3. Coverage Chart for In-Service 50 hp 1,800 RPM Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-11
Figure 7-4. Coverage Chart for In-Service 75 hp 1,800 RPM Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-11
Figure 7-5. Energy Savings Increase from Accelerated Replacement
of Standard Efficiency Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12
Figure 7-6. Sample In-Service Motor Repair/Replace Tags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-13
Figure 7-7. Sample Repair Versus Replace Decision Path for General Purpose Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-14
Figure 8-1. Sankey Diagram Showing Motor Driven System Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2
Figure 8-2. Pumping System Field Measurements Superimposed on Pump Performance Curve . . . . 8-4
Figure 8-4. Worm Gear Efficiency Versus Gear Ratio and Output Speed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8
Figure 8-5. Variable Frequency Drive Components and Simulated Voltage Waveform . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-10
Figure 8-6. Variable Torque, Constant Torque, and Constant Horsepower Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-11
Figure 8-7. Discharge Damper Flow Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-13
Figure 8-8. Inlet Damper or Inlet Guide Vane Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-13
Figure 8-9. Adjustable Speed Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-13
Figure 8-10. System Curve From Friction Losses Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-15
Figure 8-11. System Curve with a Static Head Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-15

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | xi

Figure 8-12. A Load Profile that Indicates an Excellent ASD Retrofit Opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17
Figure 8-13. A Load Profile that Indicates a Good ASD Retrofit Opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17
Figure 8-14. A Load Profile that Indicates a Poor ASD Retrofit Opportunity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-17
Figure 8-15. Pump with Unregulated Flow, Throttled Flow Control, and ASD Flow Regulation . . . . . . 8-18
Figure 8-16. Motor Efficiency Versus Load Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20
Figure 8-17. Motor and Adjustable Speed Drive Efficiency Contour Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-20
Figure 8-18. Load Profile, Baseline, and ASD Power Requirements Curves
for a Combustion Air Supply Fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21
Figure 9-1. The Power Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2
Figure 9-2. Power Factor as a Function of Motor Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-4
Figure 9-3. Locating Capacitors on Motor Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-6
Figure 9-4. Apparent Power Requirements Before and After
Adding Power Factor Correction Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-7

TABLES
Table 2-1. Sawmill Energy End Use Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4
Table 3-1. Motor Nameplate Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Table 3-2. Typical Motor Load Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Table 3-3. Coupling Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5
Table 4-1. Motor Nameplate Efficiency Marking Standard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4
Table 4-2. NEMA Locked-Rotor Code Letter Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7
Table 5-1. Synchronous Speeds (RPM) for Induction Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4
Table 5-2. Characteristics of Motor Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5
Table 7-1. Motor Rewind Versus Replacement Analysis
(100 hp, 1,800 RPM, TEFC Motor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5
Table 7-2. Operating Motor Replacement Analysis
(75 hp, 1,800 RPM, TEFC Motor) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-7
Table 7-3. Motor Downsizing Versus Efficiency Class of Replacement Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8
Table 7-4. Typical U-Frame to T-Frame Transition Base Prices (2011) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9
Table 7-5. Annual Savings and Net Present Value From a 1% Efficiency Gain
for Large Medium-Voltage Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-12
Table 8-1. Gear Reducer Types, Gear Ratios, and Efficiency Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7
Table 8-2. Energy Savings Due to Retrofit of an ASD onto a Centrifugal Fan
with Discharge Damper Flow Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-21
Table 8-3. NEMA Designated Enclosures for Electrical Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-22
Table 9-1. Industries that Typically Exhibit Low Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5
Table 9-2. Sizing Guide for Capacitors on Individual Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-7
Table 9-3. Multipliers to Determine Capacitor kVAR Required for Power Factor Correction . . . . . . . . 9-8

xii | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

GLOSSARY
cost new motor cost P2 corrected input power

costINST installation cost PAPP apparent power, in kilovolt amperes, kVA

Δcost extra cost for premium efficiency motor PAPP1 

apparent power or demand before
correction, in kVA
ΔDL percent reduction in distribution losses
PAPP2 
apparent power or demand after
ΔE annual electric energy saved, in kWh correction, in kVA

ΔP 
savings from efficiency improvement, PBILLED adjusted or billable power, in kW
in kW
PF power factor as a decimal
ΔV rms voltage across a junction
PF1 power factor before correction
E electric energy, in kilowatt-hours, kWh
PF2 power factor after correction
η efficiency as operated, in %
PR input power at full rated load, in kW
η2 corrected efficiency
PREACT reactive power, in kilovars, kVAR
η1 efficiency before correction
R resistance, in ohms
ηSTD 
efficiency of a standard motor
as operated, in % RateD monthly demand charge, in $/kW-mo

ηEE 
efficiency of an energy efficient rateE tailblock energy charge, in $/kWh
motor as operated, in %
rebate utility rebate for premium efficiency motor
ηPREM 
efficiency of a NEMA premium
motor as operated, in % S measured speed, in RPM

ηR efficiency at rated load SR nameplate full load speed

hours annual operating hours SS synchronous speed, in RPM

hp actual output horsepower savings total savings, in dollars ($)

hp1 output horsepower before correction slip 

synchronous speed – measured
speed, in RPM
hp2 corrected output horsepower
SPB simple payback, in years
hpR nameplate rated horsepower
unbal voltage unbalance, in %
I rms current
V 
root-mean-square (rms) voltage,
IR nameplate rated current, Amps mean line-to-line of 3 phases

load output power as a % of rated power VηMAX 

line to line phase voltage deviating
most from mean of 3 phases
LF load factor, in %
VR nameplate rated voltage
P 
power or demand, in kilowatts, kW

p 
power dissipated in a junction,
in Watts, W

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | xiii

LIST OF ACRONYMS
AC alternating current kVA kilovolt-ampere
AEMT Association of Electrical and Mechanical Trades kVAR kilovolt-ampere reactive
AMCA Air Movement and Control Association kVARh kilovolt-amp-hour reactive
AMO Advanced Manufacturing Office LED light-emitting diode
ANSI American National Standards Institute LF load factor
ASD Adjustable speed drive mm millimeters
BEP best efficiency point MW megawatt
BHP brake horsepower MMBtu million Btu
CDA Copper Development Association MVA megavolt ampere
CMMS computerized maintenance management system MVAR megavolt ampere reactive
CSA Canadian Standards Association NEC National Electrical Code
cfm cubic feet per minute NEMA National Electrical Manufacturers Association
CT current transducer NFPA National Fire Protection Association
DC direct current ODP open drip proof
DOE U.S. Department of Energy OEM original equipment manufacturer
EASA Electrical Apparatus Service Association ORMEL Oak Ridge Motor Efficiency and Load
EERE  ffice of Energy Efficiency and
O PC personal computer
Renewable Energy
PEM- premium efficiency motor-ready
EnPI energy performance indicator Ready
EISA  nergy Independence and Security Act
E PF power factor
of 2007
PG&E Pacific Gas & Electric
EPAct Energy Policy Act of 1992
PLC programmable logic controller
ePEP Plant Energy Profiler
PSAT Pumping System Assessment Tool
FSAT Fan System Assessment Tool
PWM pulse-width modulated
gpm gallons per minute
RMS root-mean-square
GR gear ratio
rpm revolutions per minute
Hz hertz
TEAO totally enclosed air over
hp horsepower
TEBC totally enclosed blower-cooled
I2R resistance?
TEFC totally enclosed fan-cooled
I amperage or current
TENV Totally enclosed fan ventilated
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
TOU time of use
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
V volt
IGBT insulated gate bipolar transistor
V/Hz volts to hertz
IP ingress protection
W watt
ISO International Organization for Standardization
WP weather protected
kW kilowatt
WSU Washington State University
kWh kilowatt-hour

xiv | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

CHAPTER 1
STARTING YOUR MOTOR
MANAGEMENT PROGRAM
CHAPTER 1 | STARTING YOUR MOTOR MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

Benefits of Motor Management Motor Energy Management

Electric motors tend to be taken for granted and are Best Practices
among the least well-managed industrial equipment, Begin to reduce losses and increase profits by starting
even though motor-driven equipment accounts for a motor management program.1-1 A motor management
approximately 70% of the electrical energy consumed program involves proactive rather than reactive actions. It
by process industries.1-1,1-2 This percentage increases to requires gathering data, using this data to target efficiency
approximately 90% for electrical intensive industries such opportunities, and then conducting analyses to determine
as mining, oil and gas extraction, and for water supply, expected energy and cost savings resulting from install-
wastewater treatment plants, and irrigated agriculture.1-3 ing efficiency measures. Information requirements include
electrical utility rates, existence of utility efficiency incen-
Motors that are not properly managed can and do result
tives, and gathering motor nameplate data, application
in billions of dollars in wasted energy and operating costs
information, field measurements (to determine the load
to industry.1-1 Electric motor-driven systems used in U.S.
imposed upon the motor by its driven equipment), repair
industrial process industries consumed 679 billion kilo-
history, and annual operating hours.
watt-hours (kWh) of electrical energy in 1994.1-3 Motors
used in industrial space heating, cooling, and ventilation Include these elements in your motor management
systems use an additional 68 billion kWh. A detailed anal- program:1-4
ysis of the U.S. motor systems inventory indicates that this
energy use could be reduced by 11% to 18% if plant man- • Adopt a new motor purchase policy and a motor
agers implement all cost-effective applications of mature repair/replace policy based on a commitment to select,
and proven energy efficiency technologies and practices.1-3 purchase, and operate premium efficiency equipment.

This chapter describes why and how motor management • Educate the finance and purchasing departments on the
planning should take place. A large industrial plant may value of energy efficiency improvements. Empower
have hundreds or even thousands of motors. These motors them to make decisions based upon “total cost of
operate all kinds of process equipment and their failure ownership” or life cycle costing methodologies.
can result in losses in plant productivity and reductions in • Consider “Model Repair Specifications” (such as
product quality.1-4 All too often, little is known about how ANSI/Electrical Apparatus Service Association
these motors are loaded and how much they cost to oper- [EASA] AR100-2010).
ate. Electrical costs often are treated as a fixed expense
rather than one that can be managed. An old adage states • Identify motors that are mismatched to their load
that “you can’t manage what you can’t measure.” Motors requirements.
typically receive attention only when they fail and shut • Conduct failure analyses to determine the root cause
down a critical operation. Then a hurried decision is made of the failure, correct system issues, and replace
to either repair or replace the failed motor.1-5 Decisions to “problem” motors (e.g., motors that frequently fail and
repair or replace motors consequently are based on motor must be sent out for repair) with motor designs better
availability and simple payback analysis, rather than suited for the application.
evaluation and planning.1-6
• Identify which operable standard efficiency motors
Plant staff must know the appropriate action—repair should be immediately replaced and which motors
versus replace—for each motor before it fails. Motor should be replaced with premium efficiency motors
management involves minimizing operating costs while at their time of failure.
maintaining efficient and reliable production. In most • “Tune” the in-plant electrical distribution system to
cases, replacing a standard efficiency motor with a pre- reduce voltage unbalance to acceptable limits and
mium efficiency motor does pay off—it is just a question eliminate voltage drops due to “hot spots.”
of how fast.1-7, 1-8 The more you know about your in-plant
motor population, the more you can save. In addition to • Reduce power factor penalty charges through instal-
providing the basis for reducing energy use and increasing lation of power factor correction capacitors when
profits, information gathered on motors and driven- economically justified.
equipment can be used to establish effective predictive • Establish effective maintenance programs that will
and preventive maintenance programs, allocate costs “lock in” the projected savings.
between departments, and optimize inventories of spare
motors and parts.1-4

1-2 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 1 | STARTING YOUR MOTOR MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

Getting Started: Assembling blocks of energy use. Examine your utility bills and
Your Motor Management Team always use the marginal energy cost when evaluating the
cost-effectiveness of energy efficiency investments.
A motor management program is a team effort to create
energy awareness, to collect and organize information for
Conducting a Motor Survey
both motors and driven-equipment, and then to identify,
analyze, and implement energy efficiency opportunities. Chapters 3 and 4 contain information on motor survey
Assembling a team solidifies support for developing and techniques and motor selection and specification
implementing motor management strategies.1-5 At a mini- considerations. A comprehensive motor survey includes
mum, this team should include the plant energy manager collecting motor nameplate information, location, main-
or energy coordinator, plant engineer, plant electrician, tenance records, and application type.1-11 It also involves
and the maintenance manager. Including a representa- estimating annual operating hours and taking field
tive from finance often is a good decision as he or she can measurements such as input power, volts, and amperage
translate energy savings into dollar savings and determine per phase, operating speed, and power factor.1-5
the rate-of-return on investment in efficiency measures.
Assign an individual who will be responsible for the motor
The team may wish to use in-house staff to complete survey. This individual must be familiar with the facility
motor surveys and conduct repair-versus-replace analyses layout and be able to identify general, special, and definite
or alternatively, retain an industrial service provider. By purpose motors. The individual must be aware that some
conducting an in-house audit and survey process, plant motors that are used in special applications (such as direct
employees will regard energy as a manageable expense, current [DC] or NEMA Design C crusher-duty motors and
gain the ability to critically analyze the way their facility Design D high slip motors) may have unique operational
uses energy, and become more aware of how their day- requirements such as high starting torque.1-12 Motors also
to-day activities affect plant energy consumption.1-9 The may feature a variety of enclosure types or be designed
team must obtain motor prices or list price discount factors for special or definite purpose applications—such as
from their motor distributor, repair costs from their motor close-coupled pump, C-face, vertical shaft, severe-duty,
service center representative, and information on motor washdown duty, totally enclosed air over (TEAO), right
rebates or other efficiency incentive programs from their angle drive gear, or hazardous location motors. The person
utility account executive. After motor survey informa- doing the survey must be able to safely work around
tion has been collected and while new motor purchase electrical equipment and rotating machinery and attach
and motor repair/replace policies are being developed, the metering equipment to motor leads when the equipment
team should expand to include the plant manager, a rep- is shut down.1-5 Only the plant electrician should attach
resentative from upper management, and the purchasing measurement devices to energized equipment.
staff responsible for motor and drive procurement. Create
Begin the motor survey by obtaining any motor infor-
or purchase an electronic maintenance management sys-
mation that has previously been collected. Questions to
tem where motor inventory and operating history records
ask include: Does the facility use a computerized mainte-
can be maintained.1-10 Such software is often available
nance management system (CMMS)? If so, has motor
from motor manufacturers.
nameplate data been entered? Or is motor purchase and
repair information kept in card files in the maintenance
Analyzing Your Utility Bills department? Newer industrial plants may find that motor
Chapter 2 explains how to interpret your utility bill and lists were supplied for their process equipment, or that
understand charges. Most industrial rate schedules include equipment lists are attached to layout or design drawings.
both an energy charge and a demand charge. The energy Typically, only partial or incomplete information is
charge is equal to the energy rate (in $/kWh) times the available, but the equipment lists may indicate the number
total energy use over the billing period (usually a month). of motors in a plant, and may provide their locations and
The demand charge (in $/kW-mo) is applied to the maxi- horsepower ratings.
mum or peak rate of energy use within the billing period.
The peak demand is based upon the highest rolling aver- Plant personnel often estimate that they have a certain
age energy use over a defined time interval (typically 15 number of motors at a particular location. However, the
or 30 minutes). Many utilities offer rate schedules with experience of auditors shows that, when the motors are
energy and demand charges that vary by season. Some counted, the actual number can be up to three times the
utilities vary their energy rates by the time-of-day, while original presumption.1-5
others charge different rates for different quantities or

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 1-3

CHAPTER 1 | STARTING YOUR MOTOR MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

When motor data is available electronically, it can be rather than repair) you should focus your information
imported into the U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE) gathering and analysis on the large motor population.
MotorMaster+ motor energy management software tool
(or one of many others available from utilities or motor Start with problematic systems. Include systems where
manufacturers). For those who need to conduct motor motors or components are scheduled for maintenance or
surveys and enter data into a motor inventory management replacement.1-4 All large motors operating more than one
system, a Motor Nameplate and Field Test Data Form is shift per day or 2,000 hours per year should be invento-
included in Appendix A. ried.1-4, 1-10 Spares should also be included in the survey of
large motors. Each motor should be tagged with a perma-
Motor Survey Filter Criteria nent identification or equipment number and cataloged.
Add new motors to the inventory database when they
While it might be desirable to inventory all motors in a
are purchased and note the storage location of spares.1-10
facility, it is not always possible or necessary.1-5 Focus
Begin to track motor maintenance actions and identify
first on constantly loaded, general purpose, single-speed,
motors that have required repair in the past.
three-phase, NEMA or International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) metric frame alternating current (AC) As time permits, expand your information gathering and
induction motors rated from 20 through 500 horsepower analysis efforts to include smaller motors. Look for identi-
(hp). Motors of lesser priority from an energy savings cal or similar units used in the same application.1-13 Con-
standpoint include single-phase, DC, synchronous, her- sider systems that have blowers, fans, pumps, or compres-
metically-sealed, centrifuge, crane/hoist, or punch press sors, especially when the flow is controlled by dampers or
motors, motors already coupled to an adjustable speed throttling valves.1-4 Concentrating attention only on large
drive, or motors that operate with intermittent, cyclic, or motors provides an accurate picture of energy flows, but
fluctuating loading. not of energy waste. For example, a 100-hp motor might
have a full-load efficiency of 94%—meaning approxi-
Initially focus on non-specialty motors with easy access
mately 6% of the energy supplied to the motor—or 4.75
and readable nameplates. Place less priority on motors
kilowatts (kW)—is converted into electrical resistance
with cost premiums such as high torque/high slip NEMA
heating losses in the copper winding in the stator and in
Design D motors and motors with synchronous speeds of
rotor bars, magnetic losses in the stator and rotor, fric-
720 revolutions per minute (RPM) or less, which are often
tion in the bearings, and energy absorbed by the cooling
not covered by NEMA’s minimum motor full-load effi-
fan.1-14 Now consider twenty 5-hp motors, each with a
ciency standards.1-13 For these motor classes, there often
full-load efficiency of 88%. The total wasted energy is
is no reliable way of knowing the original or replacement
equal to 12% of the input energy or 10.1 kW—more than
motor efficiency. Medium voltage motor efficiency test
twice the amount lost by the large motor.1-15 The availabil-
procedures are defined in NEMA MG 1-2011 and these
ity of a complete motor inventory helps plant staff track
motors should be included in the overall motor effi-
motor warranties, maintain data for tax depreciation, and
ciency improvement plan. For additional information, see
ensure that an appropriate and sufficient stock of spares is
“Improve the Efficiency of your Medium Voltage Motors”
maintained.
in Chapter 7.

Confine your initial motor survey to the “vital few”—the Motor Load and Operating Hour Estimates
20% of operating motors that account for 80% of electri- Just because a motor has a nameplate horsepower rat-
cal energy consumption. First consider the largest motors, ing of 50 hp does not mean that it is loaded to constantly
running the longest hours, and with the highest constant deliver 50 shaft hp. Industrial energy auditors have found
load.1-13 Given an electricity cost of $0.08/kWh, it costs that, on average, motors are sized so they deliver about
about $150 per day to operate a continuously operating 70%-75% of their rated load.1-5 Actual motor loading in
fully-loaded 100 hp motor.1-5 Many facility managers con- horsepower can be determined by using multi-meters or
sider 60- to 500-hp motors as large, and 1- through 50-hp a true root mean square (RMS) Wattmeter to record the
motors as small. When 1- through 50-hp motors fail, it supply voltage, amperage, or power supplied to the motor.
may cost more to repair the motors than to purchase a new Motor load and efficiency estimation techniques are dis-
premium efficient replacement. Consider determining a cussed in Chapter 5. Motor loading and efficiency can be
“horsepower breakpoint” for your facility (for more infor- determined after entering both motor nameplate and field
mation on this decision-making approach, see Chapter measurement information into the MotorMaster+ in-plant
7, “Motor Efficiency Improvement Planning”). Because inventory module.
the motor replacement decision for small general purpose
motors is obvious (to replace, depending on availability,

1-4 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 1 | STARTING YOUR MOTOR MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

Motors loaded to less than 50% of their rated output are motor loading and overloading. The performance of
candidates for replacement with a downsized (lower HP) lightly loaded motors will be discussed in more detail in
motor. Be cautious when considering downsizing, how- Chapter 8.
ever; existing motors may have been oversized for legiti-
mate reasons, such as high starting torque requirements or Consult with equipment operators to gain their input and
occasional short duration peak loads.1-10 Because modern support. Ask mechanics, maintenance staff, process equip-
energy efficient and premium efficient motors are efficient ment operators, and facility engineers how each piece of
over a wide range of loads, motor oversizing does not motor-driven equipment is operated.1-13 Identify whether
greatly compromise or sacrifice efficient operation. sporadic or continuous operating problems occur.1-4 Ques-
tions to ask include:
Most general purpose three-phase induction motors oper-
• Does the motor operate for one, two, or three shifts?
ate at peak efficiency when they are loaded to about 80%
of their full-rated load. The charts on this page show the • Is a backup pump available and is the pump operation
effect on efficiency and power factor due to both light rotated to produce even wear?

If automatic controls cycle a motor on and off, on-time

versus off-time will have to be estimated. A study con-
d Motor Power Factor Versus Load ducted by an electrical utility compared predictions of
95 motor annual operating hours to results obtained with
data loggers. The study found a wide variation between
90 estimates provided by the end user and the field-measured
Percent Power Factor

annual operating hours. The study concluded that end

85
users have a difficult time providing accurate estimates of
80 annual motor run times.1-16 For constantly loaded motors,
remember that projected energy savings are directly pro-
75 portional to the motor’s annual operating hours.
70 EPAct
mium NEMA Premium Identifying Motor Energy
65
Efficiency Opportunities
60 Chapter 6 contains an overview of motor energy, demand,
5 150 25 50 75 100 115 125 150 and dollar savings analysis techniques. Motor management
Percent Load involves the immediate or gradual replacement of standard
efficiency and energy efficient motors in your plant with
higher efficiency models. Before discussing the benefits of
replacing operating motors with premium efficiency mod-
Motor Efficiency Versus Load Motor Power Factor Versus Load
els, it is useful to summarize some efficiency definitions.
97 95
• Standard efficiency motors include many (but not all)
96 motors
90 manufactured before the Energy Policy Act of
Percent Power Factor

Percent Power Factor

1992 (EPAct) took effect in 1997. EPAct required that

85
95 certain types of motors sold in the United States after
October
80 1997 must meet or exceed minimum full-
94 load efficiency standards for energy efficient motors.
75 covers general purpose NEMA Design A and
EPAct
93 B70motors, with open or totally enclosed
EPAct EPActenclosures,
NEMA Premium
rated at 230 or 460 volts (V), sized NEMA
from 1Premium
to 200 hp,
92 65 with synchronous speeds of 3,600, 1,800, and
and
91 1,200
60 RPM. EPAct does not address special purpose
25 50 75 100 115 125 150 motors 25
or require
50 the 75
replacement
100 of 115older125
standard
150
efficiency motors. Industrial end users can repair old
Percent Load Percent
standard efficiency motors and Load
return them to service
if they wish. Additional information is included in
1-17
Figure 1-1. Motor Efficiency and Power Factor Versus Load.
Chapter 4.
Illustration from Baldor Electric

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 1-5

CHAPTER 1 | STARTING YOUR MOTOR MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

• Energy efficient motors are those with nominal full- a frame adapter or conversion base when considering
load efficiency values that equal or exceed the values motor downsizing.
contained in Table 12-11 of NEMA MG 1-2011. This
• Correct adverse operating conditions such as
table is identical to the EPAct requirements but is
voltage variations, voltage unbalance, and high
expanded to include motor ratings up to 500 hp and
ambient temperatures.1-7
motors with a synchronous speed of 900 RPM.
• Proactively manage your inventory of spare motors.1-6, 1-8
• Premium efficiency motors exceed the performance
of the energy efficient motors by 1 or 2 percentage When rewinding standard efficiency motors that will be
points. The minimum nominal full-load efficiency repaired and returned to service, additional energy and
standards for low voltage premium efficiency motors reliability savings are obtained by using “model” repair
are given in Table 12-12 of NEMA MG 1. The pre- standards based on best practices.1-18, 1-19 Consider adjust-
mium efficiency motor standard has expanded to cover able speed drives for those in-plant motors connected to
medium voltage (5,000 V or less) form-wound motors variable or constant torque loads (centrifugal fans, pumps,
rated between 250 and 500 hp, as given in Table 12-13 and compressors) that must meet variable process flow
of NEMA MG 1-2011. requirements. DC motors supplied by a motor-generator
(MG) set should be upgraded with solid state controls or
Standard efficiency motors up to approximately 200 hp
replaced by an AC motor with adjustable speed drive
are often considered “economically obsolete.” You can
flow control.
identify candidates for replacement by entering utility rate,
rebate, and motor nameplate and operating information
into the MotorMaster+ in-plant inventory module. Then
Creating Your Motor
use the software to quantify energy and dollar savings Management Action Plan
and indicate which standard efficiency motors should be Chapter 7 provides additional details on motor manage-
phased out. ment planning. One of the major goals of a plant man-
ager is to reduce the “total cost of ownership” of plant
Following are some motor energy efficiency strategies: assets.1-20 Many plant managers, however, do not real-
ize that electrical energy costs can account for over 97%
• Specify premium efficiency motors when purchasing
of a motor’s lifetime costs.1-8 Significant savings can be
new motors or rotating equipment.
achieved through increasing motor and driven-equipment
• Immediately replace standard efficiency “problem” efficiency, resulting in a reduction in the amount of energy
motors with premium efficiency motor models. Con- required per unit of production. The motor management
duct a root cause failure analysis for these motors, cor- team should examine energy usage and operating costs for
rect system issues, and consider enclosure upgrades. each plant process and piece of motor-driven equipment.
Chronic motor failures can be due to misuse, mis- They should then determine how purchasing and installing
application, unsuitability for the operating environ- premium efficient motors can reduce these costs.
ment, misalignment/vibration, or poor maintenance
practices. Some industries have attempted to decrease ownership
costs through standardization, e.g., replacing old U-frame
• Immediately replace standard efficiency motors with motors with T-frame motors or through purchasing only
premium efficiency models when cost-effectiveness motors with totally enclosed fan-cooled enclosures or
criteria are met or replace standard efficiency motors establishing a corporate policy to purchase all motors from
with premium efficiency motor models when standard a single manufacturer. Motor manufacturers or distributors
efficiency motors fail and when cost-effectiveness often reward volume purchasers with a larger discount on
criteria are met. motor list prices. Another important goal is to improve
• Replace oversized standard efficiency motors with uptime by installing reliable motors. Many industries are
premium efficiency motors that are matched to the attempting to reduce downtime by specifying the purchase
load requirements, i.e., operating at about 80% of the of severe-duty or Institute of Electrical and Electronics
rated motor horsepower. This results in the motors Engineers (IEEE) 841 petroleum and chemical duty
operating near their peak efficiency points and pro- motors.1-20 The food and beverage and pharmaceutical
vides for longer thermal life. Consider locked rotor or industries require frequent equipment sanitation, and
starting torque and load cycling requirements when special washdown duty motors have been developed for
selecting the replacement motor. Include the cost of that application.

1-6 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 1 | STARTING YOUR MOTOR MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

Motor repair/replace decision rules are sometimes pre-

sented in the form of a “horsepower breakpoint” chart. For
Helpful Tip
a selected number of annual operating hours and for the
electrical energy rate in effect at your plant, the breakpoint Avoid Decision-Making Based on Outdated
chart indicates the motor horsepower rating above which Information or Energy “Myths.”
you repair failed motors and below which you recycle
Some industries have adopted “decision rules” to
rather than repair the motors.1-10 Recycled motors are to
govern motor repair/replace actions. Often,
be replaced with premium efficiency motor models. For
decision rules are invalid because they are based on
additional information on horsepower breakpoint charts,
dated or incorrect information. One rule of thumb
see Chapter 4 “Premium Efficiency Motor Application
often found in motor management publications is
Considerations” of DOE’s Premium Efficiency Motor
that a premium efficiency motor should be
Selection and Application Guide.
purchased when the repair will cost more than 60%
For the use of breakpoint charts to be an effective repair/ of the cost of the new motor.1-10 Other industrial
replace decision-making tool, separate charts must be con- motor management planning guides recommend
structed for each motor speed (3,600 RPM, 1,800 RPM, that when the cost of downtime per hour for a
1,200 RPM) and enclosure type present in your plant. critical application exceeds twice the purchase
Some breakpoint chart users recommend that the charts be price of a premium efficiency motor, the premium
efficiency motor should be installed at the earliest
prepared first and used as a motor survey filter. The motor
possible opportunity.1-10 Yet others suggest
surveys then start at or very near the horsepower break-
replacing failed large motors with premium
point. Breakpoint charts can allow an energy management
efficiency motors after the motor has been in
team to develop useful policy directions without gathering
service for 10 to 15 years.1-20 Another decision rule
a huge quantity of information.
is that older standard efficiency motors (with full-
Ultimately, it is recommended that a comprehensive motor load efficiency values below MG 1 Table 12-11)
survey be completed and then the cost effective repair/ should not be rewound. The failed motor should be
replace action for each motor in your plant be determined scrapped and replaced with a premium efficiency
using the MotorMaster+ software tool. Tag motors so the motor.1-4 Others recommend that old standard
maintenance staff takes the correct action when an oper- efficiency motors operating for 2 or 3 shifts per day
ating motor fails. See Figure 7-6 for Sample In-Service should be immediately replaced with premium
Motor Repair/Replace Tags. efficiency models, while standard efficiency motors
operating for a single shift per day should be
Establish an on-site premium efficiency motor-ready replaced upon failure.1-21
(PEM-Ready) spares inventory to ensure that a premium The adoption of generalized decision “rules of
efficiency motor is installed when it is the recommended thumb” should be avoided as they can lead to
replacement for a failed standard efficiency motor. A incorrect decisions. Decisions should be based on
PEM-Ready spares inventory is established by identifying the motor management action plan, which
motor ratings and frame sizes where a number of stan- considers actual operating schedules, utility rates,
dard efficiency motors are in operation and no premium end-use applications, and motor repair versus
efficiency spare is available in the event of a standard new motor purchase costs in effect at your plant.
efficiency motor failure. Purchasing premium efficiency
motors to store in the on-site spares warehouse ensures
that a premium efficiency motor is installed when a Implementing your motor management action plan begins
standard efficiency motor fails and replacement is recom- with these steps:
mended. The failed standard efficiency motor should be
recycled and a new premium efficiency motor purchased • Assemble your motor management team.
to replace the premium efficiency motor that was removed • Create motor repair/replace breakpoint charts.
from the spares warehouse and put into service. In this
manner, the PEM-Ready spare inventory automatically • Conduct a motor survey.
replenishes itself. A PEM-Ready spares inventory is nec- • Create a motor purchase policy.
essary when replacement premium efficiency motors are
not immediately available from a local distributor. • Make purchase decisions based on life cycle costing,
not on first cost alone.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 1-7

CHAPTER 1 | STARTING YOUR MOTOR MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

• Adopt best practices repair standards based upon Extend your efforts to optimize the performance of
ANSI/EASA AR100-2010. pumping systems, compressed air systems, fan systems,
chilled water systems, and fuel-fired equipment such as
• Immediately replace problem motors or motors that
furnaces, boilers, and ovens. Many systems use constant
are shown by predictive maintenance or condition
speed motors with process flows mechanically regulated
assessment techniques to be progressively deteriorat-
by throttling valves, discharge dampers, inlet guide vanes,
ing and/or in danger of failure.
or fluid couplings. These devices are inherently inefficient,
• Consider the immediate replacement of operating as energy dissipates across the throttling device.1-4 Many
motors with premium efficiency motors when the techniques are available to match fan, pump, and blower
MotorMaster+ software indicates it is cost-effective. operations to actual system requirements, including speed
modulation, equipment modifications, equipment resizing,
• Consider downsizing motors loaded at less than
booster or pony pump applications, and changing inlet or
50% of full-load.
outlet conditions.1-22
• Determine the availability of utility incentives.
• Investigate price discounts available through Power Factor Correction
volume purchases. Chapter 9 includes the definition of power factor, dis-
cusses utility imposed low power factor penalties, and
• Determine the appropriate action to take upon motor
provides examples of how to determine the benefits
failure. Know which motors should be repaired
associated with the installation of power factor correction
using best practices. Tag standard efficiency motors
capacitors. The chapter also discusses capacitor sizing for
that should be replaced with premium efficiency
individual motors or entire plant loads and provides tips
models when they fail.
on locating capacitors. Also included is a section on the
• Establish a PEM-Ready spares inventory. secondary benefits due to power factor correction and a
discussion of how to avoid harmonic resonances when
• Use environmentally acceptable methods for
installing capacitors.
recycling motors.1-4
• After premium efficiency motors have been installed, Use the success of your motor management program
take the measurements necessary to validate the to launch your inclusive corporate energy manage-
energy and dollar cost savings. Take the measure- ment program. DOE has produced a wealth of tools and
ments necessary to validate the energy and dollar cost information to assist industrial plant staff in their energy
savings after premium efficiency motors have been management efforts. This information includes eGuide and
installed. eGuide lite, energy tip sheets, best practices sourcebooks,
technical case studies, and performance spotlights.
• Make your program visible. Share successes to build
support so that your motor efficiency improvement In addition to MotorMaster+, DOE makes available
efforts can be extended to include process modifica- the following software tools at no cost. These tools are
tions and efficiency measures for driven-equipment. designed to assist the facility or corporate energy manager
with tracking energy use and identifying and analyzing
System Efficiency savings from efficiency opportunities. These tools include:
Improvement Opportunities
• Plant Energy Profiler (ePEP)
Chapter 8 addresses energy savings from motor systems.
The system definition usually includes a distribution • MotorMaster International
transformer, motor starter, soft starter, or adjustable • Pumping System Assessment Tool (PSAT)
speed drive, electric motor, mechanical power transmis-
sion components (belts/pulleys or gear reducers), and • AirMaster+: A Compressed Air System
the driven equipment. Energy savings may come from Assessment Tool
matching motor driven-equipment to load requirements, • Fan System Assessment Tool (FSAT)
from mechanical power transmission system (belt and
gear) upgrades, and from adjustable speed drive retrofits. • Steam System Assessment Tool (SSAT)
The primary energy efficiency opportunities in fluid • 3EPlus Insulation Thickness Optimization Tool
handling equipment exist beyond the shaft of the motor.

1-8 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 1 | STARTING YOUR MOTOR MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

• Process Heating Assessment and Survey Tool (PHAST)

• Chilled Water System Analysis Tool (CWSAT)
• Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Tool
• NOx and Energy Assessment Tool (NEAT)

For additional information or resources on efficiency

improvement measures for motors or motor-driven
equipment, visit DOE’s Advanced Manufacturing Office
(AMO) Energy Resource Center (www.eere.energy.gov/
manufacturing/tech_assistance/ecenter.html).

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 1-9

CHAPTER 1 | STARTING YOUR MOTOR MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

References
1-1 Copper Development Association, Inc., Motor 1-12 Advanced Energy, Solutions for Industry: Metric
Management Best Practices, Part 1: Creating Motors, June 1997.
a Motor Inventory, Repair/Replace Guidelines,
March 2012. 1-13 Nailen, Richard L., How to Conduct a Preliminary
Motor Energy Audit, Electrical Apparatus, March
1-2 de Almeida, Anibal, Joao Fong, and Hugh Falkner, 1996.
Institute for Industrial Productivity, Best Practices
in Energy Efficient Industrial Technologies: Motor 1-14 Carbon Trust, Motors and Drives, November 2011.
Systems, August 2011.
1-15 Nailen, Richard L., “Do the Largest Motors Always
1-3 U.S. Department of Energy, United States Waste the Most Energy?” Electrical Apparatus,
Industrial Motor Systems Market Opportunities June 2001.
Assessment, December 1998.
1-16 Thompson, Mark and Chris L. Dent, PGE Drive
1-4 Canadian Industry Program for Energy Power Program Evaluation: The Accuracy of
Conservation, Energy-Efficient Motor Systems Customer-Provided Operating Hours and Motor
Assessment Guide, Office of Energy Efficiency, Loading Assumptions, 1994 ACEEE Summer Study
Natural Resources Canada, 2001. on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, American Coun-
cil for an Energy-Efficient Economy, v. 8: Measure-
1-5 Advanced Energy, Motor Survey: How-To Guide, ment and Evaluation, pp. 8.215–8.224.
1997.
1-17 Copper Development Association, Inc.,
1-6 Consortium for Energy Efficiency, Strategies, “Weyerhaeuser Policy Calls for Premium Efficiency
Tools, and Resources for Developing a Compre- Motors and Transformers,” Copper Applications:
hensive Motor Management Plan, Motor Planning A Case Study, 2002.
Kit, Version 2.1, developed for the Motor Decisions
Matter Campaign, 2007. 1-18 U.S. Department of Energy, Model Repair
Specifications for Low Voltage Induction Motors,
1-7 Consortium for Energy Efficiency, Efficient Motors: DOE/BP-2748, November 1999.
Selection and Application Considerations, 1999.
1-19 Electrical Apparatus Service Association, Inc.,
1-8 Consortium for Energy Efficiency, The 1-2-3 Recommended Practice for the Repair of Rotating
Approach to Motor Management, Version 6.5, Electrical Apparatus, ANSI/EASA AR100-2010,
for Motor Decisions Matter, 2007. October 2010.

1-9 Canadian Industry Program for Energy Conserva- 1-20 Holmquist, John R., “Forest Products Company
tion, Energy Savings Toolbox—An Energy Audit Selects IEEE Standard 841 Motors,” IEEE Industry
Manual and Tool, prepared for Natural Resources Applications Magazine, May/June 1999.
Canada, 2007.
1-21 Malinowski, John, Electrical Efficiency: Spec the
1-10 Advanced Energy, Horsepower Bulletin… Right Motor and Drive for Lifecycle Performance,
Solutions for Industry: Implementing a Basic Baldor Electric Company, November 2011.
Policy for Industrial Motor Repair/Replacement.
1-22 Ontario Hydro, Performance Optimization
1-11 Consortium for Energy Efficiency, Motor Effi- Assessment Guide for Fan, Pump, and Blower
ciency, Selection, and Management: A Guidebook Systems, 1991.
for Industrial Efficiency Programs, May 2011.

1-10 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

CHAPTER 2
UNDERSTAND
YOUR UTILITY BILL
CHAPTER 2 | UNDERSTAND YOUR UTILITY BILL

This section illustrates various billing strategies that may be or 30-minute power draw over the preceding year? Is a
applicable at your facility. Contact your utility account repre- power factor penalty or kilovolt-ampere (kVA) charge
sentative for detailed information about your rate schedule. levied? Are rates seasonally differentiated or higher during
certain periods of the day? Is a declining or inverted block
The first step in reducing energy costs is knowing where structure used for assessing energy charges? The answers
your energy dollars are being spent.2-1, 2-2 How much is to these questions tell you where to look for both energy
used for lighting, air conditioning, air compressors, and and cost savings.2-2
refrigeration systems? What portion of the electric bill
is for electrical energy consumption (kWh) versus peak
power demand (kW)? Are demand charges ratcheted, Organize Utility Bills
i.e., are monthly charges linked to the highest 15-minute and Production Data
Energy accounting involves recording and analyzing both
energy use and cost data. This process helps you establish
Helpful Fact a baseline for energy use at your facility and 2-3
Concepts of Power and Energy
• Accounts for current energy use
The basic unit of power in electrical terms is a watt
• Identifies areas with the greatest savings potential
(W). Because this unit is very small, a unit 1,000
times as large (the kilowatt or kW) is frequently • Justifies capital expenditure decisions
used. One megawatt (MW) is 1,000 kW. One
• Quantifies the results of investments in energy
horsepower is 746 W or 0.746 kW.
efficiency measures
Power is the rate of energy use. The amount of
• Gains management support
energy used by a motor-driven system is directly
proportional to the power required by the system • Detects spikes in demand or increases in energy use
times the period of time it is operating. Since power is
• Identifies billing errors
expressed in kilowatts and time in hours, the
conventional unit of energy is kilowatt-hours (kWh).2-1 • Allows for comparison of the energy efficiency of
your facility or process with that of similar facilities
Power and energy measurements are used to
determine loads on equipment, energy consumption,
or processes.
operating costs, and to verify proper system sizing To establish an energy accounting program:
and operation. To measure power, use a power
meter or take advantage of the fact that power is • Locate all meters and submeters within your facility.
proportional to the product of circuit voltage (V),
amperage or current (I), and power factor (PF).2-1 • Determine which building(s) or process(es) are served
For a three-phase system: by each meter.
• Obtain copies of all utility bills for at least 1-year.
Pi = V × I × PF × √3 • Ensure the facility is on the proper utility rate sched-
1,000 ule. Often, electrical utilities offer different sched-
ules—such as general service, large general service,
Where: primary general service, high-voltage general service,
or high-voltage interruptible service—based on the
Pi = three-phase power, in kW
type and reliability of services provided.2-1 The best
schedule for your facility may change over time.
root-mean-square (RMS voltage,
V = • Obtain monthly and annual feedstock, production,
mean line-to-line of 3 phases)
or throughput data at the facility or process level
I = RMS current, mean of three phases (or both).
• Sort utility bills by building or meter and organize
PF = power factor as a decimal bills into 12-month blocks using meter read dates.
• Organize historical energy and production data so that
energy management performance can be measured

2-2 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 2 | UNDERSTAND YOUR UTILITY BILL

Monthly Electricity Cost

$18
kWh$ kW$ PF$
$16
$14
Dollars (Thousands)

$12
$10
$8
$6
$4
$2
$0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Total Cost: $171,443

Monthly Energy Consumption 2010–2011

7 2010 2011

5
kWh (Millions)

4
3

2
1

0
Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun

Figure 2-1. Energy Use Profile Reports. Illustration from EM4MDS

against a baseline year. Typically, the year before an as million Btu (MMBtu) or kWh/square foot per year or
energy management program begins is selected as the MMBtu, or kWh/unit of production per year.
baseline.2-3
Electricity use information is often presented in graphs
• Establish a benchmarking metric that makes sense such as the following:2-3
for your business. Benchmarks are often expressed as
energy use per unit of product, such as kWh/gallon, • Electricity consumption by month (kWh) for a given
kWh per million board feet, or kWh per bale of pulp. facility, meter, or process

Information about energy use can be presented in a graphi- • Electrical demand by month (kW)
cal format, as shown in Figure 2-1. For industrial facili- • Energy and demand costs by month
ties, energy efficiency is properly expressed in terms of
the energy performance indicator (EnPI). The EnPI is the • “Rolling average” energy consumption
energy required per unit of feedstock consumed or energy • “Rolling average” energy intensity (MMBtu or kWh/
used to produce a unit of product. Units of production unit of product)
may reference the number of products produced, product
weight, or volume. Energy savings are then reflected in a • Facility production by month.
reduction in the energy-intensity ratio—often expressed

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 2-3

CHAPTER 2 | UNDERSTAND YOUR UTILITY BILL

schedule, feedstock variations, or change in product mix.

Helpful Tip A single or multi-variable regression analysis may be
required to track energy use over time.2-4, 2-6 A regression
The Plant Energy Profiler (ePEP) software tool is equation allows for an estimate of future energy consump-
available to help companies profile their energy use tion based on changes in these independent variables. This
and identify potential cost savings. It is available technique provides reliable projections of future energy
from AMO’s Energy Resource Center (www.eere. consumption and is necessary for the subsequent determi-
energy.gov/manufacturing/tech_assistance/ nation of energy savings.2-4
ecenter.html).
DOE’s EnPI Tool (https://ecenter.ee.doe.gov/EM/tools/
Pages/EnPI.aspx) assists industries with their energy
baselining and regression analysis efforts.2-7 Access the
Establish your Facility tool at AMO’s Energy Resource Center (www.eere.energy.
gov/manufacturing/tech_assistance/ecenter.html). In addi-
Baseline Energy Use tion, the U.S Environmental Protection Agency maintains
An energy baseline is the reference point against which a database of energy performance indicators for many
future improvements in plant energy performance must be energy-intensive industries. This database allows you to
compared.2-4 A baseline creates a benchmark for compar- benchmark your facility against similar production plants
ing energy performance from year to year.2-5 The baseline by making plant-to-plant energy efficiency comparisons.
typically encompasses one year’s time period, and can be The EPA database may be accessed at www.energystar.gov/
established at the company, facility, department, or process index.cfm?c=in_focus.bus_industries_focus.
level.2-4
Once a baseline energy consumption profile is established,
Energy use over time is often dependent upon one or you should break out the total connected horsepower
more independent variables, such as weather, operating and estimate the quantity of energy used by type of

Table 2-1. Sawmill Energy End Use Summary.

Process Electricity Use, kWh Percentage of Total Use Cost

Blowers 484,600 4.8% $12,115

Chippers 101,600 1.0% $2,540

Air Compressors 1,911,200 19.0% $47,480

Hog 76,700 0.8% $1,917

Hydraulic Motors 857,800 8.5% $21,445

Saw Motors 2,092,000 20.8% $52,300

Planer Motors 132,700 1.3% $3,317

Kiln Fans 2,033,800 20.2% $50,845

Boiler Fans 268,900 2.7% $6,722

Lights 376,400 3.7% $9,410

Misc. 1,741,390 17.3% $43,534

2-4 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 2 | UNDERSTAND YOUR UTILITY BILL

Air Misc. 17% 1. Service days: The number of days in the billing cycle.
Compressors
19% 2. Meter number: The number shown on the face of
Hydraulic the meter.
Motors 8%
3. Meter type: There could be one or more of the
Blowers 5% following types of meters:
Lights 4%
Kiln Fans Energy consumption and demand: This
A. 
Boiler Fans 3%
20% measures kWh and kW.
Planer Motors 1%
Chippers 1% B. Reactive energy only: This measures kVARh
Saw Motors 21% (kilovolt-amp-hour reactive), which is used to bill
for low power factor (generally less than 95%).
Figure 2-2. Sawmill Energy Consumption Disaggregation. Energy, demand, and power factor: This meter
C. 
can measure all three.

plant load (pumps, fans, compressors) or determine the 4. Meter reading: The actual reading taken from
annual energy use for each industrial process. You can the meter.
then focus your efforts on identifying and analyzing
5. Multiplier: The multiplier is stamped on the front of
energy efficiency opportunities. You should also verify
the meter and is used in calculating the kW demand,
annual energy and cost savings from installed efficiency
total kWh consumption, or total kVARh consumption.
measures, examine seasonal loads, consumption trends,
and anomalies or unexplained peaks in energy use or 6. Consumption: The actual meter reading multiplied
demand. Such peaks may indicate equipment malfunction by the meter multiplier in kWh or kVARh. Reactive
or a meter reading error.2-3 An example of the types of power is the nonworking power caused by magnetiz-
energy end uses at a sawmill is summarized in Table 2-1 ing currents required to operate inductive devices such
and shown in Figure 2-2. as transformers, motors, and lighting ballasts, and it is
used as the basis for power factor charges.
Interpret Utility Charges 7. Demand: This is the actual kW demand and is cal-
culated by multiplying the kW meter reading by the
A typical electric bill is shown in Figure 2-3. If you look
meter multiplier. The demand kW shown is the highest
at your own electric bill, it probably tells you how much to
kW recorded by this meter in any 15-minute duration
pay, but generally does not tell you where the total came
over the monthly billing period.
from. In contrast, most industrial facility bills include
two, three, or more basic charges plus multiple “riders” 8. Power factor (PF): The PF percentage shown on
or energy and demand cost adders.2-1, 2-2 These different the bill is determined from the kVARh consumption
charges vary widely from utility to utility. Therefore, your described above, along with the real (working) power
strategies to reduce energy costs depend heavily upon the and apparent (total) power. The actual charge for PF
rate structure applicable to your facility. below 95% is calculated by multiplying the kVARh
consumption by the kVARh rate.
Some industries purchase energy from a third-party sup-
plier with the local utility only assessing transmission and 9. Rate code: This is the rate that applies to the meter
distribution charges. In this case, the energy manager must number shown. For customers with multiple meters,
obtain monthly billing statements from both the local util- more than one rate schedule may apply.
ity and the third-party energy supplier.
10. Unit charge: The rate being charged for the rate code
While your utility bill indicates how much energy and shown. If the rate is not shown, you could have a
power you used, the rate structure is your guide for deter- time-of-use meter. In that case, a second statement is
mining how costs are allocated and computed.2-2 Let’s included with your bill that shows the off-peak and
examine the most common charges shown in Figure 2-3, on-peak schedule charges.
a sample monthly commercial/industrial billing statement.
The descriptions below relate to the numbers in Figure 2-3.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 2-5

CHAPTER 2 | UNDERSTAND YOUR UTILITY BILL

11. Service charge: A monthly charge often referred to as on transformer size. Some utilities establish a minimum
the basic, facilities, or customer charge. It is generally billing amount or offer a variable service charge, which
stated as a fixed cost based on transformer size. is dependent upon peak demand.2-2 One California utility
offers a series of pumping rate schedules that have ser-
12. Cost adders: Including taxes and social benefit vice charges based on the total horsepower of connected
charges. These can be in the form of $/kWh or $/kW load. These service charges apply in every billing period,
charges, or both. including months when little or no energy is actually used.
Typical service charge structures are given in Example 2-1.
Service Charge
This monthly charge is often referred to as the basic, facil-
ities, or customer charge. The service charge is designed Basic monthly charge: $760
to recover fixed utility costs associated with activities such Facilities charge: $2,865/month
as operations and maintenance, administration, meter-
ing, and billing. It is generally stated as a fixed cost based
Example 2-1. Basic Service Charge Structures

Account Number Service Address Due Date Amount Due

09-06-12 50,990.19

Customer Name Previous Charges 62,970.32

Payments – Thank you 62,970.32 CR
Balance Forward .00

2 3 4 5 6 7

Billing Period Meter Reading

Consumption Demand Power Rate Unit
Multiplier Amount
Meter kWh kW Factor Code Charge
Start End Type Present Previous
Number
07-24-12 08-22-12 219839 kWh 40983 30538 10 104450 89 8 146.23
07-24-12 08-22-12 040597 kWh 98236 7721310 2 0230 34 6,760.30

07-24-12 08-22-12 Dmd 35.75 10 357.5 464.75

07-24-12 08-22-12 116281 kVh 74697 70763 10 39340 91 81 55.00
07-24-12 08-22-12 110989 kWh 96391 27739 10 86520 34 2,370.65
07-24-12 08-22-12 Dmd 24.80 10 248.0 322.50
07-24-12 08-22-12 011252 kWh 10080 9988 40 3680 31 121.44
07-24-12 08-22-12 049054 kVh 39082 36249 100 28830 91 81 396.62
07-24-12 08-22-12 048202 kWh 48924 42490 100 648400 39 10,775.10
07-24-12 08-22-12 Dmd .01 100 1383.0 815.97
07-24-12 08-22-12 028489 kWh 56973 51611 1 5362 31 176.95
07-24-12 08-22-12 091219 kVh 54215 41505 10 127100 94 61 177.94
07-24-12 08-22-12 089971 kWh 58139 20687 10 374820 35 9,557.91
07-24-12 08-22-12 Dmd 59.64 10 638.4 827.32
07-24-12 08-22-12 090690 kVh 33085 30610 10 24750 78 81 34.65

8 9 10

Total Charges This Period 50,990.19

Service Charge 1,000.00
Amount Due $51,990.19

Figure 2-3. Utility Billing Statement.

2-6 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 2 | UNDERSTAND YOUR UTILITY BILL

Energy Charges
All utility rate schedules include an energy charge (some- Helpful Tip
times called “usage”).2-2 The energy charge is based on the
total number of kWh consumed over the billing period. Your plant’s electricity costs may be reduced by
Many utilities offer energy charges that are seasonally revising operating schedules, replacing inefficient
differentiated, while some offer rates that vary with the equipment, or selecting a different utility rate
time of day (time of use or TOU schedules). Some utili- schedule that better fits your pattern of
ties charge the same rate for all kWh used, while others electricity use.
charge different rates for different quantities or “blocks” Ask your electric utility representative for printed
of energy. You must use the “tailblock” or marginal energy rate schedules that describe the various rates
cost when calculating the cost-effectiveness and feasibility available and to illustrate how charges are
of investments in energy efficiency measures. calculated. Most electric utilities are willing to
change a customer’s rate schedule free of
With a declining block schedule, the charge per kWh charge.2-4 Some utilities require that customers
is reduced for each successive block, making the cost remain on a rate schedule for a contract period of
per unit less when more electricity is used.2-1 With an one year.
“inverted” block structure, the unit price increases for each
incremental block. You can consolidate meters to take full
advantage of declining block rate schedules. A sample period. These “sliding window” demand meters record
declining block rate structure is shown in Example 2-2. demand and then scan for the largest demand interval
regardless of starting time.2-2 Short periods of intense use,
such as an 8-second motor start-up, have little or no effect
3.636¢/kWh for the first 40,000 kWh
on recorded demand. A demand meter is depicted in Fig-
3.336¢/kWh for all additional kWh ure 2-4.2-3 Utilities are increasingly using digital meters
and make billing data available online.
Example 2-2. Declining Block Rate Structure A few utilities base their demand charge on a facility’s
instantaneous peak power requirement. In this case, short
periods of intense use or motor start-ups after a power out-
Demand Charge age can significantly increase demand. You can eliminate
Peak demand charges can account for more than half of demand spikes by sequencing the start-up of large motors
the electric bill in an industrial plant. Demand charges are so that their individual peak demands are staggered.
based on your maximum or peak rate of energy use. The
demand charge is similar to a utility “overhead expense” Types of Demand Charges
as it is designed to recover costs associated with provid- Direct Demand Charges
ing and maintaining enough transmission, switchyard, You may be billed directly for demand charges at a rate
and distribution infrastructure to meet your peak electrical ranging from less than $2/kW per month to more than $25/
load.2-8 Demand charges also cover the costs to the utility kW per month, depending on your utility.2-2 In the North-
of building and operating standby electrical generators or west, both demand and energy charges are higher in the
peaking plants that must be brought on-line to meet peak winter months than in the summer months due to the use
loads. Industrial demands can vary greatly, and utility rate of electricity for space heating requirements (heat pumps,
schedules are designed so the customers that create peak baseboard heaters, central forced air systems). Winter peak
demands cover the costs to the utility of serving these demand charges are rare in the rest of the country as space
peak demands.2-9 heating demands are met by natural gas, fuel oil, or wood-
A typical demand meter averages demand over a specified fired appliances. In the Atlantic coast, Midwest, South, and
“demand interval,” usually 15 or 30 minutes. At the end Southwest, demand charges peak in the summer because
of each interval, the meter resets to zero and the measure- of air-conditioning loads. Utilities often impose season-
ment begins again.2-2 The meter then stores or records ally differentiated demand charges or demand cost adders
the largest average demand interval in the billing period. when the facility peak demand occurs during the time of
Other utilities base their peak demand on the highest “roll- day when the utility load peaks—often during the late
ing average” 15- or 30-minute energy use over the billing afternoon when air conditioning loads are highest.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 2-7

CHAPTER 2 | UNDERSTAND YOUR UTILITY BILL

50 60
KILO
WATT HOURS 40
1 kW demand recording dials WATT HOURS 70
30 KILO

2 Decimal point indicator

80
20
4 3 Meter seal 8
3 7

90
4

10
2 Multiply 4 Kilowatt hour recording dials
1 all readings Multiply by:
by 80 5 Meter constant (if any) 3
kW 4.0
KILOWATTS 5 kWH 80
6 Meter number
7 kW demand recording arm (red)
indicates actual demand at particular 6 D-41937
6 D-41937 time (may not be on some meters)
8 kW demand recording arm (black)

Figure 2-4. Electric Demand Meters.

Like energy charges, demand charges can be levied in this case is broken into a block structure where block size
a declining or inverted block structure. Sometimes the varies according to facility demand. For instance, you
initial block is offered at no charge, and a fixed charge is might pay a higher rate for the first 100 kWh per kW of
assessed for all demand exceeding the minimum value. demand, and a lower rate for all additional energy use.
Typical rate schedule language for direct demand charges This type of rate structure is depicted in Example 2-5.
is illustrated in Example 2-3.

6.510¢/kWh Use in excess of

For each kilowatt of billing demand: for the first 85 kWh 2,500 kWh/month:
Winter Summer per kW of demand $0.058189/kWh
$12.69 $13.78 but not less than
Use in excess of
the first 1,000 kWh
All kilowatts of maximum demand: between 190 hours times the
7:00 a.m. and 10:00 p.m., Monday through Friday 4.199¢/kWh peak demand:
at $7.25/kW for the next $0.051588/kWh
8,000 kWh
Use in excess of
Example 2-3. Direct Demand Charge 3.876¢/kWh 300 hours times the
for all peak demand:
additional kWh $0.046789/kWh
Demand Incorporated into Service Charges
Some utilities incorporate a demand component into their Example 2-5. Linkage of Demand and Energy Charges
basic charges. Others vary the basic charge based on the
facility demand. This type of rate structure is indicated
in Example 2-4. This charge may be in addition to other Ratcheted Demand Charges
demand charges.2-2 Some utilities use what is called a “ratchet” clause. The
concept is that the demand charge should reflect the gen-
erating, transmission, and distribution capacity required
If load size is over 300 kW: $115 + $5.80/kW to meet your peak demand over the entire year, not just
for the current billing period. For example, your monthly
demand charge may be the greater of the metered demand
Example 2-4. Incorporation of Demand into Basic
for all or a percentage of the greatest demand recorded
or Service Charges
during the preceding 11 months. With this type of rate
structure, indicated in Example 2-6, abnormal electrical
Linkage of Demand and Energy Charges consumption from using backup equipment during a plant
Some utilities have rate schedules that include demand upset or from a plant restart can affect demand charges
payments in their energy charges. The energy charge in over an entire year.

2-8 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 2 | UNDERSTAND YOUR UTILITY BILL

Success Story Helpful Tip

An examination of a year’s worth of billing Reduce ratchet charges by reducing your
statements for a regional wastewater treatment maximum demand.
plant revealed that demand charges were constant
When feasible, avoid simultaneously operating
over the last 7 months. This is not expected for a
large pumps and compressors that are needed only
plant with variable inflows, so the energy analyst
occasionally. Carefully plan when to operate large
suspected that the fixed demand charges were due
equipment during the months of your greatest
to a peak demand event and a ratchet clause. Plant
electric demand. The more uniform your month-to-
operators revealed that they had experienced an
month demand, the closer you will come to only
upset in their anaerobic digesters and lost their
paying for actual demand each month.2-10
supply of biogas that fueled a boiler used for
digester heating. A backup 4,000 kW electric boiler
was placed into service. The plant operators did not
realize that turning this boiler on—for as little as 15
minutes—would result in more than $250,000 in
excess annual demand charges. The electric boiler
Success Story
was later decommissioned and replaced with a A consultant was analyzing energy costs for three
backup boiler with fuel supplied by a dedicated beef packing plants. All were owned by the same
natural gas pipeline. parent company and purchasing power from the
same utility under the same rate schedule. Average
total energy costs were $0.0508/kWh, $0.0467/
kWh, and $0.1046/kWh. The third plant, the
The minimum charge is 100% of the maximum smallest of the three, had a recorded demand of
demand charge established during the 317 kW. The utility rate schedule imposed demand
preceding 11 months. charges based upon the greater of 1,000 kW or the
metered demand, whichever is greater. With
Billing months of April through November:
demand charges set at $7/kW/month, switching
The highest demand established during the month,
the third plant to a more favorable rate schedule
but not less than 60% of the highest demand
would save more than $57,000 per year.
established during the previous winter season.

Example 2-6. Ratcheted Demand Charges Power Factor Charges

Inductive motor loads require an electromagnetic field to
operate. Reactive power, measured in kVAR, circulates
Minimum Demand Charges
between the generator and the load to excite and sus-
Some utilities build a minimum monthly charge into their tain the magnetic field. Reactive power does not perform
assessment of demand charges. With this type of rate “work” and is not recorded on the utility’s energy or
structure, given in Example 2-7, energy conservation or demand meters, yet the utility’s transmission and distribu-
demand-limiting measures would produce no additional tion system must be large enough to provide it. Working
cost benefit once the monthly demand drops below the power, measured in kW, and reactive power together make
minimum value. up the apparent power (measured in kVA).

Power factor is the ratio of working power to apparent

$5,500 for the first 3,000 kVA or less;
power. Power factor measures how effectively electricity
$1.10 for each additional kVA. is being used. A high power factor indicates the effective
and efficient use of electrical power, while a low power
The highest average 30-minute demand factor indicates poor utilization of the incoming electrical
recorded during the month, or 4,400 kVA, current supplied by the utility.2-11 See Chapter 9 of this
whichever is higher. publication for additional information on power factor and
power factor correction.
Example 2-7. Minimum Demand Charges

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 2-9

CHAPTER 2 | UNDERSTAND YOUR UTILITY BILL

Utilities often assess a penalty for low power factor on Given a facility power factor of 84%, the utility would
their commercial and industrial rate schedules. Various obtain a 13% increase in billable demand (95/84) = 1.13.
methods exist for calculating the penalty. Understanding With this form of low power factor penalty, a facility
your utility’s calculation method enables you to deter- with a metered demand of 1,000 kW would have a bill-
mine the benefits associated with potential power factor able demand of 1,130 kW. At $10/kW/month, the pen-
improvements. alty due to low power factor is 130 kW × $10/kW/month
× 12 months/year = $15,600 annually. This low power
Types of Power Factor Penalties factor penalty can be eliminated through the installation
kVA Billing of capacitors at individual motors or at the plant service
entrance.
As shown in Example 2-8, the utility may measure and
bill for every kilovolt-amp of apparent power or primary Example 2-10 shows an example of a rate schedule
period (peak) kVA supplied, including reactive current. with a penalty for facilities operating below a power
factor of 95%.
Demand charge:
$2.49/kVA of billing demand The demand charge, before adjustment for
Primary kVA charge: power factor, will be increased 1% for each 1%
$24,000, which includes 2,000 primary kVA by which the average power factor is less than
plus $12.10 for each additional primary kVA. 0.95 lagging.
The demand charge increases by 1% for each 1%
Example 2-8. kVA Billing the power factor is less than 85% and decreases by
1% for each percent the power factor is above 90%.

Direct Reactive Energy Charges

Example 2-10. Demand Billing with a
As indicated in Example 2-9, reactive power may be mea- Power Factor Adjustment
sured and a reactive energy charge levied (in ¢/kVARh).

Reactive power charge: 0.061¢/kVARh Excess kVAR Reactive Demand Charges

With this low power factor penalty method, the utility
imposes a direct charge for the use of magnetizing power
Example 2-9. Direct Reactive Energy Charges in excess of some percentage of kW demand. For example,
if the charge was $0.60/kVAR for everything over 40%
Demand Billing with a Power Factor Adjustment of kW, and the peak load was 4,000 kW, then the utility
would provide up to 1,600 kVAR at no cost. Excess kVAR
In the following calculation, the utility bills the customer
is billable at the specified rate. This type of rate structure
at normal demand rates with a demand surcharge or multi-
is illustrated in Example 2-11.
plier included to account for low power factor.

The maximum 15-minute reactive demand for the

kWDEMAND × 0.95 month in kVAR in excess of 40% of the kilowatt
kWBILLED = demand for the same month will be billed at
PF
$0.45/kVAR of such excess reactive demand.

kWBILLED = Adjusted or billable demand

Example 2-11. Excess kVAR Reactive Demand Charges
kWDEMAND = Measured electric demand, in kW

PF = Power factor, as a decimal

Equation 2-1

2-10 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 2 | UNDERSTAND YOUR UTILITY BILL

Optional Rate Schedules To obtain interruptible, curtailment, or customer generator

rates, the customer enters into a load management agree-
Time-of-Use Rates ment to interrupt or reduce plant loads at the request of
the power company during the occasional times of peak
By charging more during the peak period, when incremen-
demand. In return, the power company applies lower rates
tal costs are highest, time-of-use utility rates send accurate
to the demand charge on the bill for the duration of the
marginal-cost price signals to customers. Periods of heavy
agreement. Penalties for nonconformance, however, are
electricity use are typically defined as “peak” hours; peri-
high.2-10
ods of lower use are “shoulder” hours, and times of lowest
use are deemed “off-peak.” Energy charges between peak
and off-peak times might vary by more than $0.10/kWh. Use Billing Data to Identify
Similarly, your demand charges may be computed at a Savings Opportunities
much higher rate if your highest-demand interval occurs
Understanding your electric utility bill—knowing how
during the peak hours.2-10
your demand meter works and how power factor
penalties are assessed—is crucial. Energy and demand
Interruptible, Curtailment, costs are controllable, and the benefits of implementing
and Customer Generator Rates energy conservation, demand management, or power fac-
At the electric utility’s request, customers on interruptible tor correction are directly related to the way your facility
rates must lower their demand. They can do this by turn- operates and the structure of your rate schedule. While
ing off some or all of their large electrically driven equip- power factor correction is not generally undertaken for
ment, or they can use emergency generators or engine- energy conservation reasons, it can result in a reduction
driven pumps instead of utility-supplied power.2-10 in electrical resistance (I2R) losses within the plant
distribution system; it can be very cost-effective and
therefore can result in significant reductions in your
utility bills.
Helpful Tip
For a specific utility rate schedule, it is useful to quantify
If you are on a time-of-use rate, you should the energy charges and demand charges for a constant
consider shifting as many operations to the 100-kW load operating for a single shift, two shifts, and
off-peak period as possible, along with other three shifts, or continuous operation.
demand control measures. Significant investments
in added equipment may be justified by savings in
Many efficiency measures reduce peak demand and result
energy and demand charges. in energy use reductions. Avoid basing cost savings on
“average” energy costs that are based on total monthly
If your facility is not on a time-of-use rate, find out or annual utility costs divided by total electrical energy
whether your electric utility offers such rates. You use. Always determine the expected demand reduction
may be able to reduce costs by switching to time- and energy savings for an efficiency measure, and then
of-use rates. determine cost savings by multiplying the reductions
by the appropriate demand and marginal or incremental
energy charges.

Another way you can assess the feasibility of demand

Helpful Tip management measures is by computing your facility
load factor. Contact your utility account representative
Find out whether your electric utility offers to determine if the utility can provide load data by hour
interruptible, curtailment, or customer generator or 15-minute intervals. Often, energy data can be down-
rates. If you are considering using an emergency
loaded from “smart” meters. (A smart meter is an elec-
generator on a regular basis, analyze operating
trical meter that records consumption of electric energy
conditions as well as your ability to maintain the
in intervals of an hour or less and that provides remote
generator. Talk with your utility account
reporting to a Web portal. The portal is often accessible
representative about a load management agreement.
by the facility operator’s personal computer (PC), iPhone,
iPod, or Android application.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 2-11

CHAPTER 2 | UNDERSTAND YOUR UTILITY BILL

Figure 2-5. Utility Rate Schedule with High Demand Charges Figure 2-6. Utility Rate Schedule with Moderate
Demand Charges

Utility 1
Utility 2
Large General Service (1,000 kW to 10,000 kW)
Large General Service
Demand Charge = $13.43/kW/month (Average Annual)
Demand Charge = $7.71/kW/month (June–Sept.),
Avg On-peak Energy Charge = $0.01792/kWh $6.30/kW/month
(7 a.m. – 8 p.m.)
Energy Charge = $0.04225/kWh
Avg Off-peak Energy Charge = $0.00902/kWh
Single Two Three
Single Two Three Shift Shifts Shifts
Shift Shifts Shifts
Total Demand Cost $8,124 $8,124 $8,124
Total Demand Cost $16,116 $16,116 $16,116
Total Energy Cost $8,788 $17,576 $37,011
Total Energy Cost $3,582 $6,275 $10,466
Demand Charges % 48.0% 31.6% 18.0%
Demand Charges % 81.8% 72% 60.6%

In contrast, demand charges account for less

The rate schedule for Utility 1 (shown in Figure than 50% of total utility costs for a plant
2-5) is characterized by a high demand charge and running a single shift and purchasing energy
low energy charges—particularly for off-peak and power under Utility 2’s rate schedule (see
energy. Demand-related charges account for Figure 2-6). Given a three-shift operation,
more than 81% of total utility costs for an demand charges account for only 18% of total
industrial plant operating a single shift in this utility costs. In this instance, investing in
utility’s service territory. Energy charges account efficiency measures that save energy would
for only 19% of a typical utility bill. This brief provide significant utility cost reductions.
analysis indicates that consideration of demand
management measures, such as load limiting
Example 2-13. Breakout of Operating Costs for Utility
controls, energy storage, or chiller cycling could
with Moderate Demand Charges
provide significant benefits at this site. Efficiency
measures such as light-emitting diode (LED)
parking lot and security lighting would provide If your load factor varies significantly from billing period
energy savings, but minimal cost savings for plants to billing period, you should carefully review your opera-
purchasing energy under this rate schedule. tion. Many software tools and/or commercial services are
available to assist a company in analyzing their energy
use patterns. Opportunities for in-plant demand reduction
Example 2-12. Breakout of Operating Costs for Utility measures likely exist when an annual load factor is less
with High Demand Charges
than 80%. In contrast, if your facility has a load factor that
is constantly above 80%, there is probably little potential
Load factor (LF) is the ratio of your facility’s average to for demand-limiting measures.2-12
peak demand and indicates how effectively demand is
allocated. A low load factor indicates a possible potential If your facilities have low load factors, you must deter-
for demand reduction through load scheduling that results mine the load profile—or load variation by time of day or
in “clipping peaks” and “filling valleys.” Calculate your month—for major processes or pieces of equipment within
monthly load factor for a 12-month period so monthly the plant. Compile load data by conducting periodic data
minimum, maximum, and an annual average load factor logging equipment.
can be determined.2-12 A sample load factor calculation is
given in Example 2-14.

2-12 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 2 | UNDERSTAND YOUR UTILITY BILL

kWh Helpful Tip

LF = × 100%
kWDEMAND × 24 × N Ask your utility account representative the
following questions:2-10
Where: ■■ What other rate schedules are available for the
plant? Would they be less costly?
LF = Load factor in %
■■ What are the months in the power company’s
kWh = Monthly electrical energy use in kWh “peak season?”
■■ Do time-of-use rates exist? How are the peak,
kWDEMAND = Electric demand in kW shoulder and off-peak periods defined, and what
are the corresponding energy costs?
N = Number of days in billing period ■■ Is there a demand ratchet clause? Which months
in the past year were affected by the ratchet
clause? What was the additional annual cost?
Sample Billing Information:
■■ What was the peak month kW demand? How
Energy Use Demand Period much lower must it be to eliminate ratchet
1,132,000 kWh 2,880 kW 30 days charges in the future?
■■ Are there any power factor penalties in effect for
this plant? What is the annual cost?
Sample Load Factor Calculation:
■■ Is a “customer generator” or other load manage-
1,132,000 ment rate available? What are the requirements?
LF = × 100% = 54.6%
2,880 × 24 × 30 What are the benefits?

Example 2-14. Determining Your Load Factor

Finally, you will need to become familiar with a host of Checklist for
energy efficiency, load limiting, and other demand-manage- Electricity Cost Savings
ment approaches. Demand management requires that you
Compare rate schedules and use the one best
know how and why tasks are performed at specific times;
■■

suited to your operation.

you can then determine whether any jobs can be scheduled
at a different time with little or no effect on production.2-12 ■■ Train operators and maintenance workers to be
You must also understand the weekly demand profile in aware of the time of day when utility on-peak
each season to determine whether opportunities exist to charges are imposed. Run motors and other
reduce peak demands or shift load to off-peak periods. electric loads off-peak whenever possible.
■■ Encourage routine energy-saving practices and
Demand control measures include energy efficiency
follow recommended maintenance procedures.
measures plus equipment scheduling, load shedding, time
clocks and duty cyclers, interlocks, programmable con- ■■ Use sequenced start-ups and avoid scheduling
trollers, energy management systems, adjustable speed periodic equipment testing during peak hours.
drives, thermal energy storage, and the use of emergency ■■ Install capacitors to reduce low power factor
generators to displace large loads during peak demand penalty charges.
periods.2-12 ■■ Implement demand control measures to reduce
peak demand.2-10

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 2-13

CHAPTER 2 | UNDERSTAND YOUR UTILITY BILL

References
2-1 
A & C Consultants, Inc., Managing Energy in Local 2-7 U
 .S. Department of Energy, EnPI Tool Instruction
Government Facilities, Washington State Energy Guide, February 2011.
Office, WAOENG-866686-07, March 1987.
2-8 
National Grid, Understanding Electric Demand:
2-2 Washington Energy Extension Service, Under- For National Grid’s Commercial Customers in New
standing Commercial Electric Bills, January 1986. York, NY0620, December 2005.

2-3 Bonneville Power Administration, “Energy 2-9  isconsin Focus on Energy, Understanding Your
W
Accounting,” Electric Ideas Clearinghouse Electric Bill, Technical Data Sheet, BP-1828-0207,
Technology Update, November 1991. 2007.

2-4 
U.S. Department of Energy, eGuide for ISO 50001, 2-10 E
 lectric Power Research Institute, Understand-
available from the AMO Energy Resource Center ing Your Electric Bill: Cost-Saving Strategies for
at ecenter.ee.doe.gov/EM/SPM/Pages/Home.aspx. Industrial and Large Electric Power Consumers,
BR-104028, 1994.
2-5 U.S. Department of Energy, Steps to Develop a
Baseline: A Guide to Developing an Energy Use 2-11 Eaton Electrical, Power Factor Correction: A
and Energy Intensity Baseline and the Reporting Guide for the Plant Engineer, November 2010.
Requirements for the Save Energy Now Leader
Pledge, October 2008. 2-12 B
 onneville Power Administration, “Electrical
Demand Control for Industry,” Electric Ideas
2-6 N
 orthwest Energy Efficiency Alliance, Field Guide, Clearinghouse Technology Update, February 1993.
April 2012.

2-14 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

CHAPTER 3
CONDUCTING A
MOTOR SURVEY
CHAPTER 3 | CONDUCTING A MOTOR SURVEY

Conducting a field evaluation of motors is essential in mak- numbers allows the condition assessment program’s field
ing informed decisions regarding motor selection and use. measurements library to be merged into the broader motor
The amount of money you can save by purchasing a pre- inventory database.
mium efficiency motor instead of an energy-efficient motor
depends on the horsepower rating of the motor, annual Even when an electronic motors database is available, it
hours of use, load factor, efficiency gain (at the load point), is not unusual for the motor’s full-load efficiency value to
and the serving utility’s charges for electrical energy and be missing. As one plant electrician stated, “That informa-
demand.3-1 Field measurements are necessary to establish tion is just not useful for me.” Motor full-load efficiency
the load imposed on an existing motor by its driven equip- values are critical inputs for a motor energy management
ment and to determine motor efficiency at its load point. team as they indicate the efficiency class (standard, energy
efficient, premium efficiency) of the motor.

Motor Survey Techniques and Sometimes, a motor inventory includes only in-service or
operating motors. In these instances, nameplate infor-
Information Requirements mation for spare motors must be obtained. Other times,
It is impossible to manage something when you do not equipment lists or motor inventories include entries for
know what you have.3-1 Experience shows that facility motors, driven equipment, and process lines that have
personnel usually underestimate the number of motors in been taken out of service, are obsolete, or are inoperable.
operation at their plant. When motors are actually counted,
The assignment of equipment numbers is often chrono-
the actual number of motors can be two-to-three times the
logical. Motors are assigned progressively higher num-
original presumption.3-1, 3-2
bers when they are purchased, for example, MO-001…
The first step in a motor management program is to pre- to MO-867. When purchase or installation dates are also
pare a strategy for obtaining nameplate, application, and available, the motor identification number can then be
operating data for both operating and spare motors. Has used to quickly identify the pre-1997 motors that are likely
your plant electrician or maintenance manager compiled to be of older, standard efficiency designs. Some motor
an electronic motors database or does he or she maintain manufacturers stamp the date that the motor was manufac-
an inventory management system? tured onto the motor nameplate.

Many large organizations use CMMS software that con- Gathering nameplate information and taking field mea-
tains an equipment list. At many facilities, even when an surements can be a daunting task as a large industrial
electronic motor database is available, it is often inaccu- facility may have several thousand operating motors plus
rate, incomplete, outdated, or otherwise not well-main- hundreds of spares.3-3 While maintenance staff might
tained. Medium and small industrial facilities sometimes desire complete information on ALL motors in the plant—
rely on a card file for record-keeping while a surprising for maintenance logging and inventory management
number of facilities have no information on their motor purposes—the energy management team may reduce its
population whatsoever. Do not be surprised if the needed workload by applying filtering criteria so it focuses on the
information for each motor is missing or incomplete. motors that cost the most to maintain and operate. These
Often, only the motor identification number (motor ID), are the motors that are large, heavily loaded, run long
location, horsepower rating, synchronous speed, and full- hours, and are in poor condition.3-4
load current values are recorded and available.
When initiating a motor survey, first consider the single-
Companies that operate predictive maintenance programs speed, three-phase, low voltage AC induction motors in a
or that employ condition assessment techniques often use plant that are rated between 20 to 500 horsepower. These
a motor analyzer that contains an internal motor database motors are covered by the premium full-load efficiency
plus a field measurements database that allows for the standards. On the initial survey, do not include single-
“health” of individual motors to be monitored and trended. phase, hermetically sealed, submersible pump, DC or
Condition assessment activities often focus on only a sub- synchronous motors, NEMA Design C and D motors,
set of a plant’s motor population, i.e., on critical motors, centrifuge, crane/hoist, or punch press motors, motors
larger motors, or motors that are thought to be approach- with synchronous speeds of 720 RPM or lower, motors
ing end of life or where an impending failure is thought already controlled by an adjustable speed drive, motors
to be imminent. Use of common equipment identification that operate with intermittent, cyclic, or fluctuating load-
ing, or motors designed to operate above 600 V (medium

3-2 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 3 | CONDUCTING A MOTOR SURVEY

voltage motors).3-4 Some facilities adopt policies, based Other motor manufacturers provide nameplates with
upon cost-effectiveness criteria, that call for immediately embossed or raised lettering. Sometimes using a small
recycling small general purpose motors—e.g., 50 hp and digital camera or phone camera will show a nameplate that
below—when they fail and replacing them with premium is not easily viewable.
efficiency motor models.3-5 In this example, those doing a
motor assessment should focus on critical general purpose The individual conducting the motor survey should be able
motors without special features that are rated between 60 to identify motor enclosure types (such as totally enclosed
and 500 hp. fan cooled [TEFC] and open drip proof [ODP] motors)
and to properly recognize NEMA frame, IEC, metric, and
A staff member should be assigned the task of gathering various types of special and definite purpose motors such
motor nameplate data, operating hours, and application as washdown-duty motors, close-coupled pump motors,
information. This individual should have knowledge of the brake motors, and right-angle gear drive motors. Several
plant layout and be able to identify motor and equipment motor types are shown below.
types while working safely around electrically energized
and operating equipment.3-1, 3-2 Metric motors are fairly common in North American
industrial plants as they often accompany imported equip-
Motor nameplates are often hidden behind other equip- ment. While NEMA frame motors have standardized
ment, painted over, covered with grease or grime, cor- frame sizes specified in inches, the IEC frame sizes are
roded, or even missing. Helpful tools when conducting given in millimeters.3-6, 3-7 Metric motors are easily rec-
a motor survey include a degreaser, rags, a wire brush or ognized by their frame designations (90L, 160M, 250S).
steel wool to clean nameplates, a mirror to allow for view- General purpose NEMA frame motors usually have a
ing of inaccessible nameplates, and a flashlight.3-1, 3-2, 3-4 “T” following the frame number (145T, 254T, 404TS).
Information on some nameplates is finely scribed and Older motors will have a “U” suffix or no letter at all.
difficult to read without producing a shadowing effect by While frame sizes for foot-mounted motors correspond
holding the flashlight at a low angle to the nameplate. fairly closely between the two standards and compatibil-
ity tables exist, changing out an IEC motor with a NEMA
equivalent may require mounting bolt hole modifications.

TEFC Motor ODP Motor

Washdown-duty Brake Motor

Photos from Baldor Electric Company

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 3-3

CHAPTER 3 | CONDUCTING A MOTOR SURVEY

Shaft dimensions also differ, which may necessitate a “Bad Actors” are motors that have suffered repeated fail-
new coupling. For face- and flange-mounted motors, ures and may be mismatched to their load requirements or
NEMA and IEC dimensions are not compatible and it is have the wrong level of environmental protection. Con-
recommended that standard efficiency IEC motors (IE1) duct a root cause failure analysis for these motors, correct
be replaced with premium efficiency IEC motors (called system issues, and consider enclosure upgrades. Chronic
IE3 motors) of the same frame size.3-6, 3-7 Many motor motor failures can be due to misuse, misapplication,
manufacturers offer premium efficiency IE3 metric motor unsuitability for the operating environment, misalignment/
product lines. vibration, or poor maintenance practices.

Those doing motor surveys will also encounter dual

(230/460 V) or tri-voltage motors (208-230/460 V). These Acquiring Motor Nameplate Data
motors can be connected in series or parallel and operate
at all indicated utilization voltages. Always indicate the Begin your motor survey by making copies of the Motor
“wired-for” or actual operating voltage when you encoun- Nameplate and Field Test Data Form, found in Appendix
ter dual or tri-voltage motors. Record the full-load amper- A of this publication. Attach the forms to your clipboard
age value from the motor nameplate that is consistent with and begin recording data. An experienced motor surveyor
the wired-for-voltage. For dual- and tri-voltage motors, can usually gather data for 10 to 12 motors per hour. A
full-load amp values are given for each voltage and are typical motor nameplate, as indicated in Figure 3-1, con-
usually separated by a slash, for example: 60/30. Tri-volt- tains both descriptive and performance-based data, such as
age motors may use both a dash and a slash: 66-60-30 to full-load efficiency, power factor, amperage, and operating
indicate the full-load amps consistent with each potential speed. You can later use this information to determine the
utilization voltage. load imposed on the motor by its driven equipment and
the motor efficiency at its load point.
Depending on the size of the plant and the complexity
of the manufacturing process, it may be appropriate to Information that you should record is summarized in Table
gather information only on the motors that exceed criteria 3-1.3-8, 3-9 Essential information is listed in bold face.
for minimum size and operating duration. Each plant Other information is optional.
will have to establish appropriate survey and inventory Depending on the age of the motor and manufacturer’s
management thresholds. Typical filter or selection criteria nameplate marking practices, the motor nameplate might
include: not contain all the information you need. For example,
• Three-phase, NEMA Design A and B motors it is not unusual for both efficiency and power factor to
be missing. When such data are missing, you will have
• Larger motors: 20 to 500 horsepower to assume the motor in question is a standard efficiency
• General purpose motors with synchronous motor or attempt to obtain performance information
speeds of 3,600, 1,800, and 1,200 RPM elsewhere. Providing nameplate information to the motor
manufacturer is the best place to start.
• Annual operation exceeds 2,000 hours
(approximately continuous operation for The motor installation date (used to compute motor age
a plant operating a single shift) in years and for warranty tracking) and its repair history
should also be recorded. You can obtain motor purchase
• Motors driving centrifugal loads
(centrifugal fans and pumps)
• Constant or varying load (intermittent,
cyclic, or fluctuating loads may be candidates
for adjustable speed drive operation)
• Older, low-efficiency motors
• “Bad Actors”
• Easy access
• A readable nameplate
• Non-specialty motors.
Figure 3-1. Motor Nameplate. Photo from Baldor Electric

3-4 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 3 | CONDUCTING A MOTOR SURVEY

Table 3-1. Motor Nameplate Information Table 3-2. Typical Motor Load Types

Motor Manufacturer Location Variable Torque Constant Torque

Motor ID# Motor Model

Conveyors/
Centrifugal Fans
Screw Feeders
Serial Number Frame Size
Centrifugal Pumps Extruders
Synchronous Speed
NEMA Design
(RPM)
Blenders/Mixers/
Centrifugal Compressor
Agitators
Horsepower Rating Voltage Rating
Positive
Wired-for or Centrifugal Blower
Enclosure Type Displacement Pumps
Operating Voltage
Positive
Definite or Others
Full-load Current Displacement Blowers
Special Purpose
Machine Tools Rotary Screw
Full-load Power (Lathes, Grinders, Saws) Air Compressors
Full-load Speed (RPM)
Factor (%)
Reciprocating
Full-load Efficiency (%) Service Factor Milling
Air Compressors

kVA Code Planers Cranes and Hoists

Insulation Class
(locked rotor kVA/hp)
Sanders Packaging Machines
Ambient Bearing Number
Temperature (°C) (drive and ODE) Winders

Table 3-3. Coupling Types3-5

Quick Fact
The assumption that older motors are standard Belts and Chains Gears
efficiency models is valid, as proven by motor
testing conducted under the 2006 Advanced V-Belt Worm
Energy “100 Motors” study.3-10 This study, designed
to characterize industrial motor performance, Notched Belt Helical
involved removing 100 operating motors rated
between 50 and 150 hp from a variety of Synchronous
participating industrial plants. The industrial Bevel
(Timing) Belt
facilities were given free premium efficiency motors
as replacements for the motors they contributed to Roller Chain Helical/Bevel
the study. The old motors were shipped to
Advanced Energy’s motor testing laboratory, where Silent Chain Planetary
their full and part-load efficiencies were determined
using a dynamometer. Out of the 46 motors that Flat Belt Spur
did not have an efficiency value stamped on their
nameplate, none had a measured full-load
Cyclodial
efficiency value that met or exceeded the current
NEMA energy efficient motor standard.
Direct Shaft Coupling Cranes and Hoists

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 3-5

CHAPTER 3 | CONDUCTING A MOTOR SURVEY

and installation dates and repair histories from maintenance The nature of the load being served by the motor is also
histories from maintenance records, work orders, or from important. Motors coupled to variable-speed drives, oper-
people who have worked at the plant and can recall motor ating with low load factors, or those that serve intermit-
histories. Once motor data have been gathered, a “motor tent, cyclic, or randomly acting loads may not be cost-
tree” can be used to provide a snapshot of the in-service effective candidates for an efficiency upgrade.
and spare motor population in the plant (see Figure 3-2.)
Annual Operating Hour Assumptions
Obtaining Application Information An estimation of annual operating hours and motor load
Use the “Motor Nameplate and Field Test Data Form” is needed to determine energy and cost savings from any
contained in Appendix A when conducting your motor motor efficiency improvement measure. These are critical
survey. Describe the motor load (the device being driven), pieces of information, as energy savings vary directly with
identify the coupling type, indicate whether load modula- assumptions regarding motor load and annual operating
tion devices such as throttling valves or inlet guide vanes hours. At the same time, an evaluation has shown that
are in use, and record the driven-equipment speed. This customer-provided estimates of operating hours can devi-
information should prove useful in future energy man- ate significantly from actual operating hours. One electric
agement efforts, such as replacing V-belts with synchro- utility provided a rebate for the purchase and operation of
nous or notched belts or when considering adjustable high efficiency electric motors in commercial and indus-
speed drives for centrifugal equipment with variable flow trial settings. The rebates were awarded at the time of pur-
requirements. See Tables 3-1 and 3-2 for lists of load and chase based on customer-supplied operating hour values.
coupling types. To verify to utility regulators that the predicted energy sav-
ings were realized, the utility performed field monitoring

Plant Annual Energy

Use, 2010–2011 Critical Motor Inventory
50.4 million kWh

In-Service Motors Spare Motors

3 to 800 hp 229 units - 7,966 hp
175 units - 13,662 hp

Low Voltage Medium Voltage Low Voltage Medium Voltage

<600 Volts 4,000 Volts <600 Volts 4,000 Volts
163 units 12 units 230 units 2 units
5,612 hp 8,050 hp 5,093 hp 3,100 hp

DC Motors Old U-Frame Large hp DC Motors U-Frame Large hp

12 units Motors > 500 hp 5 units Motors >=500 hp
295 hp 31 units 9 units 24.5 hp 70 units 2 units
1,035 hp 7,100 hp 1,786 hp

Figure 3-2. A “Motor Tree” for In-Service and Spare Motors

3-6 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 3 | CONDUCTING A MOTOR SURVEY

of a subset of the installed high efficiency motors.3-12 or redundant process train available for a particular appli-
TOU data loggers were installed to record motor start and cation? For instance, a boiler might have two feedwater
stop times by sensing the magnetic field created when the pumps, with the units rotated each week to equalize wear.
motor is operating. Loggers were left on 59 motors (83% This type of operation must be reflected in motor operat-
were industrial applications) for an average of about 1,600 ing hour estimates.
hours (9.5 weeks). The study found considerable variance
between the customer-reported and measured annual oper- Estimating Motor Load
ating hour values, and concluded that “customers have a Various studies have shown that motors are often loaded
difficult time accurately estimating annual motor run time” to between 65% and 75% of their rated output. In this load
and “customers may not be able to accurately estimate range, motors often operate at an efficiency that is greater
operating hours for individual motors.” 3-12 than their full-load efficiency. In addition to monitor-
ing operating hours, the PGE study involved taking field
The wide variation between customer-reported and mea-
measurements at 39 operating motors. On average, the 39
sured motor operating hour values is shown in Figure 3-3.
motors were found to be operating at 74% of their rated
The vertical axis indicates measured operating hour values
horsepower. Field measurements taken of 324 motors at a
with the horizontal axis giving customer-reported hours.
naval shipyard showed an average load of 67.6%.3-13 Mea-
With this type of plot, good agreement is evident when
surements taken for 102 motors at a pulp mill indicated an
the value falls on the 45º line. The plot shows that good
average load of 70.1%.3-14
agreement was rarely achieved. Measured or “true” values
ranged from 0 to 8,000 hours per year for a customer- To estimate the actual load imposed upon the motor by
assumed value of 2,000 hours; and from 500 to 8,760 its driven equipment, it is necessary to measure all of the
hours for estimates of 6,500 hours. following at each motor:
Assumptions regarding annual motor operating hours • Power, in kW, or
can be improved through talking directly with the plant
engineer and plant operations staff. Ask how many hours • Line-to-line voltage between all three phases, and
a motor is used on each shift. In food processing plants, -- Current values for all three phases, or
the third shift might involve sanitization activities with a
different group of motors being heavily utilized. Does the -- Operating speed of the motor and driven
motor operation change on weekends? Is a backup pump equipment.

The equipment necessary for these measurements

9,000 includes:

8,000 • Voltmeter, multimeter, or power meter

Hours Based on Metered Data

7,000 • Clamp-on ammeter

• Power factor meter
6,000
• Tachometer.
5,000
Meters should be of adequate quality to read true root
4,000
mean square (RMS) values. This guidebook assumes that
3,000 the electrician uses meters of adequate accuracy.
Ideal: Measured = Estimated
2,000 Methods of determining motor load from field measure-
ments are given in Chapter 5. When the motor operates at
1,000
a constant load, only one set of measurements is necessary.
When the motor drives a variable load or operates at two
0 or three distinct load points, data logging of input power
1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

5,000

6,000

7,000

9,000
8,000

or current over time is required. The electrician can then

determine the weighted average motor load or develop a
Original Program Estimated Hours load profile that shows the percentage of operating hours
at each load point (for additional information on load
Figure 3-3. Operating Hour Assumptions Versus profiles see Chapter 8).
Measured Values3-12

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 3-7

CHAPTER 3 | CONDUCTING A MOTOR SURVEY

Motor and driven-equipment speeds must be measured as Once you have collected nameplate, annual operating
closely as possible, ideally with a strobe tachometer. Motor hours, and operating data for each motor in your filtered
speed is important, because a replacement motor should or short list of motors, you can enter this information into
duplicate the existing motor speed. When driving centrifu- DOE’s MotorMaster+ software tool. MotorMaster+ allows
gal loads (fans and pumps), the motor load is highly sensi- users to create an in-plant motor inventory database with
tive to operating speed. A premium efficiency motor usually a record for each motor. When utility cost data and field
operates at a slightly higher speed than a standard effi- measurements are available, the software tool automati-
ciency motor. The higher speed may result in an increase cally calculates the annual energy use and costs for each
in speed-sensitive loads; this can negate savings resulting motor. When field measurements are entered (see the
from improving motor efficiency. A speed/load correction is “Taking Field Measurements” section of this chapter), the
necessary to properly evaluate savings from a premium effi- software tool determines the load on the motor, average
cient motor energy efficiency opportunity.3-15, 3-16 operating voltage, and voltage unbalance. MotorMaster+
load and efficiency estimation algorithms are discussed in
the tool users guide and in Chapter 5.3-17 MotorMaster+
motor management capabilities are discussed in detail in
Quick Fact Chapter 7.
Sensitivity of Motor Load to Operating Speed
MotorMaster+ also provides a Motor Efficiency Status
For centrifugal loads such as fans or pumps, even a Report (see Figure 3-4). This report provides a motor
minor change in a motor’s full-load speed translates efficiency metric for an industrial plant by showing the
into a significant change in load and annual energy number of in-service premium efficiency, energy efficient,
consumption. Fan or “affinity” laws indicate that and standard efficiency motors—by horsepower rating and
the horsepower loading imposed on a motor by in the aggregate. When field measurements are provided
centrifugal load varies as the third power or cube of for all motors, the report shows the percentage of premium
its rotational speed. In contrast, the quantity of air efficiency and energy efficient motors by number, by con-
flow or water delivered varies linearly with speed. nected horsepower, and by load served.
Some premium efficiency motors tend to operate
with reduced “slip” or at a slightly higher speed Taking Field Measurements
than their standard-efficiency counterparts. This of In-Service Motors
small difference—on the order of 5 to 10 RPM for A diagram of a typical three-phase power system serving
1,800 RPM synchronous speed motors—is a “delta” motor load configuration is shown in Figure 3-5.
significant. A seemingly minor 20 RPM increase in a To evaluate the motor’s operation, you will need to collect
motor’s full-load rotational speed from 1,740 to nameplate data and use a multimeter and analog power
1,760 RPM can result in a 3.5% increase in the load factor meter to record voltage, amperage, and power fac-
that the rotating equipment places on the motor, tor on each service phase or leg. It is best to take readings
completely offsetting the energy and cost savings
on all three legs and average them. Figure 3-6 indicates
typically expected as a result of purchasing a
how measurements are taken with hand-held instruments.
premium efficiency motor.3-15 See Chapter 4 of
It is also useful to use a strobe tachometer to measure the
DOE’s Premium Efficiency Motor Selection and
speed of both the motor and the driven equipment.
Application Guide for an in-depth discussion of
variations in motor load with respect to motor Power supplied to the motor can be measured with a
operating speed. single instrument when a “direct-reading” meter is avail-
To maximize energy savings with variable torque able. The direct-reading meter uses current transformers
loads, be sure to select a premium efficiency and voltage leads to reliably sense and display power in
replacement motor with a full-load operating speed watts or kilowatts.
that is the same or less than that of your original
motor. When a motor is controlled with an
adjustable speed drive, replacement motor full-load
speed does not change energy consumption. With
belt-driven equipment, motor speed is not critical
when you can replace pulleys so that the original
rotating equipment speed is maintained.

3-8 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 3 | CONDUCTING A MOTOR SURVEY

Figure 3-4. MotorMaster+ Motor Efficiency Status Report

Phase A
Phase A
Phase B
Motor Starter

Vab Phase C
Service Entrance

Vac
Three-
Phase Load
Phase B
Ammeter Power Volt
Factor Meter Motor
Vbc Meter
Phase C
Tachometer

Figure 3-5. Industrial Three-Phase Circuit. Figure 3-6. Instrument Connection Locations.
Illustration from EM4MDS Illustration from EM4MDS

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 3-9

CHAPTER 3 | CONDUCTING A MOTOR SURVEY

Safety Considerations
The field measurements recommended in this Particular caution is recommended when working with
document should only be performed by qualified current- or power-recording devices. Many of these are
personnel. either assembled from components or designed with
the expectation that they will be connected when
Safety is an important consideration when using test
circuits are not powered, then left alone after they are
instruments. Plant electricians and equipment
powered. Some have alligator clips that require your
operators should be well trained in safety procedures
fingers to be close to conductors or that are hard to
and guided by company policies for working close to
connect when you are wearing personal protection
live circuits and moving machinery. This guidebook will
equipment. Some (particularly multichannel devices
occasionally recommend caution in making certain
intended for research-oriented monitoring) have wiring
measurements, but this is not intended to be a
panels that do not separate 480 V terminal areas from
replacement for thorough safety training and
low-voltage sensor wires. Others have metal enclosures
adherence to company policies. Always follow safety
that require grounding, which can be a challenge in
requirements imposed by Occupational Safety and
portable applications. Some have enclosures that may
Health Administration and the National Electrical Code
not be sufficient for the environmental exposure they
(National Fire Protection Association [NFPA] 70E-2012
will experience while deployed. Use of any recording
—Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace).
device may require that control panel doors be left
The absence of a caution statement certainly does not open, exposing personnel to danger unless you mark
mean an action is inherently safe, however. Company the area with ribbon and signs. Most voltage leads are
policies vary depending on plant environment, unfused. If possible, leads should be fused, ideally at
insurance requirements, government regulations, and the clip end. Fuses should be fast-blow and 1/4 amp or
management’s commitment to safety. Omit any action less. Even 1/4 amp can be fatal or cause permanent
in this book that conflicts with your company’s safety neurological damage if it is sustained for several
procedures, conflicts with your safety training, seconds.
creates exposure beyond your normal workday
experience, or simply seems unsafe!

Safety Issues in Data Gathering • The unconnected leads of some current transducers
(CTs) can inflict a dangerous electrical shock. This
Only qualified personnel, following all applicable safety
is of significance when you are connecting a CT to
regulations, should make electrical measurements. When-
a separate readout or recording device. The wound
ever possible, de-energize and lock out equipment prior to
or conventional CTs have either a voltage or current
connecting metering equipment.
output. The safer (voltage output) type is an internally
• Follow the requirements of NFPA 70E-2012, loaded current transformer, i.e., one that has an inter-
“Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace.” nal precision shunt resistor shorting the secondary; the
This standard defines Personal Protective Equipment output leads are connected across the internal shunt to
procedures and requirements including a hood with provide a low voltage output. The current output type
a face shield for arc-flash protection, flame resistant is merely an unloaded transformer, so the output is a
clothing, lineman’s gloves with leather protectors, current, requiring a current-sensing device.
safety glasses, and hearing protection.
Always connect a current output CT to the recording
• Hand-held instruments are not recommended for device before closing it around a live conductor. Other-
sensing voltage levels above 600 V. wise, dangerously high voltage will appear across the
open leads.

3-10 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 3 | CONDUCTING A MOTOR SURVEY

Voltage Measurements Service voltage unbalances greater than 1% should be

brought to the attention of the local electric utility for
Field measurements are necessary to determine the load
correction. Data acquisition techniques discussed in this
imposed on an in-service motor by its driven equipment.
guidebook are intended for the secondary side of in-plant
Once the motor load and the motor’s nameplate full-load
distribution system power transformers. Hand-held instru-
efficiency values are known, the MotorMaster+ software
ments are not recommended for sensing voltage levels
tool can be used to determine the efficiency at the motor’s
above 600 V.3-16
operating load point.

Utilization Voltage Current Measurements

Utilization voltage should be checked first. A convenient A hand-held ammeter with a clamp-on CT is convenient
place to take measurements is at a motor starter enclosure. and effective for measuring the line current. It is only
A hand-held voltmeter or multimeter can be used to mea- necessary to enclose the conductor within the clamp-on
sure the phase-to-phase voltages. In a three-phase system, device. You can read the current directly from the meter.
the electrician should measure three values: Vab, Vbc, and Current readings—designated Ia, Ib, and Ic—should be
Vca (see Figures 3-5 and 3-6). The voltage unbalance taken for each phase.
should be calculated.
Power Factor Measurements
The utilization voltage unbalance should not be greater Power factor can be measured with a power factor meter.
than 1%. System voltage unbalance and over- and under- Measure phase power factor by clamping the current sens-
voltage problems should be corrected before valid motor ing element on one phase while attaching voltage leads to
energy savings analyses can take place. Correcting volt- the other phases. Take care to use the proper voltage lead
age unbalance greater than 2% may yield greater cost with the current sensing device.
savings than the premium efficiency motor upgrades being
considered. A system voltage unbalance exceeding 1% Dedicated power factor meters are becoming less com-
aggravates motor performance to the extent that recorded mon. They are being supplanted by multifeatured power
data may be meaningless. analyzers that connect in similar ways but provide more
data output, e.g., for power factor, kW, and kVAR, and
See DOE’s Motor Systems Tip Sheet #7 Eliminate Voltage often for the harmonic content of both current and voltage.
Unbalance (www.eere.energy.gov/manufacturing/tech_ If you only have data for either power or the power factor,
assistance/pdfs/eliminate_voltage_unbalanced_motor_ you can calculate the other variable (see Chapter 5,
systemts7.pdf) for information on how determine and Equation 5-1).
correct voltage unbalance.

Service Voltage
When the utilization voltage unbalance is greater than 1%, Helpful Tip
the electrician must check the voltage values at the ser-
To conduct a valid motor energy savings analysis,
vice entrance. Optimal voltage limits as defined in ANSI
first you will need to correct any system voltage
C84.1 “Electric Power Systems and Equipment—Voltage
unbalance and undervoltage problems.
Ranges” call for the utility to deliver power to the 480 V
industrial user’s service entrance in a range from a low of
456 V to a high of 504 V (480 V ± 5%).

Measurements should be made at or as close to the service

entrance as possible. This set of measurements allows the
electrician to determine voltage balance as delivered by
the utility. If the service voltage unbalance is less than 1%,
the utilization unbalance problem is within the plant distri-
bution system. It is then the electrician’s responsibility to
find and resolve the problem.3-16

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 3-11

CHAPTER 3 | CONDUCTING A MOTOR SURVEY

Motor Testing Instruments many product lines accommodate a clamp-on, AC CT as

an accessory. Some manufacturers even have clamp-on
When shopping for electrical testing instruments, it is accessories that can be used in conjunction with voltage
easy to be overwhelmed by the variety of choices and the leads for measuring power and or power factor.
wide range of prices. Three factors tend to affect the price:
harmonics handling capability, range, and features. Being Current Meters
a smart shopper requires some knowledge of your plant Clamp-on current meters (ammeters) are nearly as com-
environment. monplace as multimeters. Two kinds are in common use.
Most manufacturers are well represented in industrial One is a clamp-on CT that feeds an output signal to a
catalogs that market instruments. Many manufacturers separate multimeter for reading on the milliamp or mil-
also use an extensive chain of independent local represen- livolt scale. The other is a self-contained direct clamp-on
tatives or “local reps.” It is a good idea to connect with device. Reading the instrument may be a challenge if you
a local rep, because a good local rep can usually supply use the latter (the self-contained device), because it might
extensive manufacturer’s information about a product and have to be squeezed deep inside a box and oriented at an
might also represent competing products for comparison. inconvenient angle to access a conductor. Many instru-
Ideally, the local rep will have a good understanding of the ments accommodate this problem with a pivoting display
advantages and disadvantages of each product. or a hold switch that can lock the display for reading after
the instrument is removed from the conductor. This is an
important feature.
Voltage Meters
Hand-held multimeters usually are used for measuring AC Clamp-on current meters sense current in one of two
and DC voltage, current, and resistance. The upper voltage ways—either by means of a simple current transformer or
range should not exceed 600 V. Do not attempt to measure a Hall-effect sensor. The latter is less common and more
higher voltages with hand-held instruments. expensive. Both have operable iron jaws that clamp around
the conductor, forming an iron ring in which magnetic flux
Multimeters are used mainly as voltmeters in an industrial is induced by the conductor current. The current trans-
plant. Resistance scales generally do not go low enough former type has a simple multi-turn winding around the
for measuring motor winding resistance; at high resistance ring to inductively sense the changing flux. The Hall-effect
scales, multimeters do not have sufficient source volt-
age to measure insulation resistance. The ampere scales
are not directly useful for measuring motor current, but

Voltage Meter. Photo from the Fluke Corporation Current Meter. Photo from the Fluke Corporation

3-12 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 3 | CONDUCTING A MOTOR SURVEY

type does not have a winding but rather a narrow gap in users the convenience is definitely worth the extra cost.
the iron ring in which a sensor is placed. The advantage of Strobe tachs are very accurate but subject to certain opera-
the Hall-effect sensor is its frequency range. It works for tor errors, which can be reduced with practice. The opera-
DC and very low frequencies and responds better to higher tor adjusts the strobe rate until the rotating equipment
frequencies. Current and power meters intended for use on appears to freeze or stop in the light. The speed (measured
either side of variable-frequency drives often use Hall- in RPM) of the equipment should be equal to the strobe
effect current sensors to handle the severe harmonics and rate displayed, but it might also be an integer multiple of
sometimes low fundamental frequencies. the displayed strobe rate. Rotating equipment with repeat-
ing features (like blades on a fan) also trick the user. Fluo-
Range is particularly important with ammeters or current rescent lighting can also cause erroneous readings. Always
transducers. These generally do not span the entire range of watch a single feature, like a shaft keyway, and start at the
plant needs without overloading at the high end or provid- lowest plausible strobe rate.
ing poor accuracy at the low end. Take care to select the
product or products that will span the necessary range. Some noncontact tachometers are passive, i.e., they do not
Power monitors that use a lot of CTs because of unbalanced require the operator to adjust a strobe rate while watching
three-phase capability or multichannel monitoring usually for motion to freeze. These determine speed by sensing
have internally shunted CTs. Often, a wide range of rela- reflected natural light or light from an internal source, such
tively inexpensive CTs can be provided and accommodated as a laser. This can be convenient, but beware of models
with a minor scaling change to the recorder’s program. that require you to stop the machinery and affix a reflector
to the rotating part before reading the speed.
Physical size is also a limitation. It can be difficult to
squeeze large CTs into a small panel. Likewise, it can be Power and Power Factor Meters
difficult to reach around large conductors with CTs of
Many instruments are available that measure power,
lower range, which tend to be smaller.
power factor, or both. The ability to directly read power
eliminates the need to calculate it, as described in Chapter
Tachometers 5. The simplest instruments have connections as shown
There are several types of tachometers. Some require mak- in Figure 3-6. Be sure to choose a model with three-phase
ing contact with rotating machinery and others do not. It is capability; many instruments can be switched between
best to avoid the contact type. three-phase and single-phase.
The most common type of noncontact tachometer is the Some three-phase power meters have only one CT and
strobe tach. Strobe tachs are simply electronic strobe lights are inaccurate in the presence of a current unbalance.
with an adjustable strobe rate and a very precise readout in However, many one-CT models have instructions and
flashes per minute. Battery-powered units are somewhat accommodations for accurately measuring unbalanced
less common than 120 V plug-in models, but for most three-phase power by moving the CT from one phase to
another, making use of a principle called the “two watt
meter method.” In some instruments this requires sum-
ming the readings, while in others the summing is done
automatically.

When the load is varying under unbalanced conditions,

good results can be obtained only by using an instrument
with three CTs. These tend to be more expensive, espe-
cially if they are configured as a multifunction power ana-
lyzer. The three-CT models are also bulkier and have more
components and leads to attach and stow.

Probably the most complicated instrument system likely

to be used in a plant is a multichannel power logger. These
are available in more than one configuration. In packaged
units, there is usually a central module with three voltage
leads and a terminal block for two or more trios of CTs.
Power Logger. Photo from the Fluke Corporation

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 3-13

CHAPTER 3 | CONDUCTING A MOTOR SURVEY

The central module is both a logger and a transducer; it they can be equipped with a computer interface, phone
computes power based upon voltage and the current from modems, or radio transmitters for remote data retrieval.
the CTs and records the power. All loads must be on the For some tiny battery-powered models, the logger is no
same voltage source, since there is only one set of voltage bigger than the CTs that attach them. This can be very
leads. CTs are marked by phase, so phase identification convenient in an industrial environment, because the entire
markings must be present at each load. logger can be closed up in the motor controller box for the
monitoring period with no external power connection.
Among the many variations on the configuration above,
some products consist of a central logger with remote Motor Analyzers
power transducers. Interconnections typically follow
A variety of products fall under the heading of “motor
voltage, current, or pulse conventions used in industrial
analyzers.” Several portable units recently appeared on the
programmable logic controller (PLC) systems. Often,
market to measure motor performance, including motor
efficiency. Other efficiency analyzers have gone out of
production, perhaps because of a market preference for
analyzers oriented more toward predictive maintenance.
Quick Fact
Several current-signature analysis predictive maintenance
Power Quality Considerations analyzers that have entered North American markets have
features for estimating efficiency.
If variable-speed drives, induction heaters, or other
electronic loads are on the system, expect the All high-end analyzers have connections to the motor to
presence of voltage harmonics. Extreme current sense current, voltage, and speed. Speed is sensed magnet-
harmonics are present in circuits feeding these ically or optically. Certain nameplate information must be
loads. The purchaser should describe this electrical entered using a keyboard. These devices all require wind-
environment to the equipment supplier and ing resistance, which must be obtained when the motor is
determine the ability of alternative devices to shut down; usually the required micro-ohmmeter is built
measure such “dirty” power accurately. into the tester. Most require no-load or low-load data,
At a minimum, devices that sense voltage or which must be obtained with the motor uncoupled and
current must operate on a true RMS principle. running at idle. Fortunately, none of them require any sort
Those that do not will read inaccurately in the of torque sensor, because it would be nearly impossible to
presence of harmonics. affix one in many field situations.
Knowing that an instrument operates on a true RMS Motor analyzers are costly sophisticated products; dif-
principle is not completely sufficient, however, as ferent models have different capabilities and operating
all instruments are limited by the magnitude and requirements. They also vary as to difficulty of use. It is
frequency of the harmonics they can handle while important to study alternatives carefully to find the best
still reading accurately. One index of this capability match for your budget and staff capabilities.
is the crest factor, which is the ratio of peak value
to RMS value of a wave form. A perfect sine wave Metering technologies, equipment, and applications are
has a crest value of 1.414. True RMS instruments discussed in DOE’s Federal Energy Management Program
should have a crest factor of 3.0 or better. publication, Metering Best Practices: A Guide to Achiev-
Unfortunately, crest value alone is not a complete ing Utility Resource Efficiency (www.eere.energy.gov/femp/
descriptor of harmonic content. Harmonics caused pdfs/mbpg.pdf). 3-18
by most electronic loads cause the current crest
factor to be higher and the voltage crest factor to
be lower than sinusoidal. An instrument needs to
be able to measure accurately across the frequency
range of the harmonics. The frequency of
harmonics is expressed either in hertz (Hz) or in the
order of harmonic. To convert order to frequency,
simply multiply by 60. Most high-quality electrical
testing instruments specify the frequency range
over which their accuracy is maintained.

3-14 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 3 | CONDUCTING A MOTOR SURVEY

References
3-1 
Advanced Energy, Motor Survey: How-To Guide, 3-11 
Ula, Sadrul, Larry E. Birnbaum, and Don Jordan,
1997. Energy Efficient Drivepower: An Overview, Bonn-
eville Power Administration, Western Area Power
3-2 
Wayne Stebbins, “Motor Management Strategies,” Administration.
Energy User News, June 1998.
3-12 
Thompson, Mark E and Chris L. Dent, “PGE
3-3 
Copper Development Association, Motor Drive Power Program Evaluation: The Accuracy
Management Best Practices, Part 1: Creating a of Customer-Provided Operating Hours and Motor
Motor Inventory, Repair/Replacement Guidelines, Loading Assumptions,” 1994 American Council for
March 2012. an Energy-Efficient Economy (ACEEE) Summer
Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, v. 8:
3-4 
Nailen, Richard L., “How to Conduct a Preliminary
Measurement and Evaluation, pp. 8.215–8.224.
Motor Energy Audit,” Electrical Apparatus, March
1996. 3-13 
McCoy, Gilbert A., Johnny Douglass, and Ron
Major, Washington State University Energy
3-5 
Copper Development Association, Weyerhaeuser
Program, Motor Efficiency Improvements at the
Policy Calls for Premium-Efficiency Motors and
Bremerton Naval Complex: Motor Survey and
Transformers, A Copper Applications Case Study,
NEMA Premium® Motor Replacement Analysis
A6080-XX/02, 2002.
Results, prepared for the Bonneville Power
3-6 
Advanced Energy, “Solutions for Industry,” Administration, March 2005.
Metric Motors, June 1997.
3-14 
McCoy, Gilbert A, and Johnny Douglass,
3-7 
Cowern, Howard H., Applications Engineer, Washington State University Energy Program,
Baldor Electric Company, “How to Change-Out Motor Management Plan for the Domtar Kamloops
Flange-Mount Metric Motors,” EC&M, July 1997. Pulp Mill, prepared for BC Hydro, December 2007.

3-8 
Consortium for Energy Efficiency, The 1-2-3 3-15 
U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficient
Approach to Motor Management, prepared for Electric Motor Selection Handbook, DOE/
Motor Decisions Matter, 2007. GO-10095-290, August 1996.

3-9 
Consortium for Energy Efficiency, Motor Planning 3-16 
Carrol, Hatch & Associates, Inc., A Procedure
Kit Version 2.1, Strategies, Tools, and Resources for Developing an Energy Efficiency Plan for the
for Developing a Comprehensive Motor Manage- Use of Industrial Motors in an Industrial Setting,
ment Plan, prepared for Motor Decisions Matter, June 1994.
2007.
3-17 
Washington State University Extension Energy
3-10 
Agamloh, Emanuel, Kitt Butler, Nicole Kaufman, Program, MotorMaster+ 4.0 User Guide, prepared
Ziba Kellum, Jeremy Morrison, and Dan Welch, for DOE, 2003.
Achieving More with Less: Efficiency and Econom-
3-18 
U.S. Department of Energy, Metering Best
ics of Motor Decision Tools, Advanced Energy,
Practices: A Guide to Achieving Utility Resource
March 2006.
Efficiency, August 2011.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 3-15

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems
CHAPTER 4
MOTOR SPECIFICATION
AND SELECTION
CONSIDERATIONS
CHAPTER 4 | MOTOR SPECIFICATION AND SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS

When specifying a motor, the purchaser must indicate The EPAct applied to single speed, general purpose,
the desired motor horsepower rating, nominal voltage, T-frame, continuous rated, foot-mounted, polyphase,
synchronous speed, enclosure type, frame size, insula- squirrel-cage induction motors of NEMA Designs A and
tion class, and efficiency class (or minimum full-load B. Ratings covered under the legislation include 1 to 200
efficiency value). For some applications, definite or spe- hp; 230/460 V; 3,600, 1,800, and 1,200 RPM motors in
cial purpose motors are required. This chapter discusses open and closed enclosures. These standards applied to
motor choices, performance, and associated efficiency motors manufactured alone and as a component of another
implications. piece of equipment.4-1, 4-2

Motors drive many kinds of loads, which vary greatly After the mandatory EPAct standard was established,
as to what they require of the motors. For example, the NEMA in 1994 extended the coverage of the “energy effi-
driven equipment might provide constant fluid flow and cient” efficiency standard through 500 hp and renumbered
be powered by a constant speed general purpose motor. Table 12-6c (it is currently referred to as Table 12-11).
Alternatively, the driven equipment could provide vari- From 250 to 500 hp, the term “energy efficient” still desig-
able flows with flow control provided by an inverter-duty nates relatively high-efficiency motors.
motor controlled by an adjustable speed drive. Loads also
might create a constant or cyclic torque demand at a given In August 2001, NEMA introduced a premium energy effi-
speed. In comparison to its running torque, a load might ciency motor standard. Under its program, a motor may be
have high inertia and require high starting and accelerating marketed as a premium motor if it meets or exceeds a set
torque. The motor might operate in a hostile environment of NEMA nominal full-load efficiency levels as defined in
where temperature, humidity, dust, or industrial chemicals NEMA MG 1-2011, Tables 12-12, 12-13, 20-B, and 20-C.
are present. And it might need to operate continuously or These levels are higher than the minimum full-load effi-
only occasionally. For every load, a motor must be chosen ciency standards for energy efficient motors incorporated
that can successfully start and run under all conditions— into the EPAct and listed in MG 1-2011, Table 12-11, and
one that can endure the stresses of the specific environ- 20-A.
ment and operating requirements. And it must do this at
Premium efficiency motor standards apply to NEMA
the lowest possible life cycle cost.
Design A and B, three-phase low voltage induction motors
rated from 1 hp to 500 hp and designed for service at 600
Mandatory Motor Full-Load V or less (see Table 12-12 of NEMA MG 1-2011). Cov-
ered products include foot-mounted motors with speeds
Efficiency Standards of 3,600, 1,800, 1,200, and 900 RPM with ODP, explo-
Mandatory minimum full-load motor efficiency standards sion-proof, and TEFC enclosures. Also covered under the
currently in effect in the United States have been estab- standard are severe-duty, washdown, IEC metric frame
lished through two pieces of legislation: motors, and brake motors.

• Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 A second premium efficiency standard was developed for
(EISA) medium voltage motors (form wound, rated for service at
5,000 V or less). Minimum nominal full-load efficiency
• EPAct values apply to open and enclosed motors rated from 250
hp to 2,500 hp and with synchronous speeds of 3,600,
The initial set of federal mandatory commercial and
1,800, 1,200, and 900 RPM (see Table 12-13, 20-B, and
industrial motor performance standards were created by
20-C of NEMA MG 1-2011).
the EPAct. By October 1997, new general-purpose, three-
phase induction motors and most definite-purpose motors Under EISA, the mandatory minimum nominal full-load
sold in the United States had to equal or exceed the energy efficiency for low-voltage general-purpose motors with
efficient motor full-load efficiency levels prescribed by the a power rating up to 200 hp was raised to the premium
EPAct. These efficiency levels were identical with those efficiency level as given in Table 12-12 of NEMA MG
given in Table 12-6c of NEMA Standard Publication MG 1-2011. The premium efficiency requirement applies to
1-1989 Motors and Generators. Motors with full-load effi- motors purchased alone, imported into the country, or
ciency values below the energy efficient standards were purchased as a component of another piece of equipment.
deemed “standard efficiency” motors. EISA is much more stringent than EPAct.

4-2 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 4 | MOTOR SPECIFICATION AND SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS

EISA also requires NEMA Design B motors with power

ratings between 201 and 500 hp to have a full-load effi-
Motors not Covered by EISA4-4
ciency that meets or exceeds the NEMA energy efficient
motor standards (given in Table 12-11 of NEMA MG ■■ Single-phase motors
1-2011). End users may voluntarily purchase premium ■■ DC motors
efficiency Design B motors in these ratings. The EISA
motor efficiency standards took effect in December 2010. ■■ Two-digit frames (42-48-56)
Canadian national motor efficiency standards mostly ■■ Multispeed motors
match the EISA requirements (except that they cover all ■■ Medium voltage motors
motors rated at <600 V instead of 230/460 V motors).
■■ Totally enclosed non-ventilated (TENV) and
EISA also expanded the term “general purpose” motor to TEAO enclosures
include a number of motor subtypes that were not covered ■■ Motors with customized original equipment
by the earlier EPAct motor efficiency standards. These manufacturer (OEM) mountings
motors now must have full-load efficiency values that
meet or exceed the NEMA energy efficient motor stan-
■■ Intermittent duty motors
dards given in Table 12-11 of NEMA MG 1-2011. Motors ■■ Submersible motors
in the 1 hp to 200 hp ratings that are covered by this man- ■■ Encapsulated motors
datory minimum full-load efficiency standard include:4-3, 4-4
■■ Motors that are integral with gearing or brake
• U-frame motors where the motor cannot be used separately

• Design C motors ■■ Design D motors

• Close-coupled pump motors

• Footless (C-face or D-flange without base) motors
• Vertical solid shaft normal thrust motors (P-base) Helpful Tip
• Eight-pole (900 RPM) motors Always replace single-phase motors with three-
phase motors when possible.4-4
• Polyphase motors with a voltage of not more than 600
V (other than 230 V or 460 V motors). This applies to Full-load efficiency values for a 5 hp 1,800 RPM
200 V and 575 V motor model lines motor are given below:

• Fire pump motors.

■■ Typical Single Phase: 80.0%
■■ Premium Single Phase: 86.5%
Motor efficiency standards are constantly evolving, both
Premium Three Phase: 90.2%
in the United States and overseas. The IEC has proposed
■■

an above premium efficiency (or IE4) standard level. The

minimum full-load efficiency values under discussion may
exceed the performance capability of AC induction motor
technology.4-5 Nameplate Efficiency Labeling
In March 2010, DOE adopted energy efficiency standards Protocols
for fractional horsepower polyphase and single-phase Energy efficiency, annual operating hours, and motor
motors. These standards cover motors operating at 3,600, load are the main factors that determine the lifetime cost
1,800, and 1,200 RPM and include capacitor-start/induc- of owning and operating a motor. Energy costs typically
tion run and capacitor-start/capacitor run open motors exceed initial motor purchase costs within a year of con-
rated between 0.25 hp and 3 hp. These standards will be tinuous operation. NEMA Standard MG1 requires that a
applicable beginning March 2015.4-6 “nominal” full-load efficiency value appear on the motor
nameplate. This nominal efficiency must be derived from
tests conducted in accordance with IEEE Standard 112,
test method B. The nameplate efficiency represents the
efficiency at full-rated load with all three phases at nomi-
nal voltage.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 4-3

CHAPTER 4 | MOTOR SPECIFICATION AND SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS

Table 4-1. Motor Nameplate Efficiency Marking Standard. A somewhat complex set of procedures is used to deter-
Source NEMA MG 1-2011, Table 12-10 mine the exact nominal efficiency that will appear on the
nameplate for each model line. IEEE 112B testing is con-
Nominal Minimum Nominal Minimum ducted on a population of motors within each model line,
Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency and an “average efficiency” is determined as the arithmetic
mean efficiency of that population. NEMA recognizes that
99.0 98.8 91.0 89.5 manufacturing tolerances will lead to variations in effi-
ciency for individual motors within a population. NEMA
98.9 98.7 90.2 88.5 has confronted this issue by defining a lower “minimum”
efficiency that must be equaled or exceeded by all motors
98.8 98.6 89.5 87.5 in a motor model line.

98.7 98.5 88.5 86.5 One might expect that the nominal (nameplate) efficiency
would be the same as the average efficiency, but it is not.
98.6 98.4 87.5 85.5 NEMA MG 1 has established efficiency bands topped by
specific nominal efficiencies that can be placed on the
98.5 98.2 86.5 84.0
nameplate. Those bands are reproduced here as Table 4-1.
98.4 98.0 85.5 82.5 After determining the actual average efficiency, the manu-
facturer must label the motor with a nominal efficiency
98.2 97.8 84.0 81.5 from the table that is equal to or less than the average
efficiency. For every nominal efficiency band, the table
98.0 97.6 82.5 80.0 contains a corresponding minimum efficiency value.

97.8 97.4 81.5 78.5 The purchaser can be comfortable using NEMA nominal
efficiency from the nameplate in making motor purchasing
97.6 97.1 80.0 77.0 decisions. This is not to imply that all new motors arrive
free of manufacturing flaws that reduce efficiency and
97.4 96.8 78.5 75.5
other performance parameters. Such flaws appear periodi-
97.1 96.5 77.0 74.0
cally, and purchasers should conduct receiving inspection
tests to check for them. Record nameplate information
96.8 96.2 75.5 72.0 into your motor tracking system when new motors are
delivered.
96.5 95.8 74.0 70.0
For nearly every category and rating of motor there are
96.2 95.4 72.0 68.0 multiple manufacturers, and each one offers several mod-
els. The various models span a range of nominal efficien-
95.8 95.0 70.0 66.0 cies. It is important to know what efficiencies are avail-
able within each group of competing models and how to
95.4 94.5 68.0 64.0 specify the highest economically justifiable efficiency.
This task is made easier by the adoption of mandatory
95.0 94.1 66.0 62.0
minimum full-load efficiency standards. Standards also
94.5 93.6 64.0 59.5 provide a basis for various premium or enhanced effi-
ciency motor rebate or incentive programs sponsored by
94.1 93.0 62.0 57.5 electric utilities.

93.6 92.4 59.5 55.0

Horsepower Ratings
93.0 91.7 57.5 52.5
Motor “size” generally implies a shaft output power or
92.4 91.0 55.0 50.5 horsepower rating. IEC metric motors are rated in kW.
Motors can be oversized and still serve a load satisfac-
91.7 90.2 52.5 48.0 torily and (to a point) efficiently. They deliver the horse-
power the load requires, not their rated horsepower. Most
50.5 46.0
motors above the fractional horsepower range maintain a

4-4 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 4 | MOTOR SPECIFICATION AND SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS

high efficiency to about 50% load. You can find full and Slip is the difference between a motor’s synchronous
part-load efficiencies down to 25% of full-load in Motor- speed and its operating speed. The motor’s full-load speed
Master+. There are some advantages to moderate motor is its synchronous speed less the slip that occurs when
oversizing. You have a greater margin of safety from over- the motor is fully loaded. Slip varies from less than 1%
heating, a “cushion” to accommodate errors in estimat- of synchronous speed for large premium efficient motors
ing or load spikes, faster acceleration to operating speed, (and lightly loaded motors) to greater than 5% for many
greater tolerance to undervoltage operation, and poten- fractional horsepower motors and motors used in special
tially higher efficiency. applications. Slip represents one of several energy loss
categories in a motor. For this reason, induction motor
Motors typically operate at their highest efficiency when designers try to keep slip low; however, manufacturing
loaded to about 70% to 80% of full-load. This perfor- costs and other operating parameters, like starting current
mance characteristic occurs because above 60% load the and torque, tend to move in the wrong direction if slip is
motor’s shaft or output horsepower varies linearly with too low.
current. Resistance losses, however, vary with respect to
the square of the current. Motor efficiency is equal to out- Synchronous speed minus the slip is the motor operating
put (output + losses) and efficiency increases when resis- speed. Operating speed is very important in centrifugal
tance losses are reduced faster than the delivered output. pump and fan applications where input power require-
ments are speed sensitive. For centrifugal fans and cen-
Underloaded motors operate at lower power factor, trifugal circulating water pumps (i.e., pumps used in a
although this disadvantage is minor if power factor is cor- non-static lift application), fluid flow is proportional to the
rected with capacitors, low power factor is not penalized shaft speed; the power requirement, however, is propor-
by the utility, or the motor is controlled by an adjust- tional to the cube of the shaft speed. Even small speed
able speed drive that corrects for power factor. Oversized differences are significant as a 1% increase in operating
motors draw more current because of their reduced power speed shifts the fan or pump performance curve so the
factor at part-load. In addition, they draw a higher start- system curve intersects it at different location. The result
ing current, because starting current is a property of the is higher flow, and a higher discharge or outlet pressure
motor and is not affected by the magnitude of the load. resulting in an overall 3% power increase. Energy use
Motor efficiency and power factor as a function of load increases even in applications like a pump filling a tank—
are shown in Figure 1-1. Oversized motor performance is where the tank will be filled in less time.
discussed in detail in AMO’s Premium Efficiency Electric
Motor Selection and Application Guide.4-7 For a given motor, speed and slip are not constant; they
vary with load and voltage. See Chapter 5 for information
on determining motor load from measurements of
Synchronous Speed its speed.
AC motor speed is controlled primarily by the stator wind-
ing configuration, which determines the number of mag-
Full-Load and
netic poles in the stator. The rotational speed of the mag-
netic field is known as the motor’s synchronous speed, Locked-Rotor Torque
and it is always 120 times the line frequency divided by All motors of the same horsepower and speed rating have
the number of poles. Wherever a 60 Hz line frequency is the same full-load torque. They differ, however, in the
used, this works out to speeds of 3,600 RPM (two poles), torque they can provide at start-up and throughout accel-
1,800 RPM (four poles), 1,200 RPM (six poles), and 900 eration. NEMA has several three-phase induction motor
RPM (eight poles). In countries with a 50 Hz power sup- design designations, denoted by the letters A, B, C, and
ply, 2-, 4-, 6- , and 8-pole motors would rotate at 3,000, D. These should not be confused with other parameters
1,500, 1,000, and 750 RPM, respectively. that NEMA also classifies by letter, such as locked-rotor
current and insulation temperature tolerance. A variety of
For all AC motors except the commonplace induction
motor performance parameters are set by the design letter,
motor, rotor and shaft speed are exactly the same as
horsepower rating, and synchronous speed of a motor, but
synchronous speed. Induction motors have slip; they run
the most important is the minimum delivered torque at
slower by a few percent than synchronous speed. That
start-up and during acceleration of the motor. Figure 4-1
is why induction motor nameplate full-load speeds are a
shows typical torque-speed curves during acceleration of
little lower than the motors’ synchronous speeds.
motors of different NEMA designs.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 4-5

 CHAPTER 4 | MOTOR SPECIFICATION AND SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS

300 when an initial high torque is needed to overcome static

friction or material compaction. Design A through C
motors all have the same maximum allowable slip,
but Design C motors tend to exhibit higher slip within
Torque (percent of full-load torque)

D that limit.

Design D motors are high-slip machines for use on loads

200
that cycle several times per minute in their torque demand.
Such applications include punch presses and rocking beam
C oil well pumps. In these applications, a flywheel is used to
supplement the motor through the high torque moments;
otherwise, it would stall. The flywheel decelerates as a
A or B result of contributing momentum to the load shaft during
100 the high torque moments. The motor re-accelerates the
flywheel during the low torque demand part of the cycle.
Figure 4-1 makes it clear that designs other than Design D
would reach a breakdown torque with very little decelera-
tion of the load. A Design D motor’s breakdown torque is
essentially the same as its locked-rotor torque.
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 Never use a Design C or D motor in an application where
a Design A or B motor would work because Designs C and
Speed (Percent synchronous speed) D motors are considerably less efficient.
Figure 4-1. Torque-Speed Curves for NEMA Design
A-D Motors
Full-Load and
Locked-Rotor Current
At the moment acceleration begins, the torque developed
is called the “locked-rotor torque.” For motors in the A motor’s full-load current or amperage rating is impor-
NEMA Design A, B, and C categories, torque actually tant for sizing the electrical service and protection. At
drops somewhat as acceleration begins and reaches some rated load, the current rating is listed on the nameplate in
minimum value, which is still higher than the steady-state amperes. For multivoltage motors, the amperages for each
torque at rated load and speed. This minimum is called the connectable voltage are given in the same sequence as the
“pull-up” torque. As acceleration proceeds, a torque maxi- voltages to which they correspond.
mum called the “breakdown” torque is reached. The load
also has a speed torque curve. When overlaid, the motor It is very important to provide for the high locked-rotor
torque curve must be greater than the load torque curve at current that occurs when a motor starts and acceler-
every speed point. Otherwise, the motor will overload and ates. Locked-rotor current varies but tends to be around
stall before reaching its breakdown torque. six times the rated full-load current. The code letter that
pertains exclusively to locked-rotor current is usually just
Even within a NEMA Design letter category, motor models designated “Code” on the nameplate, and it should not be
of the same rating can differ in locked rotor and accelerating confused with the NEMA Design letter. These letter codes
torque—remember that NEMA only specifies minimum are associated with a range of kVA per rated horsepower.
locked rotor and pull-up torque values that a motor must
equal or exceed. If starting or accelerating torque is criti- To determine the actual locked-rotor amperage rating,
cal, you can obtain measured locked rotor torque values obtain the code letter from the nameplate or catalog and
from manufacturer’s data or from MotorMaster+. look up the kVA per horsepower (kVA/hp) correspond-
ing with the code letter from Table 4-2, which has been
NEMA has placed a maximum limit on the starting current taken from NEMA MG 1. Next, multiply the table number
of Design B, C, and D motors (which are the most com- by the rated horsepower of the motor and then divide by
mon). Design A motors are quite similar in performance to 1.732 times the motor voltage rating in kV, e.g., 0.46 kV
a Design B motor, but there is no limit on starting current. for a 460 V motor. MotorMaster+ provides the locked-
Design C motors are designed for higher starting torque rotor or starting current for new motors directly in amps.
and are most often used in material handling applications, For multi-voltage rated motors, MotorMaster+ lists the

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 CHAPTER 4 | MOTOR SPECIFICATION AND SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS

Table 4-2. NEMA Locked-Rotor Code Letter Definitions This is of no consequence in most situations because of its
brief duration. But inrush current can be a problem in situ-
Letter Letter ations where so-called instantaneous magnetic-only circuit
kVA/hp* kVA/hp* protectors are used. If nuisance tripping occurs after an
Designation Designation
efficiency upgrade where instantaneous circuit protectors
are used, consult Section 430 of the latest revision of the
A 0.00–3.15 K 8.0–9.0 NEC. The code has been modified to allow adjustments
to a higher trip setting when nuisance tripping occurs. For
B 3.14–3.55 L 9.0–10.0 additional information, see DOE Motor Systems Tip Sheet
#6, Avoid Nuisance Tripping with Premium Efficiency
C 3.54–4.0 M 10.0–11.2 Motors (www.eere.energy.gov/manufacturing/tech_
assistance/pdfs/avoid_nuisance_motorsys_ts6.pdf).
D 4.0–4.5 N 11.2–12.5

E 4.4–5.0 P 12.4–14.0 Frame Size

Motor frame sizes were not standardized prior to 1952. In
F 5.0–5.6 R 14.0–16.0
1952, NEMA established a set of standards for U-frame
motors. As upgraded insulation systems were developed,
G 5.5–6.3 S 16.0–18.0
T-frame motor standards were introduced in 1964. T-frame
motors are smaller than U-frame motors of a comparable
H 6.3–7.1 T 18.0–20.0
horsepower rating. U-frame motors can be identified by
the frame designation on the motor nameplate (for 1- to
J 7.1–8.0 U 20.0–22.4
100-hp motors, 182, 184, 213, 215, 254U, 256U, 284U,
324U, 326U, 364U, 365U, 404U, 405U, 444U, 445U).
V 22.5 and up
T-frame motors have the letter “T” following the frame
*The locked kVA per horsepower range includes the lower figure up to, but number (i.e., 143T, 145T, 182T, 184T, 213T, 215T, 254T,
not including, the higher figure. For example, 3.14 is designated by letter A 256T, 284T, 284T, 324T, 326T, 364T, 365T, 404T, 405T).
and 3.15 by letter B.
A frame number ending in TC designates a ‘C-face’ motor,
while LP, HP, or VP indicates a P-base or vertical shaft
full-load and locked-rotor amperage for the highest volt- motor. Close-coupled pump motors have frame numbers
age connection. The amperage is inversely proportional ending with JP or JM.
for other potential utilization voltages, e.g., if the full-load
For small machines, the frame number is 16 times the dis-
current is 50 amps with the 460 V connection, it will be
tance of the shaft centerline height above the motor base-
100 amps with a 230 V connection.
plate (when measured in inches). For larger machines (140
With the efficiency improvements of the last several years, frame and above), the first two digits of the frame number
NEMA and the National Electrical Code (NEC) have dealt are four times the distance that the shaft height is above
with one more important category of motor current. This the motor baseplate (when measured in inches). With IEC
is the instantaneous inrush current, and it should be care- motors, the frame designation indicates the shaft height in
fully distinguished from locked-rotor current. Locked- millimeters (mm).
rotor current is an RMS current, which means current has
To be assured of a proper fit without having to modify the
to have been established for at least one full AC cycle
mounting, purchase replacement motors with the same
before it can be defined or measured. Instantaneous inrush
frame size designation as that of the original motor. Pre-
current is the peak instantaneous current that occurs on
mium efficiency T-frame and U-frame motors are avail-
any phase within the first half-cycle after starting contacts
able in the same range of frame sizes as the older motors
close.
they replace. Frame size is predominantly associated
A premium efficient motor is liable to have a greater with the dimensions of all mounting and contact surfaces,
instantaneous inrush current than a standard efficient including the shaft height and diameter.
counterpart with the same locked-rotor current. No NEMA
While premium efficiency U-frame motors are available,
Design limits instantaneous inrush current although many
they are considerably more expensive than equivalent
Design B motors must be reclassified as NEMA Design
rated T-frame motors. Frame adapters or transition bases
A motors when redesigned as a premium efficient motor.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 4-7

CHAPTER 4 | MOTOR SPECIFICATION AND SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS

are available so that old U-frame motors can be replaced Explosion-proof motors are designated under the NEC
by premium efficiency T-frame motor models. The transi- as compatible for use in Class 1 Group C and D environ-
tion bases accommodate the mounting bolts for both the ments, or are rated for operation in Class II Group E, F,
T-frame and U-frame motors and line the T-frame motor and G environments. Equivalent IEC motors are desig-
shaft height up with the driven equipment shaft.4-8 Some nated as “flame-proof” motors.4-9 Premium efficiency
industries have replaced all of their older U-frame with explosion-proof motors are available from most manu-
modern T-frame motors to reduce their spares inventory. facturers. Always make sure that a standard efficiency
explosion-proof motor is replaced by a premium efficiency
Some exterior dimensions that do not pertain to mount- motor that is rated for the same environment.
ing are not controlled by frame size, so take care that your
new motor does not interfere with structures having close Additional enclosure types include totally enclosed non-
clearances. Premium efficient motors sometimes extend ventilated (TENV), TEAO, totally enclosed blower-cooled
beyond the opposite-drive-end mounting feet. (TEBC), and weather protected (WP).

Enclosure Type Insulation Class

Various enclosure designations pertain to the design fea- NEMA has established standards for motor insulation
tures that facilitate the cooling of the motor and protect system design, temperature rating, and motor thermal
it from the surrounding environment. The most common capacity. Four classes of insulation are available, each
NEMA enclosures are TEFC and ODP. NEMA’s MG 1 with an allowable temperature rise above ambient (ambi-
describes the circumstances and criteria for using each ent is defined as 40ºC or 104ºF) and maximum allowable
type of enclosure. Basically, an ODP enclosure permits temperature. A motor’s insulation class is a system rating
the passage of cooling air around the windings of the based on insulation materials including the wire coatings,
machine. The ventilation openings are constructed so varnish, slot liners, lead wire insulation, and topsticks.
operation is not interfered with when drops of liquid or Motor insulation systems are based on temperature endur-
solid particles strike the enclosure at any angle from 0° ance for 20,000 hours and are designated as class A, B, F,
to 15° from the vertical. A TEFC machine is enclosed to or H. Class A insulation systems are shown by experience
prevent the exchange of cooling air between the inside and or test to have a suitable operating life when operated at a
outside of the enclosure. The TEFC enclosure is designed maximum temperature of 105ºC. A Class B system shows
to prevent dust from interfering with machine operation. acceptable thermal life when operated at 130ºC; a Class F
NEMA also includes a “suggested standard for future system can be operated at a limit of 155ºC; while a Class
design” that follows the lead of the IEC. The IEC ingress H system can be operated at a limiting temperature of 180º
protection (IP) enclosure rating approach assigns numeric C.4-1 Class A insulation is rarely used today; Class B is the
values that indicate the degree of protection against intru- “baseline” insulation system; while Class F insulation is
sion of solid objects and the ingress of liquids. For most considered standard for most energy efficient and pre-
industrial applications, IP22 relates to ODP motors, IP54 mium efficiency motors.
to TEFC, IP45 to weatherproof, and IP55 to washdown
duty motors.4-9 Because a motor is supplied with a Class F or H insulation
system does not mean that the motor’s actual temperature
Hazardous location is another important type of motor rise or operating temperature increases. A higher insula-
enclosure (often referred to as “explosion-proof” motors tion class can result in an improved insulation life. The life
by manufacturers). They are designed for use in harsh of the insulation doubles for every 10ºC cooler the motor
industrial environments that contain hazardous gas and runs relative to its maximum thermal limits.
vapor that may have explosive properties. A common
misperception is that explosion-proof motors are sealed so
tightly that no dust or other contaminants can enter. This is
not true. The motor can breathe as the air inside expands
and contracts, just as a TEFC motor does. The explosion-
proof motor has a “flame path” at the endplate to frame
joint to quench any flames from an internal fire or arcing
fault before it can propagate and ignite flammables in the
air surrounding the motor.

4-8 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 4 | MOTOR SPECIFICATION AND SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS

Service Factor
The service factor of an AC motor is a multiplier which,
when applied to the rated motor horsepower, indicates a
permissible loading for continuous operation at rated load
under usual service conditions. While operation within the
service factor is permissible, it is not recommended as a
motor operating continuously at any service factor greater
than 1 will have a reduced life expectancy. Both insulation
life and bearing life are reduced by service factor loads.
Most general purpose motors have a service factor of 1.15.
This service factor is reduced to 1.0 when the motor is
controlled by an electronic pulse-width modulated vari-
able frequency drive.

Definite and Special

Purpose Motors
A general purpose motor is an AC induction motor
designed according to NEMA (or IEC) standards to meet
a broad variety of applications. A definite purpose motor
is produced in standard ratings and with standard operat-
ing characteristics for particular applications or other than
usual service conditions.

A special purpose motor is designed with special operat-

ing characteristics for a particular application. Examples
include inverter-duty motors, brake motors, and integral
gear motors.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 4-9

CHAPTER 4 | MOTOR SPECIFICATION AND SELECTION CONSIDERATIONS

References
4-1 U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficient 4-6 U.S. Department of Energy, “Energy Conservation
Electric Motor Selection Handbook, August 1996. Program: Energy Conservation Standards for Small
Electric Motors; Final Rule,” Federal Register,
4-2 GE Motors, “Energy Policy Act of 1992 as it March 9, 2010.
Relates to Motors,” Industry Information,
GEK-100919, 1993. 4-7 U.S. Department of Energy, Premium Efficiency
Electric Motor Selection and Application Guide.
4-3 U.S Department of Energy “The 2007 Energy Act:
Good News for Motor Users,” Energy Matters, 4-8 Copper Development Association, Motor Man-
Summer 2008. agement Best Practices, Part II: Motor Failure
Policies, and Purchasing Specifications, A6148-12,
4-4 Malinowski, John, Baldor Electric Company, March 2012.
Electrical Efficiency: Spec the Right Motor and
Drive for Lifecycle Performance, November 2011. 4-9 Clarke, Ron, Leeson Electric Corporation, How to
Speak Fluent IEC for Motors.
4-5 Brunner, Conrad, Anibal de Almeida, Rob Boteler,
Martin Doppelbauer, and William Hoyt, Motor
MEPS Guide, February 2009.

4-10 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

CHAPTER 5
MOTOR LOAD AND EFFICIENCY
ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES
CHAPTER 5 | MOTOR LOAD AND EFFICIENCY ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES

To compare the operating costs of an existing standard instruments, you can use Equation 5-1 to calculate the
efficient motor against those of a premium efficient three-phase input power to the loaded motor. You can then
replacement unit, you must determine operating hours, quantify the motor’s part-load by comparing the measured
motor load, and the efficiency of each motor at its load input power when operating under load with the power
point. Part-load is a term used to describe the actual load that would be required if the motor was to operate at
served by the motor in comparison to the ability of the rated capacity (from Equation 5-2). The relationship that
motor to deliver shaft horsepower at its rated full load. estimates motor loading based on power measurements is
The actual motor load can be estimated using input power, shown in Equation 5-3.
amperage, or speed measurements. Several load estima-
tion techniques are briefly summarized.

P
Input Power Measurements LOAD =
PR
× 100%
When “direct-read” power meters are available, use them
to measure the input power supplied to the motor and the Where:
load that is imposed upon the motor by the driven equip-
Output power as a % of nameplate
ment. With measured parameters taken from hand-held Load =
rated power

P = Measured three phase power in kW

V × I × PF × √3
P= PR = Input power at full rated load in kW
1000

Where:
Equation 5-3. Estimating Motor Load using
P = Three phase power in kW the Input Power Measurements

RMS voltage, mean line-to-line

V =
of three phases
An existing motor is a 40-hp, 1,800-RPM unit
with an open drip-proof enclosure. The motor is
I = RMS current, mean of three phases
12 years old, has a full-load efficiency of 90.2%,
and has not been rewound. The electrician
PF = Power factor as a decimal
makes the following measurements:

Measured Values:
Equation 5-1. Using Field Measurements Vab = 467 Volts Ia = 36 Amperes (A) PFa = 0.75
to Determine Motor Input Power
Vbc = 473 V Ib = 38 A PFb = 0.78
Vca = 469 V Ic = 37 A PFc = 0.76
Average Voltage = (467 + 473 + 469)/3 = 469.7 V
HP × 0.7457
PR = Average Current (I) = (36 + 38 + 37)/3 = 37 A
ηR
Power Factor (PF) = (0.75 + 0.78 + 0.76)/3 = 0.763
Where:
Equations 5-1 through 5-3 reveal that:
PR = Input power at full rated load in kW Input Power
P = 469.7 × 37 × 0.763 × √3 / 1000 = 22.9 kW
HP = Nameplate rated horsepower Power at Rated Load
PR = 40 × 0.7457 / 0.902 = 33.1
η R = Efficiency at full rated load
Load = P / PR = (22.9 / 33.1) × 100% = 69.3%

Equation 5-2. Calculating the Full-Load Motor Input Power Example 5-1. Input Power and Load Calculations

5-2 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 5 | MOTOR LOAD AND EFFICIENCY ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES

Line Current Measurements Both nameplate full-load and no-load current values apply
only at the rated motor voltage. Thus, RMS current mea-
The current load estimation method is recommended when surements should always be corrected for over- or under-
only voltage and amperage measurements are available. voltage. If the utilization voltage is below that indicated
The amperage draw of a motor varies linearly with respect on the motor nameplate, the measured amperage value is
to load, down to about 50% of full load (see Figure 5-1). correspondingly higher than expected under rated condi-
Below the 50% load point, power factor degrades due to tions and must be adjusted downwards. The converse is
reactive magnetizing current requirements and the amper- true if the supply voltage at the motor terminals is above
age curve becomes increasingly nonlinear. Below 50% the motor rating. Equation 5-4 shows the relationship of
load, current measurements are not a useful indicator of motor load to measured current values.
motor load.

The Slip Method

Load = ( I
IR
×
V
VR
) × 100%
As noted earlier, the actual speed of the motor is less than
its synchronous speed, with the difference between the
synchronous and measured motor operating speed referred
Where: to as slip. The amount of slip is proportional to the load
imposed on the motor by the driven equipment. Motor
Load = Output power as a % of rated power rotational speed measurements are generally easy to obtain
with a contact tachometer or a strobe light as most motors
I = RMS current are constructed so that the shaft is accessible.

IR = Nameplate rated current The primary reasons to use the slip method to determine
motor load are simplicity and safety advantages.5-1 While
RMS voltage, mean line-to-line the voltage-compensated slip method is attractive for its
V = simplicity, it lacks accuracy. The slip method is generally
of three phases
not recommended for determining motor loads in the field
VR = Nameplate rated voltage and should be used only when motor voltage and operat-
ing speed measurements are available.

Equation 5-4. Voltage Compensated Amperage Ratio Motor

Load Estimation Technique

100%
90% Power Factor
Percent of Related Load Value

80% Current
Power
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
Percent of Full Load

Figure 5-1. Relationships Between Power, Current, Power Factor, and Motor Load. Illustration from EM4MDS

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 5-3

CHAPTER 5 | MOTOR LOAD AND EFFICIENCY ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES

The synchronous speed of an induction motor depends The accuracy of the slip method is limited by multiple fac-
on the frequency of the power supply and on the number tors. The largest uncertainty relates to the 20% tolerance
of poles for which the motor is wound. The higher the that NEMA allows manufacturers in reporting nameplate
frequency, the faster a motor runs. For a given frequency, full-load speed.5-1 Given this broad tolerance, manufactur-
the more poles the motor has, the slower it runs. Table 5-1 ers generally round their reported full-load speed values
indicates typical synchronous speeds. to some multiple of 5 RPM. Although 5 RPM is a small
percentage of the full-load speed and might be consid-
The motor load can be estimated with slip measurements ered insignificant, the slip method relies on the difference
as follows (see Equation 5-5 and Example 5-2). between full-load nameplate and synchronous speeds.

Table 5-1. Synchronous Speeds (RPM) for Induction Motors

SLIP
LOAD = × 100%
( SS − SR ) Poles 60 Hz 50 Hz

Where: 2 3,600 3,000

Load = Output power as a % of rated power 4 1,800 1,500

Synchronous speed – measured 6 1,200 1,000

Slip =
speed in RPM
8 900 750
SS = Synchronous speed in RPM
10 720 600
SR = Nameplate full load speed
12 600 500

Equation 5-5. Slip Motor Load Estimation Technique

SLIP
Given: LOAD = × 100%
|(SS− SR) × (VR /V)2 |
Synchronous speed in RPM = 1,800
Where:
Nameplate full load speed = 1,750
Load = Output power as a % of rated power
Measured speed in RPM = 1,770
Synchronous speed – measured
Slip =
Nameplate rated speed in RPM
= 25 hp
horsepower
SS = Synchronous speed in RPM
Determine actual output horsepower:
SR = Nameplate full load speed

LOAD = ( 1,800 − 1,770

1,800 − 1,750
) × 100% = 60%
V =
RMS voltage, mean line-to-line
of three phases
Actual output
horsepower is ( 60%
100 ) × 25 HP = 15 HP VR = Nameplate rated voltage

Equation 5-6. Voltage Compensated Slip Motor Load

Example 5-2. Using the Slip Technique to Estimate
Estimation Technique
Motor Load

5-4 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 5 | MOTOR LOAD AND EFFICIENCY ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES

Given a 40 RPM “correct” slip, a seemingly minor 5 RPM 20

uncertainty results in a 12% change in calculated load.

Percent Operating Time

Slip also varies inversely with respect to the motor termi- 15
nal voltage squared, and voltage is subject to a separate
NEMA tolerance of ±10% at the motor terminals. A volt-
age correction factor can, of course, be inserted into the 10
slip load equation. The revised slip load can be calculated
by using Equation 5-6.5-2
5
An advantage of using the current-based load estimation
technique is that NEMA MG1-12.47 allows a tolerance of 0
only 10% when reporting nameplate full-load current. In 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100
addition, motor terminal voltages affect current linearly,
Power, kW
while slip varies with the square of the voltage.5-3 While
the current ratio technique is superior to the slip method at
motor loads above 50%, potential errors are not insignifi- Figure 5-2. Power Logging Data Displayed in
cant. Use input power measurements to determine motor Histogram Format
load whenever possible.

Variable Loads
When the motor load varies over time, you can determine various load types are given in Table 5-2.5-3, 5-4 Ammeters
the average load or load profile imposed on the motor. are sometimes available on loan from your local utility or
This can be accomplished through long-term monitor- from companies operating energy efficiency programs.
ing of the input power. If there are two load levels (for
instance, a rotary screw compressor with load/unload When many load levels exist or when loads fluctuate
controls or a water supply pump motor that operates con- randomly, hand-held instruments provide only a glimpse
tinuously but against two different static heads), the power of the overall load profile. To obtain valid data for vari-
required at each operating point and the motor load can able load applications you must conduct power logging
be determined with a kW meter. Ammeter measurements over a period of time. Variable power requirements can
can then be used to indicate the amount of time spent at be displayed in a histogram bar chart as shown in Figure
each operating point. Determine the weighted average 5-2. This histogram shows the percentage of time during
load by timing each motor load period. Characteristics of the power logging period that the motor input power falls

Table 5-2. Characteristics of Motor Loads

Description of Motor Use Type of Load

Constant, but will change slightly with outside

Centrifugal Supply Air Fan Motor
air temperature

Constant or intermittent operation, load will vary

Conveyors
based on weight of the items placed on the conveyor

Boiler Feed Water Pump Motor, “On-Off” Control Starts/stops; constant while on

Hydraulic Power Unit Motor, “On and Bypass” Control Two levels of different but constant values

Air Compressor Motor with “Inlet Valve” Modulation Variable Load

Saws and Machine Tools Variable and random load

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 5-5

CHAPTER 5 | MOTOR LOAD AND EFFICIENCY ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES

within different kW “bins.” The load associated with indi- can calculate motor losses and the shaft power delivered to
vidual kW bin values can be determined through use of the rotating equipment. By definition, a motor of a given
the load estimation technique given in Equation 5-3. When rated horsepower is expected to have the ability to deliver
load values are substituted for the kW values, the resulting that quantity of power in a mechanical form (brake horse-
plot indicates the load profile or load-duty cycle for the power) at the motor shaft.5-5, 5-6
motor-driven application.
NEMA Design A and B motors up to 500 hp are required
The MotorMaster+ software tool inventory module is to have a full-load efficiency value stamped on the name-
designed to accommodate field measurements for in-plant plate (selected from the table of nominal efficiencies,
motors with variable loading. The user may specify the Table 4-1). Many analyses of motor energy efficiency
percentage of operating time for up to six load “bins.” improvement savings assume that the existing motor is
Actual motor loads are automatically determined within operating at its nameplate efficiency. This assumption is
the software tool from the measured data entered for each reasonable above the 50% load point, because motor effi-
load bin or operating point (The user may enter operat- ciencies generally peak at around 75% to 80% load and,
ing voltage, amperage, power factor, operating speed, or for larger motors, performance at 50% load is almost iden-
power readings). Both motor load and the efficiency at tical to that at full-load. Some larger horsepower motors
each load point are determined for the in-service motor. can exhibit a relatively flat efficiency curve down to 25%
The efficiency values are derived from default part-load of full-load.
efficiency tables that are embedded within the software
tool. Default efficiency tables are available for motors of It is more difficult to determine the efficiency of a motor
different enclosure types (ODP, TEFC), horsepower rat- that has been in service a long time. It is not uncommon
ings, synchronous speeds, and efficiency classes. for the nameplate on the motor to be lost or painted over.

MotorMaster+ determines energy savings due to replacing

the old in-service motor with a premium efficient motor
by superimposing the load-duty cycle for the operating (0.7457 × HP × LOAD)
η=
motor onto the replacement premium efficient motor. The P
efficiency of the premium efficient motor is automatically
calculated for each operating load point and aggregate Where:
energy savings are determined by summing the calcu-
lated savings for each operating bin. This “bin analysis” η = Efficiency as operated in %
approach considers the existing motor’s load profile,
full-load speed, operating hours, and efficiency at each HP = Nameplate rated horsepower
load point to determine the efficiency improvement and
operating cost savings given that the incumbent motor is Load = Output power as a % of rated power
replaced with a specific premium efficient motor. Accurate
energy and cost savings results can thus be determined for P = Input power (in kW)
variable-loaded motors.

Determining Motor Efficiency Equation 5-7. Determination of Motor Efficiency

Motor loss mechanisms, factors affecting losses, and vari-

ations in losses with motor load are discussed in Chap-
ter 2 of DOE’s Premium Efficiency Motor Selection and
Motor Losses
Application Guide. The NEMA definition of energy effi-
ciency is the ratio of a motor’s useful mechanical power
output to its total electrical power input. This is usually
expressed as a percentage, as shown in Equation 5-7. Power Input Power Output
Load
Motors convert electrical energy to mechanical energy.
Motor losses are the difference between the motor input
Motor
and output power (see Figure 5-3). Once you have deter-
mined the motor efficiency and know the input power, you Figure 5-3. Depiction of Motor Losses.

5-6 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 5 | MOTOR LOAD AND EFFICIENCY ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES

In that case, it is almost impossible to locate efficiency

information. Also, there is a possibility that the motor effi-
ciency has been degraded if the motor was rewound prior
to the adoption of best practices repair standards.
LOAD = | P×η
HP × 0.7457
|
When nameplate efficiency is missing or unreadable, you
Where:
must determine the efficiency value at the operating load
point for the motor. Record significant nameplate data, if Load = Output power as a % of rated power
available, and contact the motor manufacturer. With the
model, catalog number, type, and serial number, the manu- P = Three phase input power in kW
facturer can identify approximately when the motor was
manufactured. Often, the manufacturer will have histori- η = Efficiency as operated in %
cal records and can supply nominal efficiency values as
a function of load for a family of motors.5-5, 5-6 Prior to
HP = Nameplate rated horsepower
1980, reported motor efficiencies might have been “cata-
log” versus tested efficiency values.

If the manufacturer cannot provide motor efficiency Equation 5-8. Determination of Motor Load
values, you may use estimates from Appendix B, which
contains nominal efficiency values at full, 75%, 50%, and
25% load for typical standard efficiency motors of various
sizes and with synchronous speeds of 3,600, 1,800, 1,200, Motor Load and Efficiency
and 900 RPM. Appendix B is derived from the MotorMas- Estimation Techniques
ter+ database and indicates “industry average” full- and
part-load performance values for older (pre-1997 vintage) Oak Ridge National Laboratory developed the Oak Ridge
standard efficiency motors. Motor Efficiency and Load (ORMEL), a computer pro-
gram that uses an equivalent-circuit method to estimate
Three steps are used to determine motor load and effi- the load and efficiency of an in-service motor. Only name-
ciency. First, use power, amperage, or slip measurements plate data and a measurement of rotor speed are required
to estimate the load imposed on the operating motor. Sec- to compute both the motor efficiency and load factor.
ond, obtain a motor part-load efficiency value consistent Dynamometer tests have shown that the method produces
with the approximated load either from the manufacturer efficiency estimates that average within ±3 percentage
or by interpolating from the data supplied in Appendix points of actual. This level of accuracy holds for motor
B. Finally, derive your final load estimate using both the loads ranging from 25% to 100% of rated capacity.5-8 The
power measurement at the motor terminals and the part- program allows the user to enter optional measured data,
load efficiency value, as shown in Equation 5-8. This such as stator resistance, to improve the accuracy of the
approach yields load and efficiency values that are con- load and efficiency estimates. The ORMEL load estima-
sistent with the input power measurements. Of course, the tion algorithms are embedded in and available with the
easiest way to determine motor load and efficiency at its MotorMaster+ software tool.
load point is to enter the motor nameplate information and
field measurements into the MotorMaster+ software tool. Motor efficiency estimation methods and devices were
evaluated at the Motor Systems Resource Facility at Ore-
Motor efficiency should not change with age or by a gon State University.5-9 Efficiencies calculated by three
motor’s repair history when repair “best practices” are motor analyzers and several algorithms and computer
followed. A study conducted by EASA and the Associa- programs were compared with dynamometer-determined
tion of Electrical and Mechanical Trades (AEMT) shows efficiencies on five motors under numerous operating
that, when best practices are followed to repair or rewind conditions. Motor analyzer errors were less than 3% for all
motors, they can maintain their original efficiency, within motors and less than 1% for newer motors in good condi-
the range of accuracy for the efficiency test method. In tion on a balanced power supply. (Unfortunately, power
several instances, efficiency of the repaired motor slightly supplies are not always balanced in industrial settings).
improved.5-7 The motor analyzers also were evaluated in the field, but
they were not embraced because the need to uncouple
motors from the driven equipment disrupted production.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 5-7

CHAPTER 5 | MOTOR LOAD AND EFFICIENCY ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES

Performing a no-load test is also labor intensive. The ana-

lytical methods avoid the need to purchase an expensive
motor analyzer, but still require a power meter with good
accuracy at a very low power factor.

Manufacturers of motor current-signature predictive main-

tenance analyzers have introduced products that advertise
their capability for determining efficiency without the
need for uncoupling motors from their driven equipment.
Connecting through existing potential transducers and
current transducers also allows testing on medium volt-
age motors. These devices also were evaluated at Oregon
State’s Motor Systems Resource Facility. The evaluation
examined accuracy, lack of intrusion, and ease of use.
Both analyzers tested exhibited efficiency errors generally
under 2% at high and intermediate motor loading.5-10, 5-11
Errors or uncertainties of this magnitude make it diffi-
cult to reliably evaluate potential energy savings due to
replacement of an older standard efficiency motor with a
new premium efficiency model.

Sophisticated electronic equipment is now available to

measure efficiency of motors while they remain connected
to their driven equipment. These new efficiency testers are
accurate to within 0.5% of the readings one would obtain
in a laboratory with a dynamometer.

5-8 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 5 | MOTOR LOAD AND EFFICIENCY ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES

References
5-1 
Kueck, J.D. ., J.R. Gray, R. C. Driver and J. S. Hsu, 5-7 
Electrical Apparatus Service Association,
Assessment of Available Methods for Evaluating “The Effect of Repair/Rewinding on Motor
In-Service Motor Efficiency, Oak Ridge National Efficiency,” EASA/AEMT Rewind Study and
Laboratory, January 1996. Good Practice Guide, 2003.

5-2 
U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficient 5-8 
Otaduy, P.J., ORMEL96 (Oak Ridge Motor
Electric Motor Selection Handbook, DOE/ Efficiency and Load, 1996) User’s Guide,
GO-10095-290, August 1996. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, March 1996.

5-3 
Nailen, Richard L., “Finding True Power Output 5-9 
von Jouanne, Annette, Alan Wallace, Johnny
Isn’t Easy,” Electrical Apparatus, February, 1994. Douglass, Craig Wohlgemuth, and Gary
Wainwright, “A Laboratory Assessment on
5-4 
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, MChEff: In-Service Motor Efficiency Testing Methods,”
A Computer Program for In-Service Estimation submitted for publication at the IEEE-International
of Motor Efficiency and Load Using the Electric Machines and Drives Conference,
ORNL Nameplate Equivalent Circuit Method, Milwaukee, WI, May 1997.
August 1995.
5-10 
Wallace, A., A. von Jouanne, E. Agamloh, K.
5-5 
Carroll, Hatch & Associates, Inc., An Electric Anderson, J. Rooks, “Assessment of Non-Intrusive
Motor Energy Efficiency Guide and Technical Motor Efficiency Estimators,” PPIC, 2004.
Reference Manual, June 1994.
5-11 
Motor Systems Resource Facility, Oregon State
5-6 
Carroll, Hatch & Associates, Inc., A Procedure University, Non-Intrusive Motor Efficiency
for Developing an Energy Efficiency Plan for the Estimators, prepared for the Northwest Energy
Use of Electric Motors in an Industrial Setting, Efficiency Alliance, Report #033303-126,
June 1994. March 2004.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 5-9

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems
CHAPTER 6
ANALYZING MOTOR
EFFICIENCY OPPORTUNITIES
CHAPTER 6 | ANALYZING MOTOR EFFICIENCY OPPORTUNITIES

This chapter illustrates how to use field measurements to cycle where the load is relatively constant for an apprecia-
determine demand reductions, energy savings, and the ble period of time. Total energy savings are then the sum
simple payback on investment in a new or replacement of the savings for each load period. The equations are not
premium efficiency motor. applicable to motors operating with pulsating loads or to
loads that cycle at rapid intervals.

Calculating Annual Energy You can use demand savings and annual energy savings,
and Demand Savings along with utility rate schedule information, to estimate
your annual reduction in operating costs. This general cal-
To determine the annual cost savings from the purchase culation of total annual cost savings is shown in Equation
of a premium efficiency motor, first you need to deter-
mine the annual energy consumption and demand savings.
Premium efficiency motors require fewer input kilowatts
to provide the same horsepower output as a standard kWhSAVINGS = kWREDUCTION × HOURS
efficiency motor. The difference in efficiency between the
premium efficiency motor and a comparable standard effi-
Where:
cient motor determines the demand or kW reduction. For
two similar motors operating at the same load but having Annual electric energy saved
kWhSAVINGS =
different efficiencies, you can use Equation 6-1 to calcu- in kWh
late the reduction in input kilowatts.6-1 With the reduction
in input power known, annual energy savings can be cal- Savings from efficiency
culated as shown in Equation 6-2. kWSAVED =
improvements in kW

Equations 6-1 and 6-2 apply to motors operating at a

Hours = Annual operating hours
specified constant load. For varying loads, you can apply
the energy savings equation to each portion of the duty

Equation 6-2. Determination of Annual Energy Savings

kWSAVED = HP × [ LOAD%/ 100 ] ×

0.7457 ×
( 100
ηSTD
−
100
ηPREM ) SAVINGS = (kWSAVED × 12 × RATED) +
(kWhSAVINGS × RATEE)
Where:

Savings from efficiency Where:

kWSAVED =
improvement in kW Savings = Total annual dollar savings

hp = Nameplate rated horsepower Savings from efficiency

kWSAVED =
improvements in kW
Output power as a % of rated
Load =
power Monthly demand charge in
RateD =
$/kW/mo
Efficiency of a standard motor
ηSTD =
as operated in % Annual electric energy saved
kWhSAVINGS =
in kWh
Efficiency of premium efficiency
η PREM =
motor as operated in % Tailblock energy charge in
RateE =
dollars per kWh

Equation 6-1. Determining the Reduction in Electrical

Demand due to Replacing a Standard Efficiency with a
Premium Efficiency Motor Equation 6-3. Calculation of Total Annual Cost Savings

6-2 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 6 | ANALYZING MOTOR EFFICIENCY OPPORTUNITIES

6-3. Apply seasonal demand charges appropriately and efficiency motor is the incremental cost for the premium
always examine declining block rate schedules to ensure efficiency motor (less any available utility rebate) divided
that savings are based on marginal energy costs. by the total annual cost savings. No installation costs are
assessed as either the premium efficiency or energy effi-
cient motor must be installed. This calculation is shown in
Assessing Economic Feasibility Equation 6-4.
Because of better design and low-loss/high-quality materi- For the motor repair/replace decision, the simple pay-
als, premium efficiency motors typically cost 15% to 30% back is the total cost of the new premium efficient motor
more than their energy efficient counterparts. In many minus the repair cost and any utility incentive (if avail-
situations (e.g., new motor purchases, repairs, or motor able), divided by the total annual electrical energy and
replacement) you quickly recover this price premium demand reduction cost savings. Motor removal and instal-
through energy cost savings. To determine economic fea- lation costs are not considered as the failed motor must
sibility, examine the total annual energy savings in relation be removed and a replacement spare or premium efficient
to the full or incremental cost of purchasing and install- motor installed.
ing the premium efficiency motor. See Appendix C for a
motor energy savings calculation form. For replacement of in-service or operating motors, the
simple payback is the ratio of the full cost of purchasing
Most industrial plant managers base their energy efficient and installing a new premium efficiency motor relative
equipment purchase decisions on a simple payback analy- to the value of the total annual electrical savings. Base or
sis, and they require that investments be recovered through “bare” motor installation costs must include an overhead
energy savings within 1 to 3 years. The simple payback is and profit multiplier when outside contractors are used.
defined as the period of time required for the savings from A labor cost adjustment should be applied to motors with
an investment to equal the initial or incremental cost of restricted access or special handling requirements. The
the investment. For initial motor purchases or replacement simple payback given replacement of an operable motor is
of burned-out and non-rewindable motors, the simple given in Equation 6-5.
payback period for the investment in a new premium

∆ COST − REBATE (COST + COSTINST − REBATE)

SPB = SPB =
SAVINGS SAVINGS

Where: Where:
SPB = Simple payback in years SPB = Simple payback in years

Price premium for premium Cost = New motor cost

∆ Cost = motor compared to an energy
efficient motor
CostINST = Installation cost

Utility rebate for premium

Rebate = Utility rebate for premium
efficient motor Rebate =
efficiency motor

Savings = Total annual dollar savings

Savings = Total annual cost savings

Equation 6-4. Simple Payback for the

New Motor Purchase Scenario Equation 6-5. Simple Payback for the
Replacement of an Operable Motor

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 6-3

CHAPTER 6 | ANALYZING MOTOR EFFICIENCY OPPORTUNITIES

The following analysis for purchasing a new 250-hp premium efficiency motor purchase is the ratio of the
TEFC motor operating at 75% of full rated load price premium or incremental cost to total annual
illustrates how to use Equations 6-1 through 6-4. The cost savings. Generally, premium efficiency motors
analysis determines the cost effectiveness of might cost up to 15% to 30% more than a motor of an
purchasing a new premium efficiency motor having a energy efficient design.
3/4-load efficiency of 96.2% (η PREM = 96.2) instead of
Assuming a price premium of $2,500 and no utility
an energy efficient motor (η EE = 95.5%). The motor is
incentive, the simple payback on investment is as
expected to be in operation for 8,000 hours per year.
follows (from Equation 6-4):
Electrical energy is purchased at a rate of $0.08/
kWh with a demand charge of $8.00/kW/month. SPB = ($2,500 – 0) / $780 = 3.2 years

Kilowatts saved (from Equation 6-1): The additional investment required to purchase a
premium efficiency motor is recovered within 3.2
kWREDUCTION = 250 × 0.75 × 0.7457 × years. Premium efficiency motors often pay for
(100/95.5 − 100/96.2) = 1.06 kW themselves rapidly through reduced energy
consumption and operating costs. After this initial
This is the amount of power conserved by the payback period, annual savings will continue to be
premium efficiency motor during each hour of use. reflected in lower operating costs, and they will add
Multiply this by the number of operating hours at the to a company’s total profits.
indicated load to obtain annual energy savings.
Although the energy and cost savings associated
with purchasing a premium efficiency motor can be
Energy saved (from Equation 6-2):
impressive in many applications, selecting the
kWhSAVINGS = 1.06 × 8,000 = 8,480 kWh/year premium efficiency unit is not always cost effective.
Motors that are lightly loaded or infrequently used—
such as motors driving control valves—may not
Assuming utility energy and demand charges consume enough electricity to allow the premium
of $0.08/kWh and $8.00/kW/month (from efficiency model to produce significant energy and
Equation 6-3): cost savings. Remember, for a motor operating
under a constant load, the electricity savings
Cost Savings = (1.06 kW × 12 mo × $8.00/
associated with an efficiency improvement are
kW-mo) + (8,480 kWh/year × $0.08/kWh) = directly proportional to annual hours of operation.
$780/year Special and definite purpose motors may carry a
substantial price premium or may not be available in
In this example, installing a premium efficient motor
premium efficiency models.
reduces the utility bill by $780 per year. The simple
payback for the incremental cost associated with a

Example 6-1

6-4 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 6 | ANALYZING MOTOR EFFICIENCY OPPORTUNITIES

References
6-1 
U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficient
Electric Motor Selection Handbook, DOE/
GO-10095-290, August 1996.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 6-5

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems
CHAPTER 7
MOTOR EFFICIENCY
IMPROVEMENT PLANNING
CHAPTER 7 | MOTOR EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT PLANNING

An industrial facility should adopt a new motor pur- history of frequent or repeated failures. Conduct fail-
chase policy and plan ahead in order to implement energy ure analyses to determine the root cause of the failure,
efficiency measures when opportunities arise. Take the correct system issues, and replace these motors with
following planning steps for each motor in the plant that motor designs better suited for the application. With-
meets the minimum size requirements: out correcting the root cause of the failures, the reason
for the continued failures may be passed along to the
• Make field measurements necessary to determine new premium efficient motor.
actual motor loads.
• Consider replacing motors that are less than 50%
• Establish the existing motor efficiency at its loaded with a downsized premium efficiency motor
load point. and a frame adapter.
• Determine annual operating hours. • Consider the immediate replacement of older (pre-
• Contact your utility account representative to 1964) U-frame motors with new premium efficiency
determine if the utility offers a premium efficient T-frame motors.
motor rebate or has other energy efficiency • Conduct a repair/replace analysis to determine the
incentive programs. cost-effectiveness of purchasing and installing new
• Identify in-service standard efficiency motors that premium efficient motors versus rewinding or over-
are cost-effective candidates for immediate replace- hauling failed standard efficiency motors.
ment with a new premium efficient motor. • Establish a premium efficiency motor-ready spares
• Improve plant reliability and productivity through inventory.
replacement of “problem” motors, i.e., those with a

MotorMaster+ Motor Energy Management Software

DOE has supported the development of MotorMaster+, ■■ Analysis features for rapidly determining the annual
a premium efficient motor selection and energy- energy, demand, and dollar savings resulting from
management software tool. selecting and using a premium efficient motor in a
new purchase or retrofit application
MotorMaster+ software supports industrial energy
management activities by providing the following: ■■ The ability to conduct energy savings analyses for
“batches” or selected populations of operating
■■ The ability to select the “best” available new or
motors
replacement motors using an internal database of
price and performance information for more than ■■ Energy accounting features, including summary
20,000 motors rated from 1 to 2,000 hp reports on utility billing, plant production, energy
efficiency measures installed, energy and dollar
■■ An in-plant motor inventory module in which motor
savings, and greenhouse gas emissions reductions
nameplate data, operating hours and application
information, and field measurements are linked to ■■ Life-cycle costing capability, including the ability to
utility, facility, and process information compute the after-tax return on investment in
energy efficiency measures.
■■ The ability to automatically estimate in-service
motor load and efficiency when field measurements In addition to MotorMaster+, the MotorMaster
are available International software tool contains performance data
for the 50 Hz IEC or metric motors in widespread use
■■ The ability to scan for motors that operate under
outside North America. It has all of MotorMaster+’s
abnormal or sub-optimum power supply conditions
motor selection capabilities, including life-cycle costing.
■■ Descriptor search capability to assist you in Both MotorMaster+ and MotorMaster International can
targeting energy-intensive equipment and be obtained at the AMO’s Energy Resource Center
replacing inefficient motors (www.eere.energy.gov/manufacturing/tech_assistance/
■■ Inventory management functions, including ecenter.html).
maintenance logging and spares tracking

7-2 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 7 | MOTOR EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT PLANNING

• Consider the accelerated replacement of in-service There are two basic scenarios that must be investigated.
standard efficiency motors. One assumes the failure of an operating motor; the second
assumes there has been no motor failure. Each event calls
• Prepare an action plan. Mark or tag motors so that the
for a different type of analysis. In each scenario, there are
appropriate repair/replace action is taken at the time of
a number of alternatives to consider and analyze. The situ-
motor failure.
ations and alternatives are as follows:

• The In-Service Motor Fails

Establish a New Motor
Purchase Policy -- Repair the motor.
-- Replace the motor with a new energy efficient
EISA imposes mandatory minimum full-load efficiency
motor (in ratings where they can still be sold).
standards for most general purpose motors in the 1- to
200-hp size range (see Chapter 4 for additional informa- -- Replace the failed motor with a new premium effi-
tion). The result is that motors sold in or imported into the ciency motor.
United States must already meet or exceed the premium
efficiency motor performance standards. This requirement • The In-Service Motor Does Not Fail
extends to foot-mounted motors with speeds of 3,600, -- Allow the motor to continue operating as is.
1,800, and 1,200 RPM and with ODP, TEFC, and explo-
sion-proof enclosures. -- Replace the motor immediately with a premium
efficiency model.
EISA requires that general purpose motors with ratings
between 201 and 500 hp must have a full-load efficiency In either situation, the alternatives can include downsizing
that meets or exceeds the NEMA energy efficient motor if the existing motor is oversized and underloaded.
standards. In addition, 1- to 200-hp U-frame, Design C,
close-coupled pump, footless (C-face and D-flange), 900 When an Operating Motor Fails
RPM, vertical shaft normal-thrust, fire pump, and motors When a motor fails, there are two options: repair the motor
designed to operate on utilization voltages of 200 V and or replace it with a new one.
575 V must also meet or exceed the energy efficient motor
standards. While premium efficiency motors are available Repair the Motor
in most of these ratings, purchasing them is voluntary. For larger motors, the least expensive approach in terms of
capital costs is to repair the failed motor. Repair some-
Consider a motor purchase policy that requires all new times means rewinding the stator in addition to making
low and medium voltage motors in the 1- to 500-hp size mechanical repairs and replacing bearings. The motor
range meet the NEMA premium efficiency motor stan- will, of course, be out of service during repairs. To justify
dards. Premium efficiency motors would be specified a major rebuild, the original stator and rotor must be in
when ordering equipment from OEMs or for all imported serviceable or reasonably repairable condition. Repair
equipment or process trains. of significant rotor or stator core damage usually is cost
effective only on larger motors.
In-Service Motor Energy It is not unusual to find industries paying more to repair
Efficiency Opportunities smaller general purpose standard efficiency motors than
they would pay to purchase a new premium efficiency
An immediate motor replacement should be scheduled motor. Figure 7-1—prepared from actual cost quota-
when your analysis indicates that replacing an operating tions—shows that the repair cost (rewind plus bearing
motor with a premium efficiency model yields a simple replacement) for motors 25 hp and below is about the
payback period that meets your company investment same as the cost of a new premium efficiency severe
criteria. Most of the time, the “triggering event” for an duty motor. Taking into account its list price discount for
energy decision occurs when an operating motor fails and the purchase of new premium efficiency motors, for this
must be replaced. By planning ahead, you can develop an industrial facility, 1,800 RPM general purpose motors
action plan and treat the motor failure as an opportunity to 25 hp and below should always be replaced when they
improve energy efficiency within your plant. require rewinding, regardless of their annual operating
hours. Note that not all repairs require a motor rewind.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 7-3

CHAPTER 7 | MOTOR EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT PLANNING

Studies indicate that bearing failures account for approxi- of various horsepower ratings with premium efficiency
mately two-thirds of all motor failures with winding fail- models. The simple payback lengthens as the horsepower
ures accounting for one-fifth of all failures.7-1 rating increases. Scroll down to the highest horsepower
rating where your simple payback criteria are satisfied.
Even if a small operating premium efficiency motor were This is the horsepower breakpoint for your plant. A tool
to fail, if it was not under warranty, it should be replaced for determining the horsepower breakpoint is available on
with another premium efficiency motor instead of being the Advanced Energy website (www.advancedenergy.org/
repaired. Only repair the smaller special or definite pur- portal/hp_breakpoint_tool/).
pose motors that have a significant price premium or are
not available in a reasonable time frame. Premium effi- Industries typically cite simple paybacks in the range of 1
ciency motors generally cost about 15% to 30% more than to 3 years for an energy efficiency project to be deemed as
standard efficiency motors. cost-effective. Reasons for lengthening the normal accept-
able simple payback criteria for premium efficiency motor
Some industries determine a “horsepower breakpoint” replacements include the secondary benefits associated
that is used to establish and simplify their motor replace- with increasing both motor efficiency and durability—par-
ment policy. Motors larger than the breakpoint horsepower ticularly when the replacement motor is of severe-duty or
rating are typically rewound and returned to service when IEEE 841 design. While difficult to quantify, these second-
they fail; motors smaller than the breakpoint horsepower ary benefits occur due to the superior performance of the
rating are recycled and replaced with new premium effi- new premium efficiency motor in contrast to the perfor-
ciency motors. Many process industries have established mance of the rewound standard efficiency motor. The
a horsepower breakpoint based upon cost-effectiveness secondary benefits may include improved motor reliability
at 50 hp. and extended time between motor failures, warranty cov-
erage if a motor does suffer an unexpected failure, and the
The breakpoint horsepower for your plant is dependent
potential for increased plant up-time accompanied by an
on rewind costs, the list price discount your distributor
increase in production.
applies to new premium efficiency motor purchases, utility
rates and incentives, and annual operating hours for your
Replace the Failed Motor with
motors. Appendix D contains a blank Motor Repair versus
a New Premium Efficiency Model
Replace Breakpoint worksheet. A completed worksheet
provides the annual energy savings and simple payback When replacement is needed, it is often cost effective to
periods from replacing failed standard efficiency motors purchase a new premium efficient motor. Exceptions can
include when an energy efficient motor is in the spares

1,800 RPM — Repair Versus New Motor Cost

$4,000

$3,500

$3,000 Repair Cost

Premium Motor Cost
$2,500
Cost

$2,000

$1,500

$1,000

$500

$0
5 7.5 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 75
Horsepower

Figure 7-1. Repair and New Premium Efficiency Motor Costs (for 1,800 RPM TEFC Motors, 2011 Prices)

7-4 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 7 | MOTOR EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT PLANNING

Table 7-1. Motor Rewind Versus Replacement Analysis inventory or annual operating hours that are very low, or
(100 hp, 1,800 RPM, TEFC Motor) both. When a previously rewound standard efficient motor
fails, however, it should always be considered for replace-
Repaired New ment with a premium efficient motor.
Standard Premium
The economic analysis for deciding whether to repair or
Efficiency Efficiency
replace a failed motor is straightforward. The “do nothing”
Motor Motor
alternative doesn’t apply. The least-capital-cost alterna-
tive, overhauling (bearing replacement plus clean, dip,
Motor Rating (hp) 100 100 and bake) or rewinding and installing new bearings on the
failed motor becomes the base case. The biggest chal-
Load, % 75 75 lenge is estimating the cost of the repair and the motor’s
efficiency after repair. MotorMaster+ can be of help as it
Efficiency at Load Point, % 92.2 95.3 provides default motor repair costs (rewind plus bearings)
plus default losses that might be incurred during the motor
Motor Rewind Loss, % 0.51 --- repair process if repair best practices are not followed.

Annual Operating Hours 6,000 6,000 Start your analysis by identifying the operating cost of
each alternative action. It is then possible to compare both
Cost (Rewind/Purchase) $2,590 $5,9402 the incremental cost of the alternative and the operat-
ing cost reduction associated with it. Energy consumed
Motor Rebate (None) in motor losses is given in terms of kWh. Differences in
operating costs are easy to compute using information
Annual Energy Use, kWh 366,002 352,256 from the utility rate schedule. Always use marginal or
incremental energy and capacity costs.
Annual Energy Cost, $ $29,280 $28,180
Results of a MotorMaster+ “repair versus replace” analy-
sis are summarized in Table 7-1. Comparative perfor-
Demand Charge, ($/year) $5,856 $5,636
mance values are based on an energy cost of $0.08/kWh
and a monthly demand charge of $8.00/kW/month. You
Savings Compared to Repair can also calculate these values with the equations pro-
vided in Chapter 6. Absent utility incentives, the analysis
Energy (kWh/year) 13,746 indicates a 2.5 year simple payback on the investment in a
premium efficiency replacement motor. The failed motor
Energy Value ($/year) $1,100 could be rewound and retained as a spare, recycled, or
sold for its salvage value.
Demand Reduction (kW) 2.3
The MotorMaster+ compare module allows for a side-
Demand Savings ($/year) $220 by-side comparison of motors with different horsepower
ratings. It can even adjust the output power for part-load
Total Savings ($/year) $1320 operating speed differences for motor-driven “affinity
law” loads (e.g., centrifugal pumps or fans).
Simple Payback (years) 2.5 You will have to weigh several factors to make a good
1 If repair best practices are followed, no efficiency loss reduction should be
repair versus replace decision:
expected.
2Assumes a 50% list price discount. • Cost of the replacement premium efficiency motor
• Efficiency of proposed premium efficiency motor
• Downtime cost for each alternative (if different)
• Cost to overhaul or rewind the existing motor
• Efficiency of the existing motor after repair
• Availability of a utility rebate.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 7-5

CHAPTER 7 | MOTOR EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT PLANNING

When an Existing Motor Does Not Fail

Helpful Tip If the monitor continues to function, the energy manager
has two options: let the motor operate as usual or replace it
For more information on the repair process, see the with a new premium efficiency one.
2003 EASA/AEMT Rewind Study7-4 The Effect of
Repair/Rewinding on Motor Efficiency and DOE’s Let the Motor Continue to Operate As Is
Model Repair Specifications for Low Voltage
There are many demands on an energy manager’s time;
Induction Motors available at the AMO’s Energy
thus, reducing motor losses may not be a high priority in
Resource Center (www.eere.energy.gov/
comparison to other important duties. In addition, there
manufacturing/tech_assistance/ecenter.html).
are no immediate costs associated with keeping a working
standard efficiency motor operating. Savings may simply
accrue too slowly to justify the investment in a new pre-
Information on premium efficiency motor costs and mium efficiency motor. Each plant is different, so deci-
efficiency at various load points is available from Motor- sions concerning the relative importance of projects are
Master+, the motor manufacturer, or your local motor best left to those responsible for operating the plant.
distributor. Downtime costs are often the same for each
alternative. In general, large or special-purpose motors Replace Operating Motor with a
can be repaired more quickly than they can be replaced, New Premium Efficiency Motor
but distributors usually have premium efficiency general A premium efficiency replacement motor can often be
purpose motors in stock or can quickly obtain them from a found in the same frame size as an existing standard effi-
motor manufacturer’s regional warehouse. ciency T-frame motor, and with comparable starting torque
and locked-rotor current. Frame adapters or conversion
The motor comparison window of MotorMaster+ pro-
bases are necessary for pre-1952 motors, U-frame motors,
vides a default cost for repair (rewind plus new bearings)
and special designs. The average premium efficiency
for your existing motor, but it can be overwritten. In fact,
motor rotates at a fraction of a percent higher speed than
it usually needs to be overwritten, because motor repair
its standard efficiency counterpart. In many centrifugal
costs vary too much for users to rely on the default num-
pump and fan applications, this will increase flow and
ber for investment decisions. Repair costs vary with the
energy consumption, which can offset or diminish the
extent of damage, geographical location, overtime require-
expected energy savings. Full-load speeds do vary among
ments, and type of stator impregnation. Moreover, repairs
premium efficiency motors, and a model can often be
are usually done by companies or shops rather than by
found to closely match the speed of all but the slowest
manufacturers, so there is no annual update of repair costs
standard efficiency motors. You can change sheave or pul-
in the MotorMaster+ database. You can obtain better infor-
ley sizes with belt-driven loads so the rotating equipment
mation on repair costs in one of two ways. You can main-
operates at its original or required speed. An increase in
tain your own cost database using records of recent repairs
replacement motor full-load speed is not of importance
or request a price list from your local service center. Alter-
when the motor is controlled by a variable speed drive.
natively, you can subscribe to a motor repair cost guide
that is updated annually. A widely used price estimator is Table 7-2 illustrates the benefits of replacing an exist-
available from Vaughens’ Price Publishing Company.7-2 ing in-service standard efficiency motor with a premium
efficiency model (again, new motor price and performance
Motor rewind losses may range from a 0.50% to 1% effi-
information comes from MotorMaster+). Comparative
ciency reduction for 40 hp or smaller motors and 0.25% to
performance values are based on an energy cost of $0.08/
0.50% for motors over 40 hp if repair best practices are not
kWh and a monthly demand charge of $8/kW/month.
followed.7-4 If good repair practices are followed, no reduc-
tion in efficiency should be expected. Require that your Replacing an operating motor is usually not cost effective.
service center adheres to the repair practices recommended The 5.1-year simple payback in the example shown in
in ANSI/EASA Standard AR100-2010.7-3 Large industries Table 7-2 is much longer than the simple payback accept-
maintain staff that regularly audit their motor service cen- able to most industrial plant managers. Payback, however,
ters. Look for evidence of a quality management program is very sensitive to individual circumstances. An operating
such as Proven Efficiency Verification (www.advanceden- time of 8,000 hours or availability of a utility rebate would
ergy.org/programs/proven-efficiency-verification-for-motor- reduce the simple payback period, and higher electrical
repair), the Green Motors Practices Group (www.greenmo- energy and demand costs would reduce it even further.
tors.org/gmi.htm), ISO 9000, or EASA-Q.

7-6 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 7 | MOTOR EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT PLANNING

Other factors besides cost can contribute to the decision to Motor Downsizing
replace a working motor. For example, you might be near-
ing a scheduled downtime for a process line, and age or Motor-driven systems are often designed for “worst case”
predictive maintenance trends may indicate trouble from operating conditions. Safety margins are then applied, and
an existing motor. It usually is wise to replace a motor the motor is then sized up to the next rating.7-5 As a result,
before it fails rather than risk an unscheduled process-line in-service motors are often oversized and underloaded.
shutdown.
The power that a motor delivers is determined by the inter-
action between the motor and the load. An AC motor turns
at a speed determined by the power supply frequency and
its design (i.e., the number of magnetic poles). The motor
Table 7-2. Operating Motor Replacement Analysis
determines the speed at which the load will run. Any load
(75 hp, 1,800 RPM, TEFC Motor)
(e.g., a pump, fan, or conveyor) has a characteristic torque
requirement; that is, for any running speed, it resists with a
Original New certain torque. This relationship is illustrated by a torque-
Standard Premium speed curve. When the motor and the load are coupled, the
Efficiency Efficiency motor dictates the running speed and the load dictates the
Motor Motor torque requirements.

Motor Rating (hp) 75 75 Power delivered by the motor is proportional to speed

times torque (hp = torque × speed/5,252 when torque is in
Load, % 75 75 foot-pounds and speed in RPM). The load is oblivious to
the rated power output of a motor—the load just requires
Efficiency at Load Point, % 92.0 95.5 the torque commensurate with its driven speed. Suppose
a partially-loaded 1,800 RPM 100-hp motor delivers 50
Annual Operating Hours 6,000 6,000 shaft hp to its driven equipment. If it is replaced by an
1,800 RPM 50-hp motor, the motor will still deliver only
Motor Cost $4,6401
50 hp to the load. The replacement motor is now operat-
ing at 100% load and at its full-load speed and full-load
efficiency.
Installation Cost $330

Annual Energy Use, kWh 273,751 263,639

Annual Energy Cost, $ $21,900 $21,091

Demand Charge, ($/year) $4,380 $4,218

Quick Fact
Slip and operating speed are dependent upon
applied load. A motor begins to rotate slower as
Annual Energy Savings loads on it are progressively increased. At the full-
10,112
(kWh/year) load point, operation occurs at the full-load speed.
Oversized and lightly loaded motors tend to
Energy Savings ($/year) $809 operate closer to their synchronous speed. A
downsized or fully-loaded premium efficiency
Demand Reduction (kW) 1.7 motor, with a higher full-load RPM than the motor
to be replaced, may actually operate at a slower
Demand Savings ($/year) $162 speed than the original oversized motor. This speed
shift can be significant for centrifugal loads and
Total Savings ($/year) $971 must be taken into account when computing both
energy savings and electrical demand reductions.
Simple Payback (years) 5.1
1Assumes a 50% list price discount.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 7-7

CHAPTER 7 | MOTOR EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT PLANNING

Downsizing can be a money-saver for two reasons: Motor efficiency curves vary by horsepower rating and
synchronous speed, but most peak near 75% load and still
• When purchasing replacement motors, smaller motors provide near-nameplate efficiency at half-load. Below
tend to cost less. half-load, efficiency begins to drop off dramatically.
• An under-loaded motor operates less efficiently and Performance curves for two typical motors are presented
with lower power factor than a motor loaded at 75% in Figure 7-2. When determining energy savings due to
to 100% of rated power. replacing an in-service motor with a downsized model,
you must determine the appropriate part-load efficiency
for each motor. Since larger motors exhibit a higher effi-
ciency over their load range, it is possible to find that the
larger standard efficiency motor’s half-load efficiency is
Percent Efficiency and Power Factor

100
comparable to or greater than the full-load efficiency of
90 a premium efficiency replacement motor rated at half the
power output.7-6
80
Table 7-3 summarizes the energy savings from replac-
70 ing an in-service 40%-loaded 100-hp motor with down-
100 hp efficiency
sized standard and premium efficiency motors of differ-
60 ent horsepower ratings. The table shows the efficiency at
25 hp efficiency
the load point given that motors of different horsepower
100 hp power factor
50 ratings and efficiency classes are used to satisfy the fixed
25 hp power factor 40-hp load. The analysis takes into account the motor
40 efficiency at the load point and indicates the input power
25 50 75 100 requirements (kW) for all of the replacement motor
Percent of Full Load choices.

Figure 7-2. Motor Performance at Part-Load. When the 100-hp standard efficiency motor is replaced
Illustration from EM4MDS with a 40-hp standard efficiency motor, the result is only a
0.37 kW reduction in input power (33.45 kW – 33.08 kW).

Table 7-3. Motor Downsizing Versus Efficiency Class of Replacement Motor. Source: WSU Motor Training Materials

Motor Oversizing 40% Load on a 100 Horsepower Motor

Motor
Standard Efficiency Premium Efficiency
Rating, hp

Efficiency at Load Point, % Input kW Efficiency at Load Point, % Input kW

100 89.2 33.45 93.7 31.84

75 91.1 32.75 95.1 31.37

60 91.5 32.60 94.9 31.44

50 91.6 32.57 94.8 31.47

40 90.2 33.08 94.2 31.67

7-8 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 7 | MOTOR EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT PLANNING

If the in-service standard efficiency motor is replaced by The decision to change out and perhaps downsize an
either a 100-hp or 40-hp premium efficiency motor, Table operating motor is also influenced by one or more of the
7-3 indicates reductions in input power of 1.61 and 1.78 following:
kW, respectively. Replacing an oversized standard effi-
ciency motor with a downsized standard efficiency motor • Estimated remaining service life for operating motor
results in negligible energy savings. Energy savings are • Annual hours of operation
greatly increased when the oversized standard efficiency
motor is replaced with a premium efficiency motor of • Availability of a smaller premium efficiency motor in
either the same or a downsized hp rating. company inventory
• Utility rates plus existing efficiency incentives or
The first step in considering downsizing is to determine
motor rebates
the loading on the existing motor, using the methods dis-
cussed in Chapter 5. Don’t downsize motors that have to • The energy manager’s ability to analyze the situation
start high inertia loads. As a rule of thumb, it is best not and propose an economically sound change.
to downsize to the point where the replacement motor is
more than 80% loaded. You can exceed this rule when you
are certain of the maximum motor loading. Remember that
downsizing requires an adapter plate to compensate for
the difference in mounting bolt hole locations and shaft
height. A new coupling might also be required. Overcur-
rent protection must also be modified when a downsized
motor is installed.

Table 7-4. Typical U-Frame to T-Frame Transition Base Prices (2011)

Horsepower Rating Synchronous Speed U-Frame Size Transition Base Cost

125 1,800 445U $261

125 1,200 445U $261

50 1,800 365U $153

50 1,200 405U $203

30 1,800 326U $121

30 1,200 365U $153

25 1,800 324U $121

25 1,200 364U $153

10 1,800 256U $65

10 1,200 284U $92

7.5 1,800 254U $65

7.5 1,200 256U $65

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 7-9

CHAPTER 7 | MOTOR EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT PLANNING

Establish a Premium Efficiency-

Helpful Tip Ready Spares Inventory
If the old U-frame motors are not immediately A PEM-Ready spares inventory is established by identify-
replaced with premium efficient T-frame motors, ing motor ratings and frame sizes where a number of stan-
purchase and maintain an inventory of U- to dard efficiency motors are in operation and no premium
T-frame adapters or conversion bases. Without efficiency spare is available in the event of a standard
ready access to a conversion base, an old standard efficiency motor failure. Purchasing a block of premium
efficiency U-frame motor from the spares inventory efficiency motors to store in the on-site spares warehouse
is likely to be installed with the failed U-frame should ensure that a premium efficiency motor is installed
motor rewound and placed into the spares when any standard efficiency or energy efficient motor
inventory. fails. A failed standard efficiency motor should be recycled
and a new premium efficiency motor purchased to replace
the premium efficiency motor that was installed. Failed
energy efficient and premium efficiency motors would be
Upgrade Old U-Frame to Premium repaired and returned to the spares warehouse unless the
Efficiency T-Frame Motors repair cost exceeds the cost of a new premium efficiency
motor. With this process, the PEM-Ready spare inven-
Consider immediately replacing in-service standard effi- tory automatically replenishes itself. The ultimate goal is
cient U-frame motors with premium efficiency T-frame to remove existing standard efficiency motors from the
motors. U-frame motors were the industry standard spares inventory so they cannot be returned to service
between 1952 and 1964. Eliminating old U-frame motors when a standard efficiency motor fails.
simplifies the spares inventory as only T-frame motors
need to be stocked in the spares warehouse. Although pre- A PEM-Ready spares inventory is only necessary when
mium efficiency U-frame motors are available from motor replacement premium efficiency motors are not imme-
manufacturers (they are often referred to as “automotive diately available from the local distributor. Depending
duty” motors), they carry a significant price premium; in on their size, the distributor usually has general purpose
fact, for 10-hp and 15-hp 1,800 RPM motors, the cost for motors up to 50 hp or 100 hp in their warehouse and
a new U-frame motor is more than double the cost of an
equivalent premium efficiency motor of a T-frame design.

A U-frame to T-frame conversion requires a frame adapter Quick Fact

or transition base to line up mounting bolt holes on the
Unless you have a PEM-Ready spares inventory or
base and to provide the correct shaft height. While pur-
immediate access to new premium efficiency
chase of a transition base does incur an additional motor
motors from your motor distributor, a delay can
replacement cost, this cost is offset by the typical 15% occur before you can begin to capture the energy
U-frame price adder to the base price for repair of a stan- and operating cost savings expected through
dard efficiency T-frame motor.7-2 Transition base prices are modifying repair/replace practices. The delay
given in Table 7-4.7-7 occurs because, upon the failure of an operating
standard efficiency motor, a standard efficiency
Since no repair or replacement is required, the simple
motor from the spares inventory would be installed
payback for a U-frame motor replacement should include
whenever a premium efficiency motor was not
the full cost of purchasing and installing the premium
immediately available. The failed motor would be
efficiency T-frame motor plus a frame adapter, divided
recycled, and a new premium efficiency motor
by the annual energy cost savings. Maintenance and plant
ordered as a replacement. When the premium
reliability benefits will also be realized if condition assess-
efficiency motor arrives at the plant, it would be
ment tests indicate that the U-frame motor is expected to
held in the spares inventory until the next failure of
fail in the near future.
a standard efficiency motor. In the worst case
scenario, the failed standard efficiency motor
would be repaired and returned to service, which
would eliminate the opportunity for energy and
operating cost savings.

7-10 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 7 | MOTOR EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT PLANNING

stock a variety of C-face conversion kits. Depending upon The PEM-Ready spares inventory is established through
proximity, next-day delivery for motors up to 250 hp the identification of motor ratings and frame sizes where a
might be available from a motor manufacturer’s regional number of standard efficiency motors (six or more) are in
warehouse. If a needed motor is in stock at a remote ware- operation and no premium efficiency spare is available in
house, the delivery time could be as long as 2 to 3 weeks. the event of a standard efficiency motor failure. In-service
If the motor must be factory-produced, the delivery time and spare motor “coverage charts” can be used to show
might be as long as 10 to 12 weeks. Lag times in deliv- the number of in-service and spare motors by efficiency
ery means that motors that are critical for production will class for each frame designation, synchronous speed, and
always be replaced with a standard efficiency or energy specified motor horsepower rating. In the coverage charts
efficient motor from the on-site spares warehouse when a shown in Figures 7-3 and 7-4, premium efficiency motors
premium efficiency motor is not immediately available. are indicated in orange with standard efficiency motors
in blue. In-service motors are represented by solid colors,
while spare motors are identified with cross-hatching.
The plant inventory in Figure 7-3 has 10 operating stan-
16 dard efficiency 50-hp 1,800 RPM foot-mounted motors
In-service motors
14 Premium efficiency motors
and eight in-service C-faced motors. As indicated by the
Energy efficient motors cross-hatching and color coding, all spares are of standard
12 efficiency design.
Standard efficiency motors
10
Spare motors A spares inventory can be made PEM-Ready by pre-
Count

8 Premium efficiency motors purchasing premium efficiency motors and holding them
Energy efficient motors
6 in the on-site spares warehouse. Procurement personnel
Standard efficiency motors
at large industrial plants might approach their preferred
4 motor manufacturer or local motor supplier about the pos-
2 sibility of maintaining a “consignment inventory” at their
plant site. Industries with multiple plants within a geo-
0 graphical area might consider a shared or common spares
326T 326TC 324T DZ 285T DZ 445T
inventory.
Frame
The coverage chart shown as Figure 7-4 shows a spares
Figure 7-3. Coverage Chart for In-Service
inventory that is PEM-Ready for 75-hp 1,800 RPM
50 hp 1,800 RPM Motors
motors. This plant has 15 operating standard efficiency
motors and one premium efficiency spare. Two addi-
tional standard efficiency spares are available for backup
20
purposes but they should never be required or installed.
18 Examination of repair work orders at two process industry
16
plants indicates a 10-year mean-time-between-failure for
low-voltage motors in the 60- to 500-hp size range.7-8, 7-9
14 It is thus likely that the premium efficiency spare will be
12 placed into service within a year.
Count

10 Spares coverage charts may also be used to explore oppor-

tunities for standardizing on a single frame size, and for
8
eliminating excess numbers of spares in some motor hp
6 and speed ratings.
4

2 Accelerated Replacement
0 of Low-Voltage Standard
365T Efficiency Motors
Frame
Improving the efficiency of motor-driven equipment
Figure 7-4. Coverage Chart for In-Service through replacing standard efficiency motors with pre-
75 hp 1,800 RPM Motors mium efficiency models at the time of failure may take 15

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 7-11

CHAPTER 7 | MOTOR EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT PLANNING

to 20 years to complete.7-4 Energy and cost savings would potential annual energy savings due to installing premium
be maximized if all recommended standard efficiency efficient replacement motors are expected to exceed 2.2
motor replacements were made immediately. Purchasing million kWh per year. Assuming that 10%, or 12 of the
a large number of motors might result in the purchaser eligible population of older standard efficiency motors is
obtaining a larger list price discount. Group motor replace- expected to fail each year, approximately 10 years would
ments, however, are rarely done due to a longer simple be required for the older inefficient motors to be com-
payback and negative impacts on plant production. pletely removed from service.

Consider an industrial plant with a motor management An accelerated motor replacement scenario for this
plan that calls for the eventual replacement of 120 stan- example involves capturing the energy savings sooner
dard efficiency motors at their time of failure. The total by replacing 30 standard efficiency motors per year over
a 4-year period. In the first year, this would include the
Cumulative Energy Savings 12 motors expected to fail plus an additional 18 motors.
Motors in ratings that are not PEM-Ready, motors sched-
100
uled for routine cleaning, and motors that predictive main-
tenance programs indicate are in need of bearing replace-
80 ments or other repairs would be targeted for early removal
Savings and replacement with a premium efficiency motor. These
% Total Savings

Increase additional motor replacements would take place during

60
scheduled maintenance shutdowns or other plant outages.

40 When accelerated standard efficiency motor replace-

ment is employed, the cumulative energy savings over a
Accelerated 10-year period increase by 54% as shown in Figure 7-5.7-8
20 Replacement
Reliability benefits should also occur with accelerated
Baseline
replacement, as older standard efficiency motors currently
account for the majority of motor failures. Benefits may
0 2 4 6 8 10 include a decrease in lost production, off-quality product,
Time (years) chemical use, or other production costs that result from an
unexpected motor failure.7-8, 7-10
Figure 7-5. Energy Savings Increase from Accelerated
Replacement of Standard Efficiency Motors

Table 7-5. Annual Savings and Net Present Value From a 1% Efficiency Gain for Large Medium-Voltage Motors

Motor Baseline Improved Annual Energy Annual Cost Net Present

Horsepower Rating Efficiency, % Efficiency, % Savings, kWh Savings1 Value of Savings2

600 94.3 95.3 22,730 $2,150 $17,660

700 94.4 95.4 26,465 $2,510 $20,580

800 94.5 95.5 30,180 $2,860 $23,410

1,000 94.8 95.8 37,490 $3,550 $29,070

1,250 95.2 96.2 46,470 $4,400 $36,060

1,500 95.4 96.4 55,530 $5,260 $43,110

1 Savings are based on electrical rates of $0.08/kWh and $8.00/kW/month. Assumes a 70% load and 6,520 annual operating hours.
2 The savings net present value assumes a 20-year motor operating life, a 5% annual rate of inflation or escalation of electrical energy and demand charges,
and an 18% discount rate.

7-12 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 7 | MOTOR EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT PLANNING

Improve the Efficiency of Examine Motor Repair Practices

your Medium-Voltage Motors Request that your local service center repair all motors
No mandatory minimum full-load efficiency standards in accordance with ANSI/EASA AR100-2010 repair best
exist for motors rated above 500-hp. While manufactur- practices.7-3 The selected service center should have a phi-
ers may market motors exceeding 500 hp as “energy losophy of repairing any failed motor to its original design
efficient,” “high efficiency,” or “premium efficiency,” through use of EASA guidelines. They should maintain
these terms historically had no common definitions for a large stock of inverter-grade magnet wire in various
either low or medium voltage motors One manufacturer’s wire gauges so they can install the correct wire size and
“standard efficiency” motor may be found to have a higher replicate the original number of turns in a motor’s wind-
full-load efficiency than another manufacturer’s in-service ing pattern. A pre-repair core loss test should be conducted
“premium efficiency” motor model. Plant staff indicate to determine the motor’s suitability for repair. Replace-
that large medium voltage motors are mainly purchased ment may be required if core steel is damaged from the
based on availability and matching frame size—not on motor failure or from previous repairs. The service center
energy efficiency. should hold their reclaiming oven temperature to 700°F
to prevent core damage and always perform a post-repair
Medium voltage motor manufacturers can often offer price core loss test.
quotations for a “standard” and an “improved efficiency”
product. The annual energy and cost savings benefit due The selected repair shop should provide a detailed “general
to a 1% gain in operating efficiency for large medium volt- test report” and stator “core loss test report” when a failed
age motors is shown in Table 7-5 for a given set of electric motor is repaired and returned to the spares warehouse.
rates and other assumptions. The baseline efficiency The core loss pre- and post-repair tests are desirable, as
values have been recommended for use by Pacific Gas & they provide the core dimensions, identify hot spots with
Electric (PG&E) for their incentive programs. recommendations, provide core loss test setup information,
and show metered data including the core loss in watts/
The net present value of a stream of uniform energy sav- pound. The measured value is put into perspective by
ings can be obtained using life cycle costing techniques, comparing it against a maximum allowable limit. Differ-
such as those available in the MotorMaster+ software tool. ences in watts per pound before and after repair may also
Table 7-5 indicates that a 1% efficiency improvement on indicate quality issues in the repair process.
an 800-hp motor would provide an annual energy sav-
ings of more than 30,180 kWh valued at $2,150 annually
for the example electric rates. The net present value of
these savings is equal to $23,410 for the listed assump-
tions. This means that the purchaser of an 800-hp
motor should be willing to pay a price premium of up to
$23,410 to obtain a single point of efficiency improve-
ment. All results are based upon a motor load of 70%
with 6,520 hours of operation annually. Net present val-
ues given a 1% motor efficiency improvement for other
medium voltage motor horsepower ratings are given in
Table 7-5. Note that net present values are extremely sen-
sitive to changes in future electrical energy rates and the
selected discount rate. The net present values shown do
not include benefits due to potentially available equipment
tax credits or accelerated depreciation.

Figure 7-6. Sample In-Service Motor Repair/Replace Tags.

Tags from Advanced Energy

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 7-13

CHAPTER 7 | MOTOR EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT PLANNING

Install premium efficiency motor Install according to

according to plant specifications plant specifications
In-Service Motor Inventory

Recycle and replace with Failed motor repair/replace. Spares inventory

premium efficiency motor

Yes
Is failed motor 15 hp or less? Repair according to
ANSI/EASA AR-100
Repair Best Practices

No

Free If under warranty Is failed motor a premium Yes

replacement efficiency motor?

No

Recycle old motor Yes, and

and replace with recommended
for replacement Is motor a low voltage,
premium efficiency
in Table 1 or 2 general purpose standard No
motor from strategic
efficiency motor between
spares inventory or
20 and 200 hp and with Medium voltage,
purchase new
speed (> 900 RPM)? vertical shaft, 250 hp
premium efficiency
replacement or low speed motors

Use MotorMaster+ to generate savings reports and

to track in-service and spare inventory motors

Figure 7-7. Sample Repair Versus Replace Decision Path for General Purpose Motors

7-14 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 7 | MOTOR EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT PLANNING

A typical general test report might contain comments relat-

ing to the cause of the motor failure, nameplate data, elec-
trical test results (insulation to ground, hipot test, surge
test, phase-to-phase resistance, and a no-load test with
volts and amps for each phase), mechanical data including
grease type and amount of endplay, temperature readings,
and vibration test results (displacement and velocity in the
horizontal, vertical, and axial directions for both the drive
end and opposite drive end bearings).

Prepare an Action Plan

The action plan should contain a list of recommendations
from the motor management plan along with required
future actions, the designation of an individual responsible
for carrying out those actions, and a completion date.

The motor management plan contains recommendations

regarding repair or replacement for each in-service motor.
The plan might also recommend investigating the cost-
effectiveness of retrofitting adjustable speed control onto
motors driving pumps that use throttling valves or recircu-
lation lines to provide flow control or with fans that oper-
ate with partially closed inlet or discharge dampers. Of
particular importance is the “tagging” of these motors. All
motors should be tagged so millwrights and maintenance
staff can take the appropriate action(s) when an in-service
motor fails. Sample motor tags developed by Advanced
Energy are depicted in Figure 7-6. Tag durability is of
importance. Note that these tags are fastened to the motors
with metal reinforced rings and are coated in plastic to
protect against moisture and grease.

It is also of use to prepare a flow chart that depicts the

adopted repair versus replace practice. A sample post-
motor management plan repair versus replace decision-
making path is shown in Figure 7-7. Lastly, plant staff
should continue to use MotorMaster+ or a comparable
software tool for inventory management, maintenance
logging, warranty tracking, and energy savings reporting
activities.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 7-15

References
7-1 Bonnett, Austin H. and Chuck Yung, “A Construc- 7-7 McCoy, Gilbert A, Washington State University
tion, Performance and Reliability Comparison for Energy Program, Motor Management Plan for
Pre-EPCA, EPCA and Premium-Efficient Motors,” Blue Ridge Fiberboard, prepared for the GenEDGE
IEEE Paper No. PCIC-2006-7, 2006. Alliance and Blue Ridge Fiberboard, October 2011.

7-2 
2011 Pocket Pricing Pal: 2011 USA National 7-8 McCoy, Gilbert A, and Johnny Douglass, Washing-
Average Prices for Repair of AC and DC Motors, ton State University Energy Program, Motor
Vaughen’s Price Publishing Co. Inc., 2011. Management Plan for the Domtar Kamloops Pulp
Mill, prepared for BC Hydro, December, 2007.
7-3 Electrical Apparatus Service Association, Inc.,
ANSI/EASA AR100-2010: Recommended Practice 7-9 McCoy, Gilbert A., Washington State University
for the Repair of Rotating Electrical Apparatus, Energy Program, Motor Management Plan for the
October 2010. Quesnel River Pulp Mill, prepared for BC Hydro,
April 2008.
7-4 Electrical Apparatus Service Association, Inc.,
The Effect of Repair/Rewinding on Motor Effi- 7-10 McCoy, Gilbert A., “Beyond Minimum Energy
ciency: EASA/AEMT Rewind Study and Good Performance Standards (MEPS): Getting Premium
Practice Guide, 2003. Efficiency Motors Installed in Your Plant,” pre-
sented at the Energy Efficiency in Motor Driven
7-5 Malinowski, John, Baldor Electric Company, Systems Conference, Nantes, France, September
Electrical Efficiency: Spec the Right Motor and 2009.
Drive for Lifecycle Performance, November, 2011.

7-6 Nailen, Richard L., “Bigger Might be Better,”

Electrical Apparatus, March 1997.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

CHAPTER 8
SYSTEM EFFICIENCY
IMPROVEMENT
OPPORTUNITIES
CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

While motor efficiency is certainly of importance, it is a Various methods of expressing component or system
relatively small contributor to overall system efficiency. efficiency are summarized in Equation 8-1—they are
System efficiency is the efficiency of converting electrical all equivalent.
input energy into useful mechanical work. It is the useful
energy output divided by the energy input. Those doing
energy assessments of pumping systems might speak of
the efficiency of a single component such as the motor Efficiency
or pump while determining the “wire-to-water” pump- = Useful Output/Energy Input
ing plant efficiency. The wire-to-water efficiency of your = Useful Output/(Useful Output + Losses)
pumping plant is the water horsepower provided by your = (Energy Input − Losses)/Energy Input
pumping plant—which is proportional to the delivered
fluid flow (in gallons per minute [gpm]) times the static
head produced by the pump (in feet)—divided by the elec- Equation 8-1
trical input power supplied to the pump drive motor. The
greater your overall wire-to-water or system efficiency, the
lower your overall pumping costs will be. An overall fan or pumping system efficiency takes into
account the individual efficiencies of the fan or pump,
A system can be comprised of much more than just a the power transmission system (belts or gear drives), and
motor, power transmission system, and a pump. The San- motor efficiency, as well as load modulation device effi-
key diagram below provides a visual depiction of energy ciency, adjustable speed drive efficiency (if present), and
flows and losses in a typical motor-driven system. The in-plant electrical distribution system efficiency.8-1 Fans
width of an arrow in the Sankey diagram is proportional also have an “installation” efficiency or systems effect
to the magnitude of an energy flow or loss. The diagram that accounts for decreases in fan capability due to poor
provides an illustration of how losses decrease the input installation practices that result in pressure drops due to
energy and result in less energy being available to pro- fan inlet restrictions or obstructions and fan outlet restric-
duce useful work. The largest losses are generally due tions. Examples of poor practices include turns immedi-
to low driven equipment efficiency and load modulation ately adjacent to the fan inlet or outlet.8-1 Overall fan or
losses due to the use of flow control devices such as pump pumping system efficiency is the product of the individual
throttling valves, fan inlet guide vanes, and fan discharge component efficiencies and may be determined using
dampers. Equation 8-2.

Useful Work

Motor-driven
system Load modulation devices 0 to >50%

Electrical Controller Motor Coupling

distribution losses losses devices losses Driven load losses
system <1 to ~5% 3.5 to >10% <1 to >10% for 30 to 50% for
losses for ASD large speed pumps and fans
<1 to 5% reduction

Figure 8-1. Sankey Diagram Showing Motor Driven System Losses

8-2 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

To maximize system efficiency, one must optimize the

ηSystem = ηDistribution system × entire drive train. By increasing the driven equipment
efficiency, improving modulation efficiency, and upgrad-
ηASD × ηMotor × ηGear/Belt × ηEqpt ×
ing the power transmission efficiency, you will reduce the
ηModulation × ηInstall driven equipment shaft horsepower requirements and may
be able to supply the useful work with a smaller motor.8-3
Equation 8-2
Pipe or ducting system design and detailed rotating
equipment specification and selection best practices are
beyond the scope of this publication. Such energy sav-
An example of a poorly performing system ings opportunities should always be considered during
involves an oversized combustion air fan serving the design phase of new facility construction or facility
a wood waste burner. The combustion air flow expansion, during major retrofit projects, when making
is controlled by an outlet louver damper. process improvements, or at the end-of-life of equipment,
Efficiencies of individual components and of the such as a furnace rebuild. In addition to specifying an effi-
overall system follow:8-1 cient pump, drive motor, and power transmission system,
energy savings opportunities include measures that reduce
ηFan = 55% (the fan is not operating the quantity of fluid pumped, decrease pressure require-
at its best efficiency point) ments, and/or reduce operating hours. Sometimes equip-
ment re-location can eliminate fouling concerns and allow
ηDrive = 96% for specification of a higher efficiency unit. For instance,
placing an induced draft fan in a fume removal system
ηMotor = 90% (the fan is equipped downstream of the filter baghouse can allow use of a back-
with an old standard ward inclined centrifugal fan with an efficiency of 80%
efficiency motor) instead of a radial fan with a peak efficiency of 65%.
ηControl = 28% (damper losses) The remainder of this chapter discusses ways to identify
opportunities to optimize the efficiency various compo-
ηInstall = 89%% (reduction in fan
efficiency due to poor nents of your drive train, with an emphasis on pump and
installation practices) fan systems.

ηDistribution = 98% (assumed)

Matching Motor
ηSystem = 0.55 × 0.96 × 0.90 × 0.28 × 0.89 Driven-Equipment
× 0.98 = 0.116 or 11.6% to Process Requirements
It is not unusual for motor-driven equipment to be conser-
For this example, improving the motor efficiency vatively overdesigned relative to actual process require-
to 95% would only improve the system efficiency ments. A process also might undergo radical changes after
from 11.6% to 12.2%. the pumps, fans, blowers, or air compressors are originally
installed.8-4 In many cases process flow requirements
Example 8-1. Determining System Efficiency change when equipment is added or removed. In-plant
flow balances are modified as process industries such as
pulp and paper mills recycle and reuse water to achieve
“zero discharge” goals or meet environmental regulations.
The energy savings possible from system efficiency Wastewater flows may be diverted to new on-site treat-
improvements can be up to 10 times the savings due from ment facilities. Cooling water flows can vary due to the
improving the efficiency of the motor alone. As one senior installation of efficient processes with lower heat rejec-
product manager at a major motor manufacturer puts it, “It tion rates. Cooling water might be re-routed to cooling
doesn’t do much good to put a 95% efficient motor on a towers instead of discharged into a receiving water body.
50% efficient pump.”8-2 Washdown water use might change due to improved
sanitary practices. Piping networks are often modified or

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 8-3

 CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

cross-connected over time. Surface roughness and friction Spot measurements might be adequate for systems with
factors change as fluid piping systems age. Improvements constant flow and on/off control. You should data log for
or innovations in technology occur—such as nozzles at least a week to document how equipment with variable
requiring a high pressure drop for spray atomization being flow control to document operation by shift and on week-
replaced with equally effective low pressure drop nozzles. days versus weekends. Sampling rate or interval depends
The overall result is that systems that might have at one upon the amount of system variability. Those involved
time been efficient now operate far from their original with metering should have an understanding of metering
design conditions and/or best efficiency point. standards, protocols, and equipment calibration tech-
niques. Those working in process industries must be able
To determine pump or fan efficiency, obtain the original to compensate and correct measurements for liquids and
performance curves and the impeller diameter from plant gases of varying compositions, densities, gas compress-
maintenance staff or from the OEM. Then gather operat- ibility, temperatures, and fluid viscosities.
ing information by taking field measurements or accessing
existing archives of plant meter data. Industrial plants vary One useful technique for identifying mismatched equip-
tremendously in their metering, data capture, analysis, ment is to scale and then overlay or superimpose metered
and reporting capabilities.8-5 Taking field measurements flow and pressure data onto a pump or fan curve. An
requires plant staff or a consultant to be familiar with the example of this approach is depicted in Figure 8-2 (the
use of such equipment as power loggers, recording pres- metered data is plotted in blue). This plot was produced as
sure transducers, thermocouples, steam vortex shedding part of a pump system upgrade study at a pulp and paper
meters, orifice or Venturi differential pressure meters, mill. As the medium voltage 250-hp pump drive motor
non-intrusive ultrasonic Doppler or transit time liquid flow was thought to be approaching the end of its useful life,
meters, and Pitot tubes or annubars. Metering best prac- mill staff were initially interested in upgrading to a pre-
tices are summarized in the DOE Federal Energy Man- mium efficiency medium voltage motor or a new medium
agement Program document, “Metering Best Practices: A voltage motor with adjustable speed drive flow control.
Guide to Achieving Utility Resource Efficiency.”8-6

Impeller diameter
220 21" -0

200 50
20" -0
60
180 19" -0 70
77
160 80 Best Efficiency Point
18" -0 82
84
Dynamic Head in Feet

140 17" -0 84
82
120 80

100

80
60

40
A
20 B
C
D
0 E

-20
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000 8,000

Flow in U.S. Gallons Per Minute

Figure 8-2. Pumping System Field Measurements Superimposed on Pump Performance Curve

8-4 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

A week’s worth of data logging found that an adjust- DOE’s fan and pumping system assessment tools (PSAT
able speed drive would not save appreciable quantities of and FSAT) are designed to help users determine pump-
energy as the pump is serving a static lift application. Data ing system and fan system efficiency and estimate annual
logging (operating points are indicated by the blue clusters energy savings given that the current pump or fan is
shown on the pump curve) reveals that the pump is con- replaced by an “optimal” unit. PSAT and FSAT do not
siderably oversized for the application and operating under tell users how to improve system efficiency. The tools
heavily throttled conditions and far from its best efficient are designed to prioritize in-service units for future study
point. The efficiency contours in Figure 8-2 indicate that based upon their potential for efficiency improvements.8-8
the pump is capable of performing at an efficiency of The fan and pumping system assessment tools can be
84% when supplying a flow rate of about 6,200 gpm at a obtained from AMO’s Energy Resource Center (www.eere.
head of 135 feet. During operation, the pump flow rarely energy.gov/manufacturing/tech_assistance/ecenter.html).
exceeds 2,500 gpm and the weighted average efficiency is
only 48%.
Optimizing the Efficiency
The recommended solution is to install a smaller pump of Belted Power Transmission
that is sized to meet the process flow and pressure require-
ments. The new pump would be driven by a premium Systems
efficiency 125 hp low voltage motor that provides an Eliminating energy losses in power transmission systems
efficiency improvement from 91.9% to 95.0%. Plant staff should be a high priority for the energy manager. One-
found that this motor could be supplied by an adjacent bus third of electric motors in the commercial and industrial
without causing overloads on the plant electrical system. sectors use belt drives—with most of them using stan-
The pump efficiency improves from 48.2% to 73.9% yield- dard V-belts.8-8 V-belts use a trapezoidal cross section to
ing an annual energy savings exceeding 712,000 kWh. The create a wedging action on the sheave groove to increase
savings from matching equipment to process requirements friction between the belt and the sheave and improve the
amount to over 50% of the pump’s baseline energy use. belt’s power transfer capability. V-belt drives can have a
peak efficiency of 95% to 98% at their time of installation,
but efficiency deteriorates by as much as 5% over time
Imbalance (%) = if slippage occurs because the belt is not periodically re-
{(Qm × Hm)/(QBEP × HBEP) − 1} × 100 tensioned.8-11 Increased slippage results in additional heat
generation and energy losses. The efficiency of a poorly
Where:
maintained V-belt may fall an additional 10%.8-11

Measured flow provided by pump The major portion of V-belt energy loss is due to bending
Qm =
(gpm) hysteresis and sliding friction.8-12 V-belts tend to operate at
40ºF to 80ºF above ambient temperatures.8-13 Laboratory
Total dynamic head provided by the studies conclude that V-belt efficiency is highly dependent
Hm =
pump (feet) on transmitted torque, speed, pulley size, and the use of
single versus multiple V-belts. Major findings are:8-13, 8-14
QBEP = Pump flow at its best efficient point
• Torque load has the greatest effect on belt efficiency.
V-belts have low efficiencies at light loads. Power
Total dynamic head produced by
HBEP = transmission efficiency generally increases with
pump at its best efficiency point
torque, but again declines at high torque loadings
when slippage increases.
Equation 8-3 • Pulley diameter affects efficiency, with larger pulleys
producing greater efficiency.
The following equation can be used to determine the level • Underbelted or overbelted applications become
of mismatch or imbalance between driven equipment inefficient.
performance and process requirements. Mark the system
• Relatively large variations in efficiency occur for dif-
for further review if the imbalance between actual operat-
ferent V-belt designs. Narrow belts tend to produce
ing and best efficiency point conditions exceeds +/- 15%.
higher efficiency at low torque while wider belts pro-
Prioritize systems for further review based upon their level
duce higher efficiencies at higher torque.
of imbalance.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 8-5

CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

The most important parameter to control in a V-belt drive Synchronous Belts

is the tension. V-belts tend to stretch during their life,
Synchronous belts are toothed and require the installation
causing tension to drop. If belts are too loose, they tend to
of mating toothed-drive sprockets. They operate with an
vibrate, wear rapidly, and waste energy though slippage. If
efficiency of 98% and maintain that efficiency over a wide
they are too tight, they will also show excessive wear and
torque range.8-17 The recommended tension for a synchro-
can dramatically shorten bearing and shaft life. The proper
nous belt is typically less than that for a standard V-belt.
tension of a V-belt is the lowest tension at which the
This means that motor and driven equipment shaft bear-
belt will not slip at peak-load conditions.8-10 A properly
ings will operate under lower loads, providing a longer
installed and tensioned V-belt will last from 3 to 5 years.
service life.8-13 Synchronous belt drives have minimal heat
In harsh conditions, service life can decline to a year or
buildup due to low bending stresses and are not prone to
less. Belt replacement more than twice a year may be an
efficiency reductions due to slippage. Synchronous belts
indication of a serious problem.8-15, 8-16
thus require less maintenance and re-tensioning, can oper-
ate in wet and oily environments, and are not affected by
Notched Belts abrasive particles. However, they can be noisy, are unsuit-
To improve energy efficiency and reduce slippage losses, able for shock loads, and transfer vibrations.
consider replacing V-belts with notched belts. The simple
payback is improved if this action is taken at the time Rotating Equipment Speed Considerations
of a belt failure as only the incremental cost of the belt
Centrifugal fans and pumps exhibit a strong relationship
efficiency improvement measure must be considered. A
between operating speed and input power requirements.
notched V-belt is a direct replacement for a conventional
For these applications, synchronous belt sprockets must be
V-belt and can use the same pulleys as an equivalent rated
selected that take into account the absence of belt slippage.
standard V-belt. Notched belts typically have an efficiency
Operating costs would increase if slippage was reduced
2% higher than the nominal 93% efficiency of standard
and the centrifugal load was driven at a slightly higher
V-belts.8-17 Notched belts have slots that run perpendicular
operating speed. A properly designed synchronous belt
to the belt’s length (see Figure 8-2). The slots reduce the
drive should ensure that the final rotating equipment speed
bending resistance of the belt. They tend to run cooler and
is equal to the original rotating equipment speed.
last longer than V-belts. While their initial cost is slightly
higher, their longer life means that the total cost of pur- For additional information, see DOE’s Motor Systems
chasing new and replacement belts is comparable to that Energy Tip Sheet #5, Replace V-Belts with Notched or
for standard V-belts. Synchronous Belt Drives (www.eere.energy.gov/
manufacturing/tech_assistance/pdfs/replace_vbelts_motor_
systemts5.pdf).

Figure 8-3. Notched and Synchronous Belts. A notched belt, left, runs cooler and has a higher efficiency than a standard
V-belt. A synchronous belt, right, can maintain higher efficiency over a wide load range and requires minimal maintenance.
Photos from Gates Rubber Company

8-6 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

Gear Speed Reducer Different types of gear reducers have different perfor-
mance characteristics, including the range of available
Efficiency and Choices gear ratios, operating efficiency, and maximum horse-
Gears are drive system components that are used to make power rating. Some gear reducers—such as spur gears—
the output shaft speed different from that of the input shaft deliver output that is parallel to the motor shaft—while
speed, amplify torque, and/or change the direction of shaft others, such as worm, helical, and bevel gears deliver
rotation. Gears are commonly used when loads need to run output that is at right angles to the motor shaft. Character-
slowly but require high torque.8-18 Gear reducers are clas- istics for various types of gear reducers are given in the
sified according to gear ratio (the ratio of the input to the following table.8-19
output shaft speed). Torque is amplified in a gear reducer:
for example, a 20:1 gear reducer will multiply the output Table 8-1. Gear Reducer Types, Gear Ratios,
torque delivered from a motor shaft by a factor of 20. and Efficiency Range

Gear Reducer Gear Ratio Efficiency

Type Range Range (%)
A continuously operating 100-hp supply-air fan
operates at an average motor load of 75% while
consuming 527,000 kWh annually. What are the Spur 1:1 to 6:1 98%–99%
annual energy and cost savings if a 94% efficient
(η1) V-belt is replaced with a 96% efficient (η2) Helical 2:1 to 10:1 92%–98%
notched belt or with a 98% (η3) efficient synchro-
nous belt? Electricity is priced at $0.08/kWh. Bevel 1:1 to 5:1 97%–99%

Notched Belt: Helical/Bevel 5:1 to 200:1 92%–95%

Energy Savings Worm

5:1 to 100:1 55%–94%
(single stage)
= Annual Energy Use × (1 − η1/ η2)
= 527,000 kWh/year × (1 − 94/96)
= 10,980 kWh/year
Worm gears are not the best choice from an energy effi-
Annual Cost Savings ciency standpoint, but they are widely used in packaging
= 10,980 kWh/year × $0.08/kWh machinery, conveyors, for materials handling applications,
= $878 and in pharmaceutical and food processing plants.8-20
Worm gears are specified because they have a low initial
cost, are compact, deliver high speed reductions, offer fine
Synchronous Belt:
speed control with a long service life, feature quiet opera-
tion, and are able to withstand high overloads.8-21 Worm
Energy Savings
gears are also inherently self-locking as the worm can
= 527,000 × (1 − 94/98) drive the gear, but the gear cannot drive the worm. Depic-
= 21,510 kWh/year tions of worm, helical/bevel, and two-stage right-angle
worm/ helical gears follow.
Annual Cost Savings
= 21,510 kWh/year × $0.08/kWh
= $1,720

Example 8-2. Energy Savings from Replacing a V-belt with a

Notched or Synchronous Belt

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 8-7

CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

Worm Gear Helical/Bevel Gear The efficiency of a gear reducer is the output shaft power
divided by the input shaft power. Power losses are associ-
ated with tooth friction, lubricant churning, seals, and
windage. Frictional losses are related to gear design (how
the gears intersect and mesh), gear reduction ratio, gear
size, and the coefficient of friction—which depends on
the type of lubricant selected. Manufacturers’ catalogs
often do not provide the gear reducer efficiency, but it can
easily be determined from gear performance values as
follows:8-22

Right Angle Worm/Helical Gear

Gear Efficiency (%) =
[Torque × (RPM/GR)/(hp × 63,024)] ×
100%

Where:
Gear reducer output torque
Torque =
in inch-lbs

Illustrations from Baldor Electric

RPM = Motor shaft speed

GR = Gear Ratio

Motor shaft horsepower or input

hp =
100 horsepower to gear reducer

90

80 Equation 8-4
70

60
Figure 8-4 shows that worm gear efficiency is dependent
% Efficiency

upon both gear ratio and output speed.8-23 Efficiency is

50 also sensitive to drive motor horsepower rating. Worm
gears are inefficient because the gears experience a sliding
40 Helical 25:1 action instead of a rolling motion between the worm and
30 Comb. 30:1 the worm wheel. Worm gear efficiency is affected by the
Comb. 150:1 lead angle of the worm, sliding speed, lubricant, mate-
20 Worm 30:1 rial selection and surface quality, and installation condi-
Worm 60:1 tions. High losses lead to heating, so worm gears oper-
10
ate at much higher temperatures than other gear types.
0 Additional worm gear efficiency reductions occur at lower
100 300 600 1,200 1,800 input speeds, at partial loads, and with lower quality gears.
Output RPM Lubrication is an essential requirement for worm gears as
Note: Greater efficiency loss of worm gear at low speed the worm box is designed to disperse heat to the surround-
ings. Efficiency can be increased and gear life extended by
Figure 8-4. Worm Gear Efficiency Versus Gear Ratio and switching from mineral-oil based lubricants to synthetic
Output Speed. Illustration from Baldor Electric lubricants.8-24

8-8 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

Specify high efficiency gear reducers for all new projects

Consider the energy savings that are possible or upgrades of existing processes. Retrofit projects are not
from changing out a worm gear with an end use easy to accomplish as a trained eye and product famil-
or load requirement of 5 hp and a 50:1 gear ratio iarity are needed to identify worm gear drives in a plant
with a helical/bevel gear. The efficiency of the setting (helical/bevel gears have a longer box). Focus on
worm gear is 80% while the equivalent helical/ applications with high gear ratios. Each gearbox has its
bevel gear efficiency is 95%. The worm gear is own nameplate and sometimes the manufacturer must be
driven by a 7.5 hp motor with an efficiency of provided with a serial number to identify the gear type
91%. Energy savings are determined with the and operating characteristics. Sometimes just the gearbox
following formula: can be replaced while other times an integral right angle
gear drive motor must be purchased. For a worm gear, the
Energy Savings (kWh) = “distance” is measured from the centerline of the worm to
(5 hp/0.91) × 0.746 kW/hp × hours/year the centerline of the worm wheel. Physical constraints—
× (1/0.8 -1/0.95 ) including mounts, couplings, shaft size, and gear reducer
centerline to centerline distances—can present retrofit
or obstacles.
Energy Savings (kWh) =
Initial Input kW × hours/year Use Adjustable Speed Drives
× (1 –ηWG/ηHB ) for Applications with Variable
Where: Flow Requirements
ηWG = the efficiency of the worm gear Historically, applications requiring precise speed con-
trol were satisfied by direct current motors, eddy current
the efficiency of the helical/bevel gear drives, and hydraulic couplings. Processes that required
ηHB =
(in %/100) variable flow control often used a fixed speed motor with
flows that regulated the opening or closing of discharge
Assuming 8,000 hours per year of annual or inlet dampers or throttling valves. Fixed speed changes
operation, the energy savings are 6,472 kWh/ were obtained by changing out pulley diameters, changing
year—equivalent to 15.8% of the initial or baseline gear ratios, or adjusting variable pitch fan blades.8-26 In
annual energy use for the worm gear. At an the 1980s and 1990s, adjustable or variable speed drives
electrical energy rate of $0.08/kWh, annual appeared on the market and offered an alternative method
savings are $517. Additional energy savings can of flow control.8-26 Adjustable speed drives (ASDs) are
be obtained when an old standard efficiency now a mature and widely used energy savings technology.
gear drive motor is replaced with a new premium
efficiency motor. Sometimes, increasing the gear The speed at which an induction motor rotates is a direct
reducer efficiency provides an opportunity to function of the number of poles for which it is wound
downsize the replacement motor.8-25 and the electrical supply frequency. At a constant supply
frequency, an induction motor is a fixed speed device.8-27
Because the number of poles on a standard induction
motor cannot be changed after it is put into service, the
Example 8-3 Energy Savings from Use of a Helical/Bevel
Gear Instead of a Worm Gear
only way to change its speed is to change the frequency
of the supplied power.8-27 At a frequency of 60 Hz, a
four-pole motor has a synchronous speed of 1,800 RPM.
If power is supplied at a frequency of 30 Hz, the motor
synchronous speed is reduced to 900 RPM (see Equation
Quick Fact
8-5). Providing a variable electrical frequency to a motor
While the energy savings per unit are not huge, the turns it from a fixed into a variable speed device. This
number of gears in operation at a site can be sub- is the principle used by the predominant form of speed
stantial. For example, a large airport might utilize control today, the pulse-width modulated (PWM) variable
more than 20,000 gear reducers for conveyors and frequency drive.
escalators, with 5,000 of these being worm gears.8-23

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 8-9

CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

The PWM drive consists of a rectifier, a DC link or inter- drive is designed to approximate a sinusoidal waveform
mediate circuit, and an inverter (see Figure 8-5). The at the desired frequency.8-28, 8-29 The motor current cannot
rectifier converts AC line power to DC power. The DC respond instantaneously, so it tracks the rolling average of
link conditions the power through the use of harmonic and voltage over several pulses. Adequate torque is maintained
power ripple filters and also provides power storage using over the entire range of motor operating speeds through
capacitors. The DC voltage is then converted back into AC regulating the output voltage to maintain a constant volt-
power at the inverter. age to output frequency (V/Hz) ratio.8-29

The insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) used in the In addition to controlling motor speed and torque, PWM
inverter section of the ASD have high losses when they ASDs can provide soft start capability (which reduces
create wave shapes other than square waves. To minimize vibrations and wear on motor bearings), reduced starting
switching losses, drive designers approximate sine waves current, and correct power factor to 95% upstream of the
at different frequencies while operating switches full on drive location. Incorporating bypass motor starters into
or full off. A square wave of much higher frequency than the drive design allows the system to revert to normal
the fundamental is created, usually between 2 kHz and 20 constant speed operation in the event of a drive fault.
kHz. This is called a carrier wave. Each “on” portion of Voltage boost—or the provision of higher than normal
the carrier wave is called a pulse. The duration of a pulse voltage to the motor at low speeds—is available for high
is called the pulse width. Long pulses produce a high inertia loads. A common ASD control strategy consists
average voltage and brief pulses produce a lower aver- of using sensors and a feedback loop to vary motor and
age voltage. The rolling average voltage provided by the driven equipment speed to maintain pressure, flow, liquid
level, torque, dimensions, or temperature at a desired
setpoint.8-30 Drives are also well suited for machine tool
Motor RPM = 120 • f / Poles applications as they allow for continuous and precise
speed adjustments.8-27
Where:
When considering an ASD for a new or retrofit applica-
Poles = Number of motor magnetic poles tion, understanding process requirements is more
important than understanding the drive itself.8-27 The
f = Power supply frequency in Hz remainder of this chapter will focus on factors that influ-
ence ASD applicability and energy savings, including:
Typical fixed motor speeds at 60 Hz are
• Types of loads encountered in industrial applications
3,600 RPM (2-pole), 1,800 RPM (4-pole),
1,200 RPM (6-pole), and 900 RPM (8-pole) • Flow control techniques typically used with pumps
and fans
• Static head requirements
Equation 8-5

Input DC Link Output

Converter Inverter
Line To Motor
Voltage

Control Circuits

Display Operator Process

Controls Feedback/
Control
Signal

Figure 8-5. Variable Frequency Drive Components and Simulated Voltage Waveform

8-10 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

• Taking the field measurements necessary to determine processes with variable flow requirements are particularly
the system curve and identify an application’s load attractive candidates for providing energy savings with
profile ASD flow control, as a relatively small speed change will
result in a large change in driven equipment shaft horse-
• Identification of ASD efficiency improvement
power requirements.8-32 Operating a pump or fan at 75%
opportunities
speed will reduce the flow rate by 25% but require only
• Energy savings analysis techniques. 42% of the original power requirement.

Adverse drive/motor interactions such as voltage over- A constant torque load is one in which the torque does not
shoot and shaft voltage buildup that causes current flow vary with speed. Motor shaft horsepower is equal to the
across a motor’s bearings and appropriate mitigation delivered torque times the rotational speed. Horsepower
techniques are discussed in the DOE’s Premium Efficiency requirements for constant torque loads vary directly with
Motor Selection and Application Guide. speed and affinity laws no longer apply (see Figure 8-6).
Constant torque loads include conveyors, extruders, mix-
Variable and Constant Torque Loads ers, positive displacement pumps and compressors, and
Driven equipment can impose three types of loads onto oil-lubricated and oil-free rotary screw air compressors.
their drive motors: variable torque, constant torque, and While the potential energy savings from speed reduction
constant horsepower (see Figure 8-6).8-26 Variable torque are not as large as those for variable torque loads, con-
loads exhibit a quadratic increase in torque as speed stant torque loads can provide energy savings and pro-
increases. Variable torque loads are typical of centrifugal cess control improvements.8-26 Speed control on a con-
fans, pumps, blowers, and air compressors, and represent veyor taking parts or feedstock through a dryer provides
about 36% of all integral horsepower industrial motors.8-31 process optimization capability as operators can obtain
These loads are governed by affinity laws summarized in fuel-related energy savings by varying the drying time in
Equation 8-6. Affinity laws are used to predict the per- response to variables such as feedstock moisture content.
formance of a centrifugal pump or fan at any speed based A rotary screw trim compressor with ASD control is far
upon pump or fan performance at the original operating more efficient at part-load than the same compressor when
point. equipped with modulating or load/unload control.8-33 It
can be cost-effective to install ASD compressors when the
Affinity laws state that the change in flow rate varies average loading is expected to be 75% rated capacity or
directly with change in speed while the change in pump or less.8-26 ASDs designed for use with constant torque loads
fan horsepower requirements varies in proportion to the must have higher current output capabilities at low speeds
change in speed cubed.8-26 Variable torque loads serving than ASDs specified for use with variable torque loads.8-27

Variable Torque Constant Torque Constant Horsepower Loads

100 100 100
Torque
Percent Power and Torque

Percent Power and Torque

Percent Power and Torque

80 Power 80 80

60 60 60

40 40 40

20 20 20

0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100 0 25 50 75 100

Percent Speed Percent Speed Percent Speed
Figure 8-6. Variable Torque, Constant Torque, and Constant Horsepower Loads

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 8-11

CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

At constant horsepower load, the delivered torque var- energy studies should always ask the maintenance staff for
ies inversely with speed. Examples of this type of load copies of pump and fan curves. If they are not available
include lathes, drilling, or milling machines where heavy at the plant, contact the manufacturer and provide
cuts are made at low speed and light cuts are made at high nameplate information, including the serial number.
speed. These applications do not provide energy savings A pump curve is referenced to an operating speed and
when the driven equipment speed is reduced.8-29 usually indicates impeller diameter, gpm, head in feet,
efficiencies at different operating points, and suction head
Fan and Pump Performance Curves, System and brake horsepower requirements. A fan performance
Curves, and Flow Regulation with Throttling curve graphically depicts cfm, static or total pressure
Valves and Inlet or Outlet Dampers (in-wg), revolutions per minute, and brake horsepower
requirements.8-34 A fan curve might reflect the movement
Centrifugal pumps and fans can serve a wide range of
of air or industrial gases at a stated process temperature.
operating conditions. A fan or pump characteristics or
Performance curves are independent of the system into
performance curve is a plot of possible pressure (head)
which the pump or fan is installed.
and delivered flow operating points. Those conducting
A system curve is a representation of the relationship
between flow and losses in a given piping or ducting
system. Losses are a function of rate of flow, size
Affinity Laws that govern centrifugal fan and (diameter or cross-sectional area), surface roughness,
pump operation are: length of pipe or duct, and number, size, and type of
valves, elbows, and fittings. Additional entrance and exit
Q 2 / Q1 =
hydraulic losses occur as well as losses due to changes in
RPM2 / RPM1, H2 / H1 = (RPM2 / RPM1)2 pipe size by sudden or gradual enlargements or reductions
in pipe diameter.8-35 System curves are developed by those
P2 / P1 = involved in process design or can be obtained by taking
(H2 × Q2) / (H1 × Q1) = (RPM2 / RPM1)3 field measurements of pump or fan pressure and flow. A
system curve shows how much pressure is required from
the pump or fan to overcome system losses and produce
Where: a given fluid flow.8-32 The system curve is independent of
Fluid flow in gallons per the pump or fan selection. The intersection of the pump
minute (gpm), gas volume or fan performance and system curves defines the actual
Q =
flow in cubic feet per pump or fan operating point.8-35 This operating point is
minute (cfm) associated with a specific set of pressure, flow, efficiency,
and shaft horsepower values.
Pump or fan rotational
RPM = speed, revolutions Pumps and fans are often oversized. Accurately calculat-
per minute ing friction losses or pressure drops in the piping or duct-
ing system is a difficult task and safety margins are usually
Head in feet or pressure added during the design phase.8-36 Due to this oversiz-
H = in inches-wc (inches of ing, pumps and fans are rarely called upon to operate at
water column) their rated capacity. In addition, pumps and fans are often
installed in systems with multiple operating points that
P = Brake or shaft horsepower coincide with varying process requirements. This oversiz-
ing works against the cardinal rule of fan system effi-
Pump or fan performance ciency: to move only the amount of air necessary because
Q1, H1, P1, RPM1 = at normal (initial) operating power consumption often varies with the cube of the air
point flow volume.8-37

Flow control for fans is often provided by discharge or

 ump or fan performance
P
Q2, H2, P2, RPM2 = outlet dampers, inlet guide vanes, or a combination of the
at final operating point
two. Outlet dampers control the gas after it has passed
through the fan by changing the resistance that the fan
is working against.8-38 With radial-blade and forward
Equation 8-6. The Affinity Laws

8-12 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

140 140
System Curves
120 120

Percent Input Power

100 100
Percent Pressure

Fan Performance
Curve
80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Percent Flow Percent Flow

Figure 8-7. Discharge Damper Flow Regulation

140 140
Fan Performance Curve

120 120
Percent Input Power

100 100
Percent Pressure

80 80

60 60
Full open
40 40
½ open
20 20
¼ open

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Percent Flow Percent Flow

Figure 8-8. Inlet Damper or Inlet Guide Vane Flow Control

140 Fan Performance Curve

140

120 120
Percent Input Power

100 100
Percent Pressure

80 80
100%
60 speed 60

40 80% 40
speed
20 60% 20
speed

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Percent Flow Percent Flow

Figure 8-9. Adjustable Speed Flow Control

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 8-13

CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

curved-fans, the dampered horsepower will be less than ASDs are almost always more efficient than throttling
the unregulated horsepower as the fan moves to the left on valves or outlet dampers as they make it possible to adjust
its performance and brake horsepower (BHP) curves. With the flow to the demand without throttling and its associ-
backwardly inclined fans, the dampered horsepower may ated losses.8-36 With adjustable speed flow control, fan and
be less, the same, or more than the wide open horsepower, pump performance curves follow the Affinity Laws and
depending upon the original operating point.8-38 the operating point occurs at the intersection of the system
curve and the reduced speed driven-equipment curve. For
Axial fans offer flow modulation when they are equipped variable torque systems with no static lift or fixed pres-
with adjustable or variable pitch (adjustable “in flight”) fan sure drop requirements, the input power requirements vary
blades. Unlike fixed blade fans, adjustable pitch fans allow as the cube of the speed ratio. As shown in the “% Input
users to change the blade angle settings and “tune” the flow Power versus % Flow” portion of Figure 8-9, ASD flow
provided to meet process requirements.8-39 Some large control can produce significant energy savings at reduced
adjustable pitch fans cannot be re-set “on the fly.” They flows when compared to discharge damper or inlet guide
must be shut down to allow the blade angle to be adjusted, van flow control.8-31 ASD flow control is appropriate
and then restarted with the appropriate starter so the correct for retrofit applications or new system designs. For new
breakers and circuit protection are functioning. Adjustable systems, the capital costs of the ASD may be offset by
and variable pitch blades allow for efficient flow volume reductions in control valve costs and conventional motor
control without changing the speed of the fan.8-39 starters.8-41
For pumps, a throttling valve is usually employed when Dampers are restricted in their ability to severely restrict
the process flow requirement is less than the flow provided airflow. When airflow is reduced by as much as 70%, flow
at a pumping system’s natural operating point. Similar to instability or rotating stall may occur.8-40 These condi-
discharge dampers on a fan, pump throttling valves mod- tions can result in vibration and fan casing cracking. For
ify the system curve and provide flow control by increas- existing fan or pumping systems equipped with mechani-
ing the system’s resistance to flow. This increase in pres- cal throttling valve or damper flow control, ASD flow
sure or head requirements results in a change in the system regulation is more efficient and should be considered
curve due to the pressure drop and energy loss across the as a potential energy savings retrofit opportunity. After
discharge damper or throttling valve. The operating point installing an ASD, a damper or throttling valve can be
(defined by the intersection of the system and fan or pump left fully open (or removed) with flows regulated entirely
performance curve) shifts to the left along the fan or pump through speed control. ASD flow control can also save a
performance curve. Fan horsepower requirements gradu- considerable amount of energy in pumping systems with
ally decrease when discharge dampers are used to reduce recirculation or bypass flow control. With this technique,
flow (see Figure 8-7).8-32 Pumps and fans that operate to the pump operates at a constant output with unneces-
the left of their best efficiency point (BEP) suffer addi- sary discharge returned to the pump inlet or the tank from
tional losses in efficiency as operation shifts to a lower which the pump takes suction. Overall, centrifugal fan and
efficiency point. pump applications are ideal for ASD flow regulation as
they usually do not have high startup or breakaway torque
Fan inlet dampers or inlet guide vanes are widely used as
requirements, there is rarely a need for high acceleration
they are more efficient than outlet damper flow regula-
or deceleration, they are not exposed to shock loading or
tion. These dampers are a common volume control device
overloading conditions, and they do not require braking
because they are low in cost, require little maintenance,
capability.8-42
easily adjust airflow during operation, and require little
space.8-38 Inlet dampers pre-spin the incoming air in the
same direction as the fan wheel rotation.8-38, 8-40 This Applications with Static Head Requirements
directed air movement reduces fan output pressure and In a pumping system, the system curve indicates the
airflow, thus reducing the shaft horsepower require- pumping head that is required to produce a given flow
ments that the fan imposes on its drive motor. As shown rate. A system curve is comprised of both static head and
in Figure 8-8, the inlet dampers create a new fan perfor- dynamic or friction loss components. In the absence of
mance curve for every damper position, intersecting the static head, the system-head curve starts at zero flow and
system curve at different points.8-32, 8-40 Inlet damper flow zero head.8-35 Static head is the pressure required to over-
regulation is more efficient than using outlet dampers as come an elevation change or fixed pressure drop in the
the horsepower requirements at reduced flows drop to a system. Static head requirements are independent of flow
greater extent.8-32 while friction head losses are generally proportional to the
square of the flow rate. The system curve is represented by

8-14 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

200
Speed: 100% 90% 80% 70%
Pump efficiency contours
30% 40%
150 50%
60%
70% System
75%
curve
Head in Feet

80.5%
(BEP)
100
75%
100%
50 90%
80%
70%

0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000

Flow Rate in Gallons Per Minute
Figure 8-10. System Curve From Friction Losses Only

200
Speed: 100% 90% 80% 70%
Pump efficiency contours
30% 40%
150 50% 60%
70%
75%
Head in Feet

80.5% System
(BEP) curve
100
75%
100%
50 90%
80%
Static head 70%

0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000

Flow Rate in Gallons Per Minute
Figure 8-11. System Curve with a Static Head Requirement

a horizontal line in a pumping system with only static lift from pumping less fluid per unit of time and thereby
requirements. When both static lift and friction losses are decreasing the dynamic or friction losses in the pipes.8-43
present, the system curve starts at the static head and zero
flow point on the head-capacity curve.8-35 Friction losses Affinity laws do not apply and should not be used to esti-
at each flow point are added to the static life requirements mate energy savings in systems with significant static head
to determine the system curve. requirements. In static lift dominated systems, a small
change in pump or fan speed can result in a large variation
For static head dominated pumping systems, a substantial in fluid flow. Special care must be taken when analyzing
amount of the input energy is required for lifting fluid or systems with a large amount of static head. When speed
overcoming fixed pressure requirements. An ASD can- is reduced with an ASD, the operating point of a pumping
not reduce the pumping power required to increase the system rapidly shifts to the left until no fluid flow occurs
potential energy of a quantity of fluid when it is raised to and a pump is “dead-headed.” Severe damage can occur
a higher elevation. ASD-related power reductions occur if a pump is operated under these conditions for an

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 8-15

CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

extended period of time.8-36 Precise knowledge of the whatsoever if operated at 70% speed. The pump is not
pump curve, pump efficiency at each operating point, and capable of producing enough pressure to overcome static
the system curve is required to determine the pump horse- lift requirements and move water. Energy savings poten-
power required at each discharge rate in a static head- tial decreases as static head—expressed as a percentage of
dominated system. total system head requirements—increases.8-27 On-off con-
trol of pumps is a very efficient flow control strategy for
Static head applications are common in industrial fan high static lift applications, such as a well pump delivering
and pumping applications. Pumping examples include water to an elevated reservoir.
submersible well pumps that discharge into a reservoir
or directly into a pressurized water distribution pipeline, Duty Cycle and Load Profiles
process or booster pumps that supply water to an elevated
The duty cycle for a system indicates how many hours per
or pressurized tank, feedwater pumps that inject returned
year it is in operation. The load profile shows how process
condensate and makeup water into a fire tube or water tube
flow requirements fluctuate when the system is in opera-
steam boiler, and pumps that must overcome a fixed pres-
tion. Valuable information is often available from operat-
sure drop in a sprinkler or spray nozzle for droplet atomi-
ing records, discussions with operating staff, plant supervi-
zation. Blowers at wastewater treatment plants with full
sory control systems, or continuous emissions monitoring
bottom coverage aeration systems must overcome the pres-
equipment. For instance, boiler steam production and
sure due to the water column above the bubble emitter plus
exhaust gas flow and temperatures at the plant stack might
the pressure drop across the diffuser. Induced draft fans
be available at 14-minute intervals over the preceding
often must supply a constant negative pressure at the flue
operating year. Given variable boiler steam production,
of a boiler or other pickup; provide gas flows that yield a
a week’s worth of power logging might allow the energy
fixed pressure drop across a Venturi scrubber; or overcome
manager to determine baseline the annual energy use and
the pressure drop across the filter fabric in a baghouse.
the load profile for the boiler’s forced or induced draft fan.
Figure 8-10 shows a system curve for a system that is
Field measurements often must be made to determine the
totally dominated by friction losses, such as a circulating
load profile. Liquid flow measurements can be logged
hot water loop in a heating system.8-41 The operating point
with a non-intrusive transit-time flowmeter. A recording
(3,500 gpm, 90 feet of head) is just to the right of the BEP
annubar can be used to determine gas flows over time.
for this system. As the pump speed is reduced, deliv-
An RMS power meter should be used to determine input
ered flow and pressure decreases but the pump efficiency
power to the driven-equipment drive motor over the same
remains above 80%. This is because efficiency isopleths
time the flow measurements are taken. Recording data for
(lines of constant pump efficiency, shown in white in Fig-
at least a week is recommended.
ure 8-10) and the system curve (shown in dark blue) both
move toward the zero-flow/zero-head origin on the head/ Once flow measurements are made, separate the avail-
capacity graph (see Figure 8-10).8-41 able data into flow “bins.” Each bin might represent a
range of flow values, for instance greater than or equal
A system dominated by static head requirements behaves
(>=)30% and < 35% of full-flow. Count the number of
in a different manner. Small changes in pump or fan speed
measured flow values in each bin and divide by the total
result in large changes in flow. The system curve shown in
count to determine the fraction of operating time associ-
Figure 8-11 has a static requirement of 65 feet and inter-
ated with each bin. A histogram graphically depicts an
sects the pump curve at the same operating point as Figure
application’s flow profile or variable flow requirements
8-10.8-41 In the friction dominated system, the flow rate
by indicating the percentage of operating time that flows
would be about 2,400 gpm at 70% speed with the pump
fall within each specified flow range. ASD energy sav-
efficiency maintained at around 80%. When the speed of
ings increase when duty cycles are high and the system
the pump is reduced to 70% of its original operating speed
operates far from its full-flow operating point. Figure 8-12
in the static head application, the flow rate is reduced to
illustrates a load profile that indicates an “excellent” ASD
about 800 gpm and the pump efficiency decreases to
retrofit opportunity. Figure 8-13 shows an application that
about 55%.
is not as attractive as the one shown in Figure 8-12, but
In a system with only static head, the pump efficiency loss still offers “good” ASD energy savings potential. A “poor”
effect is even more dramatic and energy use could increase ASD retrofit candidate is indicated by the load profile
if an ASD was used for flow regulation. In the example in Figure 8-14.8-27 Remember that an ASD will actually
shown, the pump would “dead-head” and provide no flow increase energy consumption at full-flow due to losses in
the drive’s power electronics.

8-16 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

Example of a Excellent ASD Candidate

20
Equipment Operating Time, Percent

15

10

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Percent of Rated Flow

Figure 8-12. A Load Profile that Indicates an Excellent ASD Retrofit Opportunity

Example of a Good ASD Candidate

20
Equipment Operating Time, Percent

15

10

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Percent of Rated Flow

Figure 8-13. A Load Profile that Indicates a Good ASD Retrofit Opportunity

Example of a Poor ASD Candidate

30
Equipment Operating Time, Percent

25

20

15

10

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Percent of Rated Flow

Figure 8-14. A Load Profile that Indicates a Poor ASD Retrofit Opportunity

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 8-17

CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

A duty cycle that indicates throttling or damper control is • Increased productivity

employed to provide a constant flow that is less than full-
• Improved product quality/reduction in reject rates
flow indicates that other efficiency measures should be
considered. These might include changing out pulley sizes • Increased equipment life
for belted loads, trimming a pump impeller, replacing the
• Eliminates startup impacts causing system vibrations
equipment drive motor with one with a lower synchro-
nous speed (such as replacing an 1,800 RPM motor with a • Reduced maintenance costs
1,200 RPM motor), or replacement of an oversized fan or • Regeneration
pump with one that is matched to load requirements.
• Supports low current soft starts
Electronic ASDs should be considered as potential
• Provides fault tolerance
replacements for adjustable belt pulley drives, hydraulic or
fluid drives, and eddy current clutches.8-44 See DOE Motor • Power factor improvement
Systems Tip Sheet #12, Is it Cost-Effective to Replace Old
• Can restart spinning loads
Eddy-Current Drives? (www.eere.energy.gov/manufactur-
ing/tech_assistance/pdfs/motor_tip_sheet12.pdf) for more • Less downtime.
information on this potential energy savings opportunity.
Part-Load Efficiency of Motors
In addition to duty cycle and load profile, ASD cost-effec-
and Adjustable Speed Drives
tiveness is strongly affected by utility rates and possible
utility incentives for the investment in efficient equipment. The input power to a pump is proportional to the hydraulic
ASDs might be desirable to plant management for reasons horsepower produced divided by the product of the pump
other than energy savings. When examining an ASD retro- efficiency, motor efficiency, and drive efficiency at their
fit project, secondary benefits should be quantified to the respective operating and load points.
degree possible. Advantages of ASDs can include:8-30 When a pump is throttled, its operating point is at the inter-
• Improved process control section of the pump performance curve and the desired
flow rate. When ASD flow control is used, the operating
• Better controllability/controls speed variations point is at the intersection of the systems curve and the
or swings desired flow rate. The hydraulic horsepower is propor-
• Fast response tional to the product of the delivered head times the flow
at the operating point. The pump shown in Figure 8-15
• High acceleration and deceleration provides about 900 gpm at a head of 41 feet when running

Pump Curve
System Curve
60 60 60

50 50 50

40 40 40
Head in Feet

Head in Feet

Head in Feet

30 30 30

20 20 20

10 10 10

0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Flow in Gallons Per Minute Flow in Gallons Per Minute Flow in Gallons Per Minute

Figure 8-15. Pump with Unregulated Flow, Throttled Flow Control, and ASD Flow Regulation

8-18 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

P = (Q × H × SG) / P = (CFM × SP) /

(K × ηPUMP × ηASD × ηMOTOR) (K × ηFAN × ηASD × ηMOTOR)

Where: Where:

P = Input power in kW P = Input power in kW

Q = Fluid flow in gallons per minute CFM = Volume flow rate (ft3/min)

 ead developed by the pump

H  tatic pressure produced by
S
H = SP =
in feet the fan (in-wg)

Constant equal to 5,308 for the Constant equal to 8,520 for

K = K =
units given the units given

Specific gravity of the fluid Efficiency of the fan at its

SG = ηFAN =
being pumped operating point

 fficiency of the pump at its

E Efficiency of the ASD at its
ηPUMP = ηASD =
operating point operating speed and torque

Efficiency of the ASD at its Efficiency of the motor at its

ηASD = ηMOTOR =
operating speed and torque load point

Efficiency of the motor at its

ηMOTOR =
load point Equation 8-8

Equation 8-7

at its natural operating point. When throttled to provide a the output/input method to determine ASD motor and
flow of 600 gpm, the head increases to about 46 feet. Use motor/drive system efficiency. The IEC also released draft
of an ASD for flow control provides the same flow (600 standard 60034-2-3 for the determination of motor effi-
gpm) with a head requirement of only 19 feet. Hydrau- ciency when fed by a converter waveform.8-46
lic horsepower requirements—proportional to the shaded
areas shown in Figure 8-15—are significantly reduced. ASD losses are comprised of two components: conduction
losses and switching losses.8-47 Conduction losses do not
The input power required by a pump drive motor is: Simi- vary with switching frequency and are equal to the product
larly, the input power required by a fan drive motor is:8-45 of the voltage drop across the drive and the current pass-
ing through the drive. Switching losses increase in propor-
To determine fan or pump input power requirements at tion to switching frequency.8-47 Both losses result in heat
each operating point, the fan or pump, ASD, and motor production and elevated drive temperatures.
efficiencies must be determined. Fan and pump efficien-
cies can be obtained from performance curves, or, in cases Test laboratories are beginning to test ASDs to determine
where pump wear and loss of performance is expected; by their efficiency both with and without being coupled to a
taking electrical, fluid flow, and pressure measurements drive motor. By testing at four speeds (100%, 75%, 50%,
and then calculating the rotating equipment efficiency and 25% of rated) and four loads (100%, 75%, 50%, and
using Equations 8-7 and 8-8. 25% of full-rated torque) an efficiency contour map can be
created.8-48 The efficiency map shown in Figure 8-17 is a
There is currently no recognized standard for ASD effi- new approach to presenting drive and motor performance
ciency although the Canadian Standards Association and illustrates how the combined ASD and drive motor
(CSA) has proposed a draft standard CSA C838 that uses

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 8-19

CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

100 System Efficiency

100
95

90
83
81 0 79

85
84

89

91
82
Conveyor

88
8

87
Percent Efficiency

90

90
75

86
Percent Torque
n
85 Fa
p,

83

91
84
m

85
Pu 9

89
100 hp 50 88 0 91
80 83
87
10 hp 86
82 89 90
85 88
75 81 84
87
25 79 83 86 88
81 82 85 86 87
77
80 83 84 85
70 74
78
79 82
81 83 84
75 76 82
77 80
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 78 79 81
69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80
Percent of Rated Load 0
25 50 75 100
Figure 8-16. Motor Efficiency Versus Load Curves Percent Nominal Speed

Figure 8-17. Motor and Adjustable Speed Drive Efficiency

Contour Map

Quick Fact
ASD efficiency decreases when the drive is lightly Additional considerations are efficiency impacts due to
loaded, with the decline in efficiency more ASD and motor temperature, switching or carrier fre-
pronounced with drives of smaller horsepower quency, voltage level and voltage unbalance, drive control
ratings. This reduction in efficiency is not as software, and the losses due to specification of power
detrimental as it might seem. Consider an ASD conditioning equipment such as line and load reactors and/
coupled to a motor that delivers 50 hp to an or harmonic filters.8-48
exhaust fan. When the fan is operated at 50% of its
rated speed, the combined motor and drive Additional information on ASD part-load efficiency is
efficiency is approximately 84%. At 50% of its rated available from the DOE’s Motor Energy Tip Sheet #11,
operating speed, the fan delivers 50% of its rated Adjustable Speed Drive Part-Load Efficiency (www.eere.
airflow, but requires only one-eighth of its full-load energy.gov/manufacturing/tech_assistance/pdfs/motor_tip_
power. Even with this lower motor/drive efficiency, sheet11.pdf).
the power required by the fan is reduced from 50
hp to 7.4 hp—a reduction of 42.6 hp or 85.2% of the Conducting an ASD Energy Savings Analysis
original fan power requirement. If the motor/ASD Once the duty cycle and load profile have been determined,
had maintained its full-load efficiency of 92%, the and the input power to the pump or fan drive motor has
power required by the fan would decrease to 6.8 been monitored, it is fairly straightforward to complete an
hp, leading to an additional savings of only 0.6 hp. ASD energy savings analysis. The measured input power
This motor/ASD efficiency improvement increases values show how the power requirements of the existing
the previously estimated savings by only 1.4%. system respond to changes in flow given use of the cur-
rent flow control method. Overlay your system curve on
your fan or pump curve and estimate the brake horsepower
efficiency varies with delivered torque and speed. The requirements for the pump or fan at each operating point
solid lines indicate speed and torque operating points for given ASD flow regulation. Remember that for each flow
variable and constant torque loads. Remember that deliv- the operating point will always fall on the system curve.
ered shaft horsepower is equal to the product of torque and Use the fan or pump and estimated ASD and motor part
speed divided by 5,252, when speed is in RPM and torque load efficiency values to determine input power require-
is given in foot-pounds. ments at each operating point using Equations 8-7 or 8-8.

8-20 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

30 Power Curve for Discharge Damper Flow Control 100

Power Curve for ASD Flow Control
Percent of Overall Operational Time

Percent of Operational Time 90

25
80
70

FD Fan Motor kW
20
60
15 50
40
10
30
20
5
10
0 0
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 70 80
Combustion Air Fan Flowrate as Percent of Full-Rated Flow
Figure 8-18. Load Profile, Baseline, and ASD Power Requirements Curves for a Combustion Air Supply Fan

Table 8-2. Energy Savings Due to Retrofit of an ASD onto a Centrifugal Fan with Discharge Damper Flow Control

% of % of Annual Discharge Damper ASD Flow Savings,

Rated Flow Operating Time Operating Hours Control, kW Control, kW kWh per year

60 1 80 91 34 4,560

55 2 160 86 30 8,960

50 17 1,360 82 23 80,240

45 12 960 76 15 58,560

40 15 1,314 72 11 80,154

35 13 1,040 70 10 62,400

30 24 1,920 68 9 113,280

25 9 720 65 7 41,760

20 7 560 62 6 31,360

Total Expected Annual Energy Savings, kWh 481,274

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 8-21

CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

All of the information necessary for an energy savings point is the difference between the kW requirements when
analysis is shown on Figure 8-18. The load profile or outlet dampers are deployed less the power required when
percent of operating time at each flow point is indicated in ASD flow control is provided.
blue and is read on the left vertical axis. The orange curve
shows how the measured power responds to changes in An ASD energy savings analysis can quickly be done on
flow when fan outlet dampers are used. Input kW values a spreadsheet after using a regression analysis to provide
are shown on the right vertical axis. The light blue curve equations that replicate or “fit” the outlet damper and ASD
shows the estimated input power requirements for the 200 input power responses to changes in flow. A bin analysis
hp drive motor given the use of ASD flow control for the is shown in Table 8-2 for the combustion air fan perfor-
same fan. Expected input kW values are again shown on mance depicted in Figure 8-18 assuming an 8,000-hour
the right axis. The power savings at each operating or flow duty cycle.

The energy savings analysis shows an expected energy

savings of 481,274 kWh per year. This annual energy sav-
ings is $38,500 given an energy cost of $0.08/kWh. The
Quick Fact total installed cost would be approximately $42,000 for a
200-hp rated ASD in a filtered NEMA 1 enclosure, with
ASDs are sometimes used to slow a large fan or automatic bypass control, circuit protection, a 3% line
pump drive motor down during short time intervals
reactor, dV/dt filter, and with a shaft grounding brush for
when process requirements are reduced or do not
the fan drive motor. The simple payback for this project is
exist. Large motors cannot be shut down and
about 1.1 years.
restarted due to heat production in the motor
windings due to high starting currents. Reducing Additional information on how to identify and analyze
the speed of an 1,800 RPM motor to 400 RPM is ASD retrofit opportunities is available in the DOE Pump-
almost equivalent to turning it off as, for variable ing Systems Tips Sheets #11, Adjustable Speed Pumping
torque loads, the input power requirement of the Applications (www.eere.energy.gov/manufacturing/tech_
load drops to only1% of its full-flow value. Examples assistance/pdfs/motor_tip_sheet11.pdf) and #12, Control
include washdown or spray systems while a new Strategies for Centrifugal Pumps with Variable Flow Rate
rail car is being positioned, control of mine Requirements (www.eere.energy.gov/manufacturing/tech_
ventilation fans during zero staff in mine periods, assistance/pdfs/38949.pdf). Also refer to the DOE publica-
and control of air pollution control equipment tion, Improving Motor and Drive System Performance: A
baghouse fans when an electric arc furnace is
Sourcebook for Industry.
removed for tapping.

Table 8-3. NEMA Designated Enclosures for Electrical Equipment

Designation Protection

Enclosure designed for indoor use protecting components within from physical contact with
NEMA 1
operating and maintenance personnel.

Enclosure designed for outdoor use. These enclosures protect against falling rain, sleet, and
NEMA 3R
external ice formation.

Enclosure designed for indoor use. Provides protection against dust and dripping liquids,
NEMA 12
including protection against fibers, lint, dust, dirt, and non-corrosive dripping liquids.

Enclosure designed for indoor and outdoor use. Protects against dirt, dust, splashing water,
NEMA 4
falling water, seepage, hose-directed water, and external condensation.

NEMA 4X Same as NEMA 4 except the enclosure is corrosion resistant.

8-22 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

ASD Selection Considerations For additional information on operating motors with

ASDs, refer to the following:
The output rating of an ASD should be based upon the
motor nameplate rated full-load current.8-47, 8-49 ASDs • NEMA 2001 Standard Publication Application Guide
should not be selected based upon motor horsepower rat- for AC Adjustable Speed Drive Systems
ing. The motor must be selected and/or protected against
ASD-induced voltage overshoots and shaft bearing cur- • IEC Technical Specifications Rotating Electrical
rents (see “Motor Interactions with Adjustable Speed Machines: Part 17: Cage Induction Motors When
Drives” and “Guidance for Selecting Motors Controlled Fed From Converters—Application Guide, IEC/TS
by an ASD” sections from DOE’s Premium Efficiency 60034-17:2006
Motor Selection and Application Guide). • IEC Technical Specifications Rotating Electrical
Machines: Part 25: Guidance for the Design and
Ensure that your ASD comes in an enclosure that is suit-
Performance of AC Motors Specifically Designed for
able for your site environmental conditions. Following is a
Converter Supply, IEC/TS 60034-25:2007.  
summary of NEMA enclosure designations:8-49

NEMA Standard 250 contains additional information on

enclosure classifications. For NEMA 1 enclosures, ventila-
tion air may be required for cooling purposes. Depend-
ing upon site conditions, filtered air may be required. The
ASD enclosure should be equipped with space heaters if
the ambient temperature is expected to dip below freezing
(0ºC).8-47, 8-49

ASDs can be equipped with a number of control tech-

niques. Volts to hertz (V/Hz) control maintains a constant
ratio between the drive’s output voltage and frequency to
provide a constant full-load torque over the drive’s speed
or operating range. Vector control separately controls the
magnetizing flux producing and torque producing currents
supplied to the motor. The result is accurate speed and
torque control that is comparable to that obtained with a
DC motor.8-49

Voltage boost is often provided with V/Hz control when

the motor is operated at frequencies below 20 Hz. This
capability is necessary to provide sufficient locked
rotor and breakaway torque without requiring excessive
current.8-47

Bypass control (also called isolation and bypass control)

is often desirable or required for reliability, redundancy, or
safety purposes. This capability allows the motor to be run
by the power system when the ASD trips off-line due to a
fault condition.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 8-23

CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

References
8-1 Wroblewski, Ronald G., “A Method for Evaluating 8-14 BC Hydro, Power Smart Guides to Energy
Fan System Efficiency,” presented at the Management, Flexible Drives, September 1989.
Energy Management for Motor Driven Systems
Conference, Alexandria, VA, September 12–14, 8-15 Electrical Equipment Company, Let’s Consider
2011. What’s Involved in Achieving the Correct Tension
of a V-Belt.
8-2 Clamp, Alice, “Getting the Most From Motors,”
Public Power, Vol. 70, No. 1, January-February 8-16 Bjork, Eric, Gates Corporation, Prevent
2012. Premature Failure in Power Transmission Belts:
Troubleshooting Problems, November 2011.
8-3 SEW Eurodrive, “The Truth About Energy-Efficient
Motors,” January 2010. 8-17 Brown, Michael, “Belts are Low-Cost Efficiency
Option,” Energy User News, March 1995.
8-4 Ontario Hydro Energy Management Challenge
Performance Optimization: Fan, Pump & Blower 8-18 Singh, Tejindar, Pacific Gas & Electric Company,
Systems Assessment Guide, 1991. Motor and Drive Application Notes: The
Mechanical System, November 1994.
8-5 Efficiency New Brunswick, Energy Management
Information Systems: Planning Manual and Tool, 8-19 Ula, Sadrul et. al., Energy Efficient Drivepower:
prepared for Natural Resources Canada Office of An Overview, Bonneville Power Administration,
Energy Efficiency, 2010. Western Area Power Administration, U.S.
Department of Energy.
8-6 U.S. Department of Energy, Federal Energy
Management Program, Metering Best Practices: 8-20 Werger, Jennifer, Applied Industrial Technologies,
A Guide to Achieving Utility Resource Efficiency, “Food Processing Machinery: Improving Energy
August 2011. Efficiency,” Food Processing.com, 2009

8-7 “Energy Efficiency Classification for Fans,” 8-21 Lytle, John, “Switching Gears to Save Energy
Air Movement and Control Association Standard Costs,” Material Handling Management,
204-10 (Rev. 2011), October 2011. January 2011.

8-8 Casada, Don A. and Robert H. Staunton, Oak 8-22 Stoeber, Bernd and Jim Schumacher,
Ridge National Laboratory, Pumping System “Gear Efficiency—Key to Lower Drive Cost,”
Assessment Tool User Manual prepared for the Motion System Design, January 2012.
U.S. Department of Energy Office of Industrial
8-23 Malinowski, John, Baldor Electric Company.
Technologies, February 2000.
“Efficiency From the Motor Up: Considerations
8-9 Oman, Brent, Gates Corporation, Calculated for Calculating System Efficiency,” presentation
Savings: Driving Energy Efficiency, Gates to Darigold, May 16, 2012.
Corporation, July 2011.
8-24 Siebert, Hermann, Kluber Lubrication, “Worm
8-10 Mleziva, Brian, Greenheck Fan Corporation, Gears—Higher Energy Efficiency and Less Strain
“Ensuring Proper Fan-Belt Tension,” HPAC on Resources,” Gear Technology, May 2011.
Engineering, July 2011.
8-25 Malinowski, John, Baldor Electric, “Maximizing
8-11 Oman, Brent, Gates Rubber Company, Energy Savings by Replacing Motors and
Synchronous Belts vs. V-Belts, Prepared for Reducers,” Plant Services, May 2009.
Plant Services, August 1997.
8-26 “Variable Speed Drives: Technology Guide,”
8-12 Carlisle Power Transmission Products, Inc., Energy Carbon Trust, November 2011.
Loss and Efficiency of Power Transmission Belts.
8-27 Electrical Power Research Institute, Adjustable
8-13 Gates Rubber Company, Synchronous Belt Drives Speed Drive Demonstration Office, “ASD Basics
Restore Energy Savings, 1998. Training Module,” May 1998.

8-24 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 8 | SYSTEM EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT OPPORTUNITIES

8-28 Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, 8-39 Los Angeles Department of Water and Power,
“Motors: Adjustable Speed Drives,” Energy “HVAC: Fans,” Energy Advisor, 2002.
Advisor, 2002.
8-40 Henderson, Jay, Robinson Industries, “Don’t Blow
8-29 CEATI International, Variable Speed Drives: Money: Make the Correct Fan Airflow Regulating
Energy Efficiency Reference Guide, prepared for Choice,” Power Engineering, November 2006.
Natural Resources Canada, 2009.
8-41 Hovstadius, Gunnar, Gunnar Hovstadius
8-30 Ebasco Services and EA Mueller, Adjustable Speed Consulting, LLC, When to use a VFD and when
Drive Applications Guidebook, prepared for the not to: Benefits and Problems.
Bonneville Power Administration, January 1990.
8-42 Cowie, Charles, “Centrifugal Pump and Fan Drive
8-31 U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Industrial Applications,” Drivesmag.com, 1997.
Technologies, United States Industrial Motor
Systems Market Opportunities Assessment, 8-43 Europump and the Hydraulic Institute, Variable
December, 1998. Speed Pumping: A Guide to Successful
Applications, Elsevier Advanced Technology, 2004.
8-32 Allen-Bradley, Energy Savings with Adjustable
Frequency Drives, Publication DGI-2.1, December 8-44 Pacific Gas & Electric Company, “Efficiency
1984. Opportunities with Adjustable Speed Drives,”
Application Notes, May, 1997.
8-33 Perry, Wayne, Kaeser Compressors, ”Variable
Speed Drive Cuts Compressed-Air Costs and Helps 8-45 Chicago Blower Company, Engineering Guide:
Ensure Consistent Quality,” IMPO, January 2008. Fan Application Data and Metric Conversions,
#EG-2003.
8-34 Thompson, John, New York Blower Co.,
Understanding Fan Performance Curves. 8-46 Angers, Pierre, Hydro Quebec, “Variable Frequency
Drives Testing Methods,” Motor Summit 2010,
8-35 Mann, Melvin, Peerless Pump Company, “How to Zurich, Switzerland, October, 2010.
Use System-Head Curves,” Technical Information
Bulletin Number 7, June 2006. 8-47 National Electrical Manufacturers Association,
Standards Publication, Application Guide for AC
8-36 Hovstadius, Gunnar, Vestal Tutterow, and Steve Adjustable Speed Drive Systems, 2001.
Bolles, “Getting it Right, Applying a Systems
Approach to Variable Speed Pumping,” presented 8-48 Angers, Pierre, Hydro Quebec, “Variable Speed
at the Energy Efficiency in Motor Driven Systems Drive Testing,” MEPSA 2009, Sydney, Australia,
Conference, EEMODS 2005, Heidelberg, Germany, February, 2009.
September 2005.
8-49 Bezesky, David M. and Scott Kreitzer, Siemens
8-37 Puget Power, “Improved Fan Systems Save Energy & Automation, “NEMA Application Guide
Energy,” Northwest Currents, Vol. 92, No. 6, for AC Adjustable Speed Drive Systems,” IEEE
Nov/Dec 1992. Paper No. PCIC-2001-7, 2001.

8-38 New York Blower Company, “Selection Criteria

for Fan Dampers,” Engineering Letter, No. 11.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 8-25

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems
CHAPTER 9
POWER FACTOR
CORRECTION
CHAPTER 9 | POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Overview Another way to visualize power factor and demonstrate

the relationship between kW, kVAR, and kVA is the right
Power factor is a measure of how effectively electrical “power” triangle illustrated in Figure 9-1. The hypot-
power is being used. A high power factor (approaching enuse of the triangle represents the apparent power (kVA),
unity) indicates efficient use of the electrical distribution which is the system voltage multiplied by the amperage
system; a low power factor indicates poor use of times the √3 (for a three-phase system) divided by 1,000.
the system.9-1 The right side of the triangle represents the reactive power
(kVAR). The base of the triangle represents the real or
Many loads in industrial electrical distribution systems are working power (in kW). The angle between the kW and
inductive. Examples include motors, transformers, fluores- the kVA legs of the triangle is the phase angle θ.9-4
cent lighting ballasts, and induction furnaces.9-1 The line
current drawn by an inductive load has two components:
magnetizing current and power-producing current. kW

The magnetizing current is the current required to sustain

the electromagnetic flux or field strength in the machine.
This component of current creates reactive power that is
measured in kilovolt-ampere reactive, or kVAR. Reactive
kVA kVAR
power does not do useful “work,” but it circulates between
the generator and the load. It places a heavy drain on the
power source, as well as on the distribution system of the
power source.

The real (working) power-producing current is the current

Figure 9-1. The Power Triangle
that reacts with the magnetic flux to produce the mechani-
cal output of the motor.9-2, 9-3 Real power is measured in
kilowatts and can be read on a wattmeter. Real (work-
ing) power and reactive power together make up apparent
power. Apparent power is measured in kilovolt-amperes or If a sawmill requires a metered demand of 1,000
kVA. See Figure 9-1 and Equation 9-1. kW and the measured apparent power is 1,250
kVA, you would divide 1,000 by 1,250 to obtain a
Power factor is the ratio of real power to apparent power.
power factor of 0.80. The phase angle is arc cosine
To determine power factor (PF), divide real power (kW)
0.80 or 36.9 degrees.
by apparent power (kVA). In a sinusoidal system, the
power factor is also referred to as the cosine θ.
Example 9-1

P
PF = = cosine θ Power factor is also referred to as leading or lagging. In
PAPP × 24 × N the case of the magnetizing current, the power factor is
lagging in that the current follows the voltage waveform.
Where: The amount of lag is the electrical phase angle between
the voltage and the current. Displacement power factor is
PF = Power factor as decimal equal to the cosine of the phase angle between the voltage
and current waveforms.
P = Three phase power in in kW

PAPP = Apparent power in kVA Power Factor Penalties

When a utility serves an industrial plant that has poor
Phase angle difference between
θ =
voltage and current wave forms
power factor, the utility must supply higher current levels
to serve a given load. In a situation in which real power
demand (kW) at two plants is the same, but one plant has
an 85% power factor while the other has a 70% power
Equation 9-1

9-2 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 9 | POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

the first. As a compensation for supplying the extra cur-

rent, utilities often establish a “power factor penalty” in
Terminology
their rate schedules. A minimum power factor value is
Apparent Power (kVA) established, often set at 95%. When the customer’s power
factor drops below the minimum value, the utility collects
This value is determined by multiplying the current
“low power factor” revenue. As shown in the “Benefits of
times the voltage. In a three-phase circuit, multiply
Power Factor Correction” section of this chapter, the lower
the average phase-to-phase voltage times the
the actual power factor, the greater the penalty.9-2, 9-3
average line current times the square root of
3 divided by 1,000. The units are kVA.

V × I × √3 Power Factor Improvement

PAPPARENT =
1,000 Induction motors are generally the principal cause of low
power factor because many motors are in use that are not
fully loaded.9-5 When motors operate near their rated load,
Reactive Power (kVAR) the power factor is high. For lightly loaded motors, how-
ever, the power factor drops significantly. This effect is
This term describes the magnetizing requirements
partially offset as the total current is less at reduced load.
of an electric circuit containing inductive loads. The
Lower power factor does not necessarily increase the peak
value of magnetizing power is determined by
kVA demand because of the accompanying reduction in
multiplying the apparent power (kVA) by the sine
load.
of the phase angle, θ, between the voltage and the
current. Units are kVAR. Power factor can also be improved through replacement
PREACTIVE = PAPPARENT × sine θ of standard efficiency with premium efficiency motors,
which are appropriately matched to their driven loads.
Power factors vary considerably based on motor design
Real or Working Power (kW) and load conditions. While some premium efficiency
motor models offer power factor improvements of 2% to
Electricians use this term when referring to plant 5%, others have lower power factors than typical equiva-
loads. Real power is related to apparent power by
lent standard motors. Even motors with high power factor
the cosine of the phase angle, θ, between voltage
are affected significantly by variations in load. A motor
and current. Units are kW.
must be operated near its rated loading in order to realize
PKW = PAPPARENT × cosine θ the benefits of a high power factor design.

PKW = PAPPARENT × PF Power factor can also be improved and the cost of exter-
nal correction reduced by minimizing operation of idling
or lightly loaded motors and by avoiding operation of
equipment above its rated voltage. While motor full-and
part-load power factor characteristics are important, they
factor, the utility must provide 21% more current to the are not as significant as nominal efficiency. When select-
second plant to meet the identical real power requirement. ing a motor, conventional wisdom is to purchase based on
Conductors and transformers serving the second plant efficiency and correct for power factor.9-6
would need 21% more carrying capacity than that pro-
vided to the first plant. Additionally, resistance losses (I2R Some strategies for improving your power factor follow:
losses) in the distribution conductors in the second plant
are increased by 46%.9-2, 9-3 A low power factor may also • Use a motor with the highest speed that an appli-
lower your plant’s utilization voltage, increase electrical cation can accommodate. Two-pole (nominal 3,600
distribution system line losses, and reduce the in-plant dis- RPM) motors have the highest power factors; power
tribution system’s capacity to deliver electrical energy. factor decreases as the number of poles increases.9-7
• Choose motor sizes that are as close as possible
A utility is paid primarily on the basis of energy consump-
to the horsepower demands of the load. A lightly
tion (kWh) and peak monthly demand (kW). Without a
loaded motor requires little real power. A heavily
power factor billing element, the utility would receive
loaded motor requires more real power. Since the reac-
no more income from the second plant than it does from
tive power is almost constant, the ratio of real power to

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 9-3

 CHAPTER 9 | POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

apparent power varies with induction motor load, and

power factor ranges from about 10% at no load to as
Helpful Tip
high as 85% or more at full load.9-2, 9-3, 9-7 (see Figure
9-2). An oversized motor draws more reactive current To help you improve the power factor of motor-
at light load than a smaller motor draws at full load. driven systems, the Bonneville Power
Low power factor results when motors are operated at Administration has produced an Industrial Power
less than full load. This often occurs in cyclic pro- Factor Analysis Guidebook.9-8 The guidebook
cesses (such as circular saws, ball mills, conveyors, addresses the following topics:
compressors, grinders, extruders, or punch presses) ■■ How to tell if your plant could benefit from
for which motors are sized for the “worst case” or capacitors
heaviest load expected to be encountered. In these ■■ How to select capacitor schemes to eliminate
applications, the power factor varies from moment to power factor penalties and minimize losses
moment. Examples of situations in which low power
How to perform detailed plant surveys to collect
factors occur (from 30% to 50%) include a surface
■■

sufficient data to determine where to put

grinder performing a light cut, an unloaded rotary
capacitors
screw air compressor, and a circular saw spinning
without cutting.9-1 The industries shown in Table 9-1 ■■ Why the power system must be built with extra
typically exhibit low power factors and do not fully capacity to supply power
use the incoming utility-supplied current.9-1, 9-8 ■■ How reactive power contributes to additional
• Add power factor correction capacitors to your in- losses
plant distribution system. Low power factors can be ■■ How capacitors, synchronous machines, and
corrected by installing external capacitors at the main static (adaptive) power compensators correct for
plant service or at individual pieces of equipment. power factor
Power capacitors serve as leading reactive current ■■ When to use switched versus fixed capacitors
generators and counter the lagging reactive current in
the system. By providing reactive current, they reduce ■■ How and when capacitors contribute to
the total amount of current that your system must draw harmonic distortion problems, and how to
from the utility.9-1 predict this
■■ How capacitors can fall prey to harmonics and
switching transients, and what to do about it.

100
90 Power Factor with Capacitor

80 Power Factor without Capacitor

kVA
70
kW
Power Factor

60 kVAr
50
40
30
20
10
0%
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
Motor Load
Figure 9-2. Power Factor as a Function of Motor Load

9-4 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 9 | POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Table 9-1. Industries that Typically Exhibit your plant has many large motors (e.g., 25 hp and above),
Low Power Factor9-1, 9-8 it is usually economical to install capacitors at each motor,
and switch the capacitors and motor on at the same time.9-1
Uncorrected
Industry Switched capacitors do not require separate switch control
Power Factor
equipment when they are on the load side of motor contac-
tors. Capacitors installed on the larger motors are nearly as
Saw mills 45% – 60% economical as fixed banks installed at motor control cen-
ters. When some switching is required, the most economi-
Plastics (extruders) 55% – 70% cal method is to install a base amount of fixed capacitors
that are always energized, and to place the remainder on
Machine shops 40% – 65% the larger motors so they can be switched when the motors
are energized. Observing load patterns will allow you to
Plating, textiles, determine good candidate motors for receiving capacitors.
65% – 75%
chemicals, breweries
If your plant contains many small motors (in the .5 to 10
Foundries 50% – 80% hp range), it can be more economical to group the motors
and to place single capacitors or banks of them at (or near)
Chemicals 65% – 75% the motor control centers. If capacitors are distributed for
loss reduction and need to be switched, you can install
Textiles 65% – 75% an automatic power factor controller in a motor control
center; this approach provides automatic compensation
Arc welding 35% – 60% and is more economical than placing capacitors on each of
the small motors fed from that control center.9-8 The best
Cement works 78% – 80% solution for plants with large and small motors is often to
specify both types of capacitor installations.9-1, 9-8
Printing 55% – 70%
Sometimes, only an isolated trouble spot requires power
factor correction. This may be the case if your plant oper-
ates welding machines, induction heaters, or DC drives.9-1
Sizing and Locating Power Facilities with very large loads typically benefit from a
Factor Correction Capacitors combination of individual load, group load, and banks of
fixed and automatically switched capacitor units.
Once you decide that your facility can benefit from power
factor correction, you will need to choose the optimum Advantages of individual capacitors at the load include
type, size, number, and strategic locations for capacitors the following:9-1
in your plant. The unit for rating power factor capacitors
is the kVAR, which is equal to 1,000 volt-amperes of reac- • They provide complete control; capacitors do
tive power. The kVAR rating signifies how much reactive not cause problems on the line during light load
power a capacitor will provide.9-1 conditions.
• There is no need for separate switching; the motor
The value of individual motor reactive power is cumula-
always operates with its capacitor.
tive toward the overall plant reactive power. Therefore,
when you improve the power factor of a single motor, • Motor performance improves when the voltage
you are reducing the plant’s reactive power requirement. delivered to the motor increases due to reduced
Although power factor correction capacitors reduce cur- voltage drops.
rent in the lines supplying the motor, they do not reduce
• Motors and capacitors can easily be relocated together.
motor current, input power requirements, or performance.
• It is easier to select the right capacitor for the load.
The greatest power factor correction benefits are obtained
by placing capacitors at the source of reactive currents. • Line losses are reduced.
It is common to distribute capacitors on motors through- • In-plant electrical distribution system capacity
out an industrial plant.9-8, 9-9 This is a good strategy when is increased.
capacitors must be switched to follow a changing load. If

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 9-5

CHAPTER 9 | POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

The advantages of bank installations downstream of the Location A — At the motor side of the overload relay
utility meter at the plant substation or service entry include • New motor installations, in which overloads can be
the following:9-1 sized in accordance with a lower current draw
• The cost per kVAR is lower. • Existing motors, when no overload change is required
• Installation costs are also lower.
Location B — Between the starter and overload relay
• The total plant power factor improves, which reduces • Existing motors, when placement at location A would
or eliminates utility power factor penalty charges. allow overload current to surpass code
• Total kVAR may be reduced because all capacitors
are on line even when some motors are switched off. Location C — At the line side of the starter

• Automatic switching ensures the exact amount of • Motors that are jogged or reversed (jogging refers to
power factor correction and eliminates over capaci- service conditions that include repeated starting and
tance and resulting overvoltages. stopping of a motor such as moving a crane or a con-
veyor to a particular location)
If your facility operates at a constant load around the • Multispeed motors
clock, fixed capacitors are the best solution. If the load is
variable, such as two 7-hour production shifts, followed • Starters with open transition, and those that discon-
by a nighttime cleanup shift 5 days per week, you will nect/reconnect the capacitor during cycle
need switched units to decrease capacitance during times • Motors that start frequently
of reduced load.9-1
• Motor loads with high inertia.
If your feeders or transformers are overloaded, or if you
wish to add additional load to already loaded lines, you Sizing Capacitors for Individual Motors
should apply power factor correction at the load. If your and Entire Plant Loads
facility has excess current-carrying capacity, you can
Capacitors that are installed across the motor terminals
install capacitor banks at main feeders.
and switched with the motor should not be sized larger
There are three location options for installing capacitors than the amount of kVAR necessary to raise the motor
at the motor, as indicated in Figure 9-3. These options, no-load power factor to 100%.9-7 Use Table 9-2 to size
along with the types of motors applicable to each, are as capacitors for individual motor loads; look up the type of
follows:9-1 motor frame, synchronous speed (RPM), and horsepower.

Motor Thermal
Feed Overload
A B C
Fused
Safety Motor
Switch or Starter
Breaker

Capacitor Capacitor Capacitor

C B A
Motor

Figure 9-3. Locating Capacitors on Motor Circuits

9-6 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 9 | POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

The table indicates the kVAR necessary to correct the 1000 kW

power factor to 95%.9-1 Ø2 95% PF 330 kVAR
Ø1 After After
If you know the total plant load (kW), your present power 1050 k
VA Af
ter
factor, and the power factor you intend to achieve, you can 142 1000 kVAR
use Table 9-3 to identify the required capacitance.9-1 This 0k Before
VA
table is useful for sizing banks of capacitors that can be Be 670 kVAR
for 70%
located at motor control centers, feeders, branch circuits, e PF Capacitor
or the plant service entrance. Added
kW
Cosine Ø = ———
The power triangle in Figure 9-4 indicates the demands on kVA
a plant distribution system before and after adding capaci-
tors to improve power factor. Increasing the power factor 1000
Cosine Ø1 = ——— = 70% PF
from 70% to 95% reduces the apparent power from 1,420 1420
kVA to 1,050 kVA, a reduction of 26%. 1000
Cosine Ø2 = ——— = 95% PF
1050

Figure 9-4. Apparent Power Requirements Before and After

Adding Power Factor Correction Capacitors

Table 9-2. Sizing Guide for Capacitors on Individual Motors9-1

NEMA B
Code
C D
Before 1955 U-Frame T-Frame Wound
Poles 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12 4-6 8 6 Rotor
1,800
RPM 3,600 1,800 1,200 900 720 600 3,600 1,800 1,200 900 720 600 3,600 1,800 1,200 900 720 600 900 1,200
1,200
HP=3 1.5 1.5 1.5 2 2.5 3.5 1 1 1 2 1.5 1.5 2.5 3 3 4

5 2 2 2 3 4 4.5 1 2 2 2 2 2.5 3 4 4 5

7.5 2.5 2.5 3 4 5.5 6 1 2 4 4 2.5 3 4 5 5 6

10 3 3 3.5 5 6.5 7.5 2 2 4 5 5 5 4 4 5 6 7.5 8

15 4 4 5 6.5 8 9.5 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 6 7.5 8 19 5 5 5 5.5

20 5 5 6.5 7.5 9 12 4 5 5 5 10 10 6 6 7.5 9 10 12 5 6 6 7

25 6 6 7.5 9 11 14 5 5 5 5 10 10 7.5 7.5 8 10 12 18 6 6 6 7

30 7 7 9 10 12 16 5 5 5 10 10 10 8 8 10 14 15 23 7.5 9 10 11

40 9 9 11 12 15 20 5 10 10 10 10 15 12 13 16 18 23 25 10 12 12 13

50 12 11 13 15 19 24 5 10 10 15 15 20 15 18 20 23 24 30 12 15 15 18

60 14 14 15 18 22 27 10 10 10 15 20 25 18 21 23 26 30 35 18 18 18 20

75 17 16 18 21 26 33 15 15 15 20 25 30 20 23 25 28 33 40 19 23 23 25

100 22 21 25 27 33 40 15 20 25 25 40 45 23 30 30 35 40 45 27 27 30 33

125 27 26 30 33 40 48 20 25 30 30 45 45 25 36 35 42 45 50 35 38 38 40

150 33 30 35 38 48 53 25 30 30 40 45 50 30 42 40 53 53 60 38 45 45 50

200 40 38 43 48 60 65 35 40 60 55 55 60 35 50 50 65 68 90 45 60 60 65

250 50 45 53 58 70 78 40 40 60 80 60 100 40 60 63 82 88 100 54 70 70 75

300 58 53 60 65 80 88 45 45 80 80 80 120 45 68 70 100 100 120 65 90 75 85

350 65 60 68 75 88 95 60 70 80 80 50 75 90 120 120 135

400 70 65 75 85 95 105 60 80 80 160 75 80 100 130 140 150

450 75 68 80 93 100 110 70 100 80 90 120 140 160 160

500 78 73 83 98 108 115 70 100 120 150 160 180 180

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 9-7

CHAPTER 9 | POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Table 9-3. Multipliers to Determine Capacitor kVAR Required for Power Factor Correction9-1

Original Corrected Power Factor

Power
Factor 0.80 0.81 0.82 0.83 0.84 0.85 0.86 0.87 0.88 0.89 0.90 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.99 1.0
0.50 0.982 1.008 1.034 1.060 1.086 1.112 1.139 1.165 1.192 1.220 1.248 1.276 1.306 1.337 1.369 1.403 1.440 1.589 1.732

0.51 0.937 0.962 0.989 1.015 1.041 1.067 1.094 1.120 1.147 1.175 1.203 1.231 1.261 1.292 1.324 1.358 1.395 1.544 1.687
0.52 0.893 0.919 0.945 0.971 0.997 1.023 1.050 1.076 1.103 1.131 1.159 1.187 1.217 1.248 1.280 1.314 1.351 1.500 1.643
0.53 0.850 0.876 0.902 0.928 0.954 0.980 1.007 1.033 1.060 1.088 1.116 1.144 1.174 1.205 1.237 1.271 1.308 1.457 1.600
0.54 0.809 0.835 0.861 0.887 0.913 0.939 0.966 0.992 1.019 1.047 1.075 1.103 1.133 1.164 1.196 1.230 1.267 1.416 1.559
0.55 0.769 0.795 0.821 0.847 0.873 0.899 0.926 0.952 0.979 1.007 1.035 1.063 1.093 1.124 1.156 1.190 1.227 1.376 1.519

0.56 0.730 0.756 0.782 0.808 0.834 0.860 0.887 0.913 0.940 0.968 0.996 1.024 1.054 1.085 1.117 1.151 1.188 1.337 1.480
0.57 0.692 0.718 0.744 0.770 0.796 0.822 0.849 0.875 0.902 0.930 0.958 0.986 1.016 1.047 1.079 1.113 1.150 1.299 1.480
0.58 0.655 0.681 0.707 0.733 0.759 0.785 0.812 0.838 0.865 0.893 0.921 0.949 0.979 1.010 1.042 1.076 1.113 1.262 1.405
0.59 0.619 0.645 0.671 0.697 0.723 0.749 0.776 0.802 0.829 0.857 0.885 0.913 0.943 0.974 1.006 1.040 1.077 1.226 1.369
0.60 0.583 0.609 0.635 0.661 0.687 0.713 0.740 0.766 0.793 0.821 0.849 0.877 0.907 0.938 0.970 1.004 1.041 1.190 1.333

0.61 0.549 0.575 0.601 0.627 0.653 0.679 0.706 0.732 0.759 0.787 0.815 0.843 0.873 0.904 0.936 0.970 1.007 1.156 1.299
0.62 0.516 0.542 0.568 0.594 0.620 0.646 0.673 0.699 0.726 0.754 0.782 0.810 0.840 0.871 0.903 0.937 0.974 1.123 1.266
0.63 0.483 0.509 0.535 0.561 0.587 0.613 0.640 0.666 0.693 0.721 0.749 0.777 0.807 0.838 0.870 0.904 0.941 1.090 1.233
0.64 0.451 0.474 0.503 0.529 0.555 0.581 0.608 0.634 0.661 0.689 0.717 0.745 0.775 0.806 0.838 0.872 0.909 1.068 1.201
0.65 0.419 0.445 0.471 0.497 0.523 0.549 0.576 0.602 0.629 0.657 0.685 0.713 0.743 0.774 0.806 0.840 0.877 1.026 1.169

0.66 0.388 0.414 0.440 0.466 0.492 0.518 0.545 0.571 0.598 0.626 0.654 0.682 0.712 0.743 0.775 0.809 0.846 0.995 1.138
0.67 0.358 0.384 0.410 0.436 0.462 0.488 0.515 0.541 0.568 0.596 0.624 0.652 0.682 0.713 0.745 0.779 0.816 0.965 1.108
0.68 0.328 0.354 0.380 0.406 0.432 0.458 0.485 0.511 0.538 0.566 0.594 0.622 0.652 0.683 0.715 0.749 0.786 0.935 1.078
0.69 0.299 0.325 0.351 0.377 0.403 0.429 0.456 0.482 0.509 0.537 0.565 0.593 0.623 0.654 0.686 0.720 0.757 0.906 1.049
0.70 0.270 0.296 0.322 0.348 0.374 0.400 0.427 0.453 0.480 0.508 0.536 0.564 0.594 0.625 0.657 0.691 0.728 0.877 1.020

0.71 0.242 0.268 0.294 0.320 0.346 0.372 0.399 0.425 0.452 0.480 0.508 0.536 0.566 0.597 0.629 0.663 0.700 0.849 0.992
0.72 0.214 0.240 0.266 0.292 0.318 0.344 0.371 0.397 0.424 0.452 0.480 0.508 0.538 0.569 0.601 0.635 0.672 0.821 0.964
0.73 0.186 0.212 0.238 0.264 0.290 0.316 0.343 0.369 0.396 0.424 0.452 0.480 0.510 0.541 0.573 0.607 0.644 0.793 0.936
0.74 0.159 0.185 0.211 0.237 0.263 0.289 0.316 0.342 0.369 0.397 0.425 0.453 0.483 0.514 0.546 0.580 0.617 0.766 0.909
0.75 0.132 0.158 0.184 0.210 0.236 0.262 0.289 0.315 0.342 0.370 0.398 0.426 0.456 0.487 0.519 0.553 0.590 0.739 0.882

0.76 0.105 0.131 0.157 0.183 0.209 0.235 0.262 0.288 0.315 0.343 0.371 0.399 0.429 0.460 0.492 0.526 0.563 0.712 0.855
0.77 0.790 0.105 0.131 0.157 0.183 0.209 0.236 0.262 0.289 0.317 0.345 0.373 0.403 0.434 0.466 0.500 0.537 0.685 0.829
0.78 0.052 0.078 0.104 0.130 0.156 0.182 0.209 0.235 0.262 0.290 0.318 0.346 0.376 0.407 0.439 0.473 0.510 0.659 0.802
0.79 0.026 0.052 0.078 0.104 0.130 0.156 0.183 0.209 0.236 0.264 0.292 0.320 0.350 0.381 0.413 0.447 0.484 0.633 0.776
0.80 0.000 0.026 0.052 0.078 0.104 0.130 0.157 0.183 0.210 0.238 0.266 0.294 0.324 0.355 0.387 0.421 0.458 0.609 0.750

0.81 0.000 0.026 0.052 0.078 0.104 0.131 0.157 0.184 0.212 0.240 0.268 0.298 0.329 0.361 0.395 0.432 0.581 0.724
0.82 0.000 0.026 0.052 0.078 0.105 0.131 0.158 0.186 0.214 0.242 0.272 0.303 0.335 0.369 0.406 0.555 0.698
0.83 0.000 0.026 0.052 0.079 0.105 0.132 0.160 0.188 0.216 0.246 0.277 0.309 0.343 0.380 0.529 0.672
0.84 0.000 0.026 0.053 0.079 0.106 0.134 0.162 0.190 0.220 0.251 0.283 0.317 0.354 0.503 0.646
0.85 0.000 0.027 0.053 0.080 0.108 0.136 0.164 0.194 0.225 0.257 0.291 0.328 0.477 0.620

0.86 0.000 0.026 0.053 0.081 0.109 0.137 0.167 0.198 0.230 0.264 0.301 0.450 0.593
0.87 0.000 0.027 0.055 0.083 0.111 0.141 0.172 0.204 0.238 0.275 0.424 0.567
0.88 0.000 0.028 0.056 0.084 0.114 0.145 0.177 0.211 0.248 0.397 0.540
0.89 0.000 0.028 0.056 0.086 0.117 0.149 0.183 0.220 0.369 0.512
0.90 0.000 0.028 0.058 0.089 0.121 0.155 0.192 0.341 0.484

0.91 0.000 0.030 0.061 0.093 0.127 0.164 0.313 0.456

0.92 0.000 0.031 0.063 0.097 0.134 0.283 0.426
0.93 0.000 0.032 0.066 0.103 0.252 0.395
0.94 0.000 0.034 0.071 0.220 0.363
0.95 0.000 0.037 0.186 0.329

0.96 0.000 0.149 0.292

0.97 0.108 0.251
0.98 0.060 0.203
0.99 0.000 0.143
0.000

Instructions: 1. Find the present power factor in column. 2. Read across to optimum power factor column. 3. Multiply that number by kW demand.
Example: If your plant consumed 410 kW, was currently operating at 73% power factor and you wanted to correct power factor to be 95% you would.
1. Find 0.73 in column. 2. Read across to 0.95 column. 3. Multiply 0.607 by 410 = 249 (round to 250.) 4. You need 250 kVAR to bring your plant to 95% power
factor If you don’t know the existing power factor level of your plant, you will have to calculate it before using this table. To calculate existing power factor:
kW divided by kVA = power factor.

9-8 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 9 | POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Benefits of Power efficiency, motor overheating, and diminished motor life.

By adding power factor correction capacitors, you can
Factor Correction restore operating voltage to proper design conditions.
The cost-effectiveness of power factor correction depends
When located at motor loads, power factor correction
upon such variables as utility power factor penalties, the
capacitors increase system current-carrying capacity,
need for additional system capacity, energy and demand
reduce voltage drops, and decrease distribution system
cost, hours of facility operation, distribution system wire
resistance (I2R) losses.9-1 Increasing the power factor from
sizes, and the distance between the motor and the electri-
75% to 95% results in a 21% lower current in the conduc-
cal meter.9-10 As shown in the following examples, it is
tors serving the same kW load. By adding power factor
critical to understand your utility’s rate structure to assess
correction capacitors at motor loads, you can increase
the benefits or reduction in utility billing due to power fac-
the total kW loading served by the conductors without
tor correction.9-1, 9-9
increasing line currents, wire size, transformer size, or
facility kVA charges. By including power factor correction
Secondary Benefits of capacitors in new construction or facility expansions, you
Power Factor Correction can reduce project costs through decreasing the sizes of
Excessive line currents due to low power factors cause transformers, cables, busses, and switches.9-1 In practice,
excessive in-plant distribution system voltage drops and however, current or ampacity ratings are a function of full-
increased resistance losses. Operating motor-driven equip- load equipment values; therefore, size reductions may be
ment under low-voltage conditions results in decreased precluded by electrical codes.

Utility Rate Schedule 0.95

kWBILLED = kWDEMAND ×
In this scenario, the utility charges according to PF
kW demand ($4.50/kW) and includes a surcharge
or adjustment for low power factor. The following Where:
formula shows a billing adjustment based upon a
desired 95% power factor. kWBILLED = Adjusted or billable demand
Plant Conditions
For our sample facility, the original demand is Measured electric demand
kWDEMAND =
4,600 kVA × 0.80, or 3,680 kW. in kW
The multiplier applies to power factors up to 0.95.
PF = Power factor as a decimal

Billing Before Power Factor Correction Billing After Power Factor Corrected to 95%

3,680 kW × 0.95 3,680 kW × 0.95

0.80 0.95

= 4,370 × $4.50 = 3,680 × $4.50

= $19,665/month or $235,980/year = $16,560/month or $198,720/year

Savings are $37,260/year.

Example 9-2

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 9-9

CHAPTER 9 | POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Utility Rate Schedule

The utility measures and bills based upon total current used (working plus reactive current) at $3.50/kVA demand.

Plant Conditions
Assume a constant 4,600 kVA demand with an 80% power factor. Correct to 95% power factor.

Billing Before Power

Billing After Power Factor Corrected to 95%
Factor Correction

4,600 kVA × $3.50 = kWDEMAND = kVADEMAND 1 × PF1

$16,000/month
= 4,600 × 0.8 = 3,680

kWDEMAND
kWDEMAND 2 =
PF2
3,680
kWDEMAND 2 = = 3,873
0.95

Where:

kVA DEMAND 1 = kVA demand before PF correction

kVA DEMAND 2 = kVA demand after PF correction

kWDEMAND = Electric demand in kW

PF1 = Original power factor

PF2 = Power factor after correction

Corrected Billing:
3.873 kVA × $3.50 = $13,555/month

Savings are ($16,100–$13,555) × 12 months = $30,540/year.

Up to $61,000 could be spent on power factor correction equipment if plant management
would support a 2-year simple payback on investment.

Example 9-3

9-10 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 9 | POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Poor power factor contributes to power losses in the in- Power Factor Correction Costs
plant distribution system. Calculate the power loss by
The average cost for capacitors on a 480-volt system is
squaring the line current and multiplying by the circuit
about $30 to $40 per kVAR (not including installation
resistance (I2R). Generally, distribution system losses are
costs). Automatic power factor controllers or capacitors
small and are related to the cable length and inverse of the
with harmonic filters cost more. These features are typi-
cross sectional area—a typical industrial plant will suf-
cally associated with capacitors exceeding 100 kVAR. A
fer only a 2% loss in the cables if they are loaded to full
single large capacitor bank has a lower installed cost than
capacity.9-8 Reductions in losses (upstream of the power
multiple small installations scattered throughout the plant.
factor correction capacitor locations) are calculated by the
The cost per kVAR for small capacitors on individual
relationship shown in Equation 9-2.9-1
motors is substantially higher because of labor and materi-
The Industrial Electrical Distribution Systems Guidebook als costs. The cost of large banks is lower on a per-kVAR
contains worksheets for calculating the benefits of correct- basis because of economies of scale. The installed cost per
ing both individual motor and total plant power factor.9-14 kVAR of capacitance is also lower at higher voltages. At
medium voltage levels (2400 volts and up), unit costs are
generally about $3 to $6 per kVAR.

% reduction = 100 − 100 × ( )

PF1 2
PF2 Assume that installing a power factor correction
capacitor at a motor improves power factor from
85% to 95%. Losses are reduced by:
Where:

% reduction =
Percent reduction Loss Reduction =
in distribution losses 100 − 100 × (85/95)2 or 19.9%

PF1 = Original power factor Remember that this is 19.9% of the losses only on
the conductor used to serve the motor load. Also
note that line losses are proportional to voltage
PF2 = Power factor after correction
drop. A drop from 480 volts at the transformer tap
to 470 volts at the motor indicates a distribution
system loss of (10/480) × 100 = 2.0%. Multiplying
Equation 9-2. Reduction in distribution system losses due to the loss reduction times the total distribution
power factor correction at the motor or motor control center system losses gives a total energy savings of
approximately 0.4% of the energy going down the
conductor to serve the motor load.

Helpful Tip
Example 9-4
Beware of sales representatives claiming that their
product will “reduce motor energy costs by up to
35%,” as benefits of “black boxes” are often greatly
exaggerated.9-12 In reality, the product may reduce
Quick Fact
in-plant distribution system line losses by up to 35%
(and only for the conductor serving an individual Short-circuit megavolt amperes (MVAs) represents
motor) or reduce the power supplied to an system impedance. It is the current (in millions of
unloaded motor by up to 35%. Saving a large amperes) that would be drawn by a short circuit,
percentage of a small amount of energy or power multiplied by the no-load voltage of the system at
may not result in significant or cost-effective dollar the point of interest. In reality, circuit protectors
savings.9-13 would blow before short-circuit current could
stabilize, so it is defined by linearly extrapolating
the volts-per-amp system voltage drop, at
moderate load, down to zero system volts.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 9-11

CHAPTER 9 | POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Avoiding Harmonic Resonances If the resonant frequency is near an odd harmonic, con-
sider reducing capacitor MVAR to bring the system out of
When Installing Capacitors tune with that harmonic. This is particularly important if
Industrial plants that install and operate capacitors must you have a known source of these harmonics. For exam-
pay careful attention to the creation of steady-state har- ple, variable frequency drives can be a significant source
monic resonances.9-8 Equation 9-3 can be used to calculate of 5th and 7th harmonics.
the resonant frequency created with a capacitor and system
Resonant conditions near the 3rd, 5th, 7th, 11th, and 13th
inductance. As shown in the equation, the square root of
harmonics are usually the most troublesome.9-15 Harmon-
the short-circuit MVA divided by the capacitor megavolt
ics cause additional noise on the line and generate heat.
ampere reactive (MVAR) indicates the resultant harmonic
This heat can cause failure of capacitors or transformers.
for the system under study.9-15
Consult with your capacitor supplier or a specialist in har-
monic mitigation. Many vendors offer harmonic analysis
services and will help you to properly select and install
power factor correction equipment.
MVASHORT CIRCUIT
hƒ =
MVARCAPACITOR

Equation 9-3

Consider a case in which a 1,200 kVAR capacitor to be installed on a 12.47 kV system at a location where the
three-phase short-circuit is 2800 amps (A).

3
MVASHORT CIRCUIT = 2800 A × 12.47 kV × = 60.5
1,000,000

MVARCAPACITOR = 1200 kVAR/1000 = 1.2 MVAR, and hf = 60.5 = 7.1

1.2

Example 9-5

9-12 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 CHAPTER 9 | POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

References
9-1  aton Corporation, “Power Factor Correction:
E 9-9  ortland General Energy Systems, “Power Quality
P
A Guide for the Plant Engineer,” Design it Right, for Electrical Contractors: Application Guide,”
Technical Data SA2607001E, November, 2010. Volume 7: Recommended Practices, Electric Power
Research Institute, December 1994.
9-2  arroll, Hatch & Associates, Inc., “An Electric
C
Motor Energy Efficiency Guide and Technical 9-10 “ Power Factor Correction Equals Big Savings,”
Reference Manual,” June 1994. Conserver, Georgia Tech Research Institute,
March 1991.
9-3  arroll, Hatch & Associates, Inc., “A Procedure
C
for Developing an Energy Efficiency Plan for the 9-11 M
 ontgomery, Fred L., “The Dollars and Sense
Use of Electric Motors in an Industrial Setting,” of Power Factor Correction,” AIPE Facilities
June 1994. Management, Operations & Engineering,
September/October 1989.
9-4 “ Reducing Power Factor Cost,” U.S. Department
of Energy, Motor Challenge Program Fact Sheet, 9-12 N
 ailen, Richard L., “What does power factor
DOE/GO-10095-286, 1996. ‘correction’ really mean?” Electrical Apparatus,
July, 1997.
9-5  obodovsky, K.K., “Power Factor Correction
L
Capacitors – What – Why – Where – How,” Pacific 9-13 N
 ailen, Richard L., “How good are motor voltage
Gas & Electric Technical Services Application Note controllers?” Electrical Apparatus, October, 1995.
No. 43-46-83.
9-14 G
 ray, Rob, Washington State Energy Office,
9-6  onnett, Austin H., “Understanding Power Factor
B “Keeping the Spark in Your Electrical System:
in Squirrel Cage Induction Motors,” U.S. Electrical An Industrial Electrical Distribution Systems
Motors. Guidebook,” Funded by the Bonneville Power
Administration, U.S. Department of Energy,
9-7  der, Edward and William Finley, “Compensating
A Pacificorp, Portland General Electric and Tacoma
for Low Power Factor.” Plant Engineering, June City Light, October 1995.
17, 1993.
9-15 P
 SI Energy, “Avoiding Steady-State Harmonic
9-8 “ Industrial Power Factor Analysis Guidebook,” Resonances When Installing Capacitors,” Power
DOE/BP-42892-1, Bonneville Power Clinic Tech Tip, Issue Number 7.
Administration, April 1995.

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | 9-13

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems
 APPENDICES

APPENDICES
Appendix A: Motor Nameplate and Field Test Data Form
Employee Name__________________________________________ Facility/Location__________________________________________

Company_______________________________________________ Department_____________________________________________

Date___________________________________________________ Process_________________________________________________

General Data Motor Operating Profile

Serving Electrical Utility____________________________________ Weekdays ________________ Wknd/Holiday_________
Days/Year________________ Days/Year____________
Energy Rate ($/kWh)______________________________________
1st Shift__________________ ____________________
Monthly Demand Charge ($/kW/mo)__________________________ Hours
Per 2nd Shift_________________ ____________________
Application______________________________________________ Day
3rd Shift__________________ ____________________
Type of equipment that motor drives
Annual Operating Time____________hours/year
Coupling Type___________________________________________
Type of load (Place an “X” by the most appropriate type)
Motor Type (Design A, B, C, D, AC, DC etc.)_____________________
______ 1. Load is quite steady, motor “On” during shift
Motor Purchase Date/Age___________________________________ ______ 2. Load starts, stops, but is constant when “On”
Rewound Yes No ______ 3. Load starts, stops, and fluctuates when “On”

Motor Nameplate Data Answer the following only if #2 or #3 above was selected:
% of time load is “on” _______%
1. Manufacturer________________________________________

2. Motor ID Number_____________________________________ Answer the following only if #3 was selected:

Estimate average load as a % of motor size _______%
3. Model______________________________________________

4. Serial Number_______________________________________ Measured Data

5. NEMA Design Type____________________________________ Supply Voltage
By Voltmeter
6. Size (hp)___________________________________________
Vab_______________
Line-
7. Enclosure Type_______________________________________ V to- bc_______________ Vavg______________

8. Synchronous Speed (RPM)______________________________ Line- Vca_______________

9. Full Load Speed (RPM)_________________________________ Input Amps

By Ampmeter
10. Voltage Rating_______________________________________
Aa_______________
11. Frame Designation____________________________________ Ab_______________ Aavg______________
12. Full Load Amperage___________________________________ Ac_______________

13. Full Load Power Factor (%)_____________________________ Power Factor (PF, %)______________________________________

14. Full Load Efficiency (%)________________________________ Input Power (kW)________________________________________

15. Service Factor Rating__________________________________ If available. Otherwise equal to:

Vavg × Aavg × (PF/100) × √3/1000
16. Temperature Rise_____________________________________
Motor Operating Speed (RPM)_______________________________
17. Insulation Class______________________________________ By Tachometer

18. kVA Code___________________________________________ Driven Equipment Operating Speed (RPM)_____________________

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | A-1

APPENDICES

Appendix B: Average Efficiencies for Standard Efficiency Motors at Various Load Points

Efficiencies for 900 RPM, Old Standard Efficiency Motors

Load Level In Percent

Motor
ODP TEFC
Size

100% 75% 50% 25% 100% 75% 50% 25%

10 85.3 86.1 84.8 78.3 85.5 85.8 84.8 77.3

15 86.3 87.5 86.6 79.6 86.4 87.2 86.4 79.0

20 87.6 88.3 87.3 81.8 87.9 88.9 88.2 84.4

25 88.3 88.8 88.1 83.0 87.9 88.4 86.8 78.6

30 88.1 89.1 88.5 84.5 88.6 89.2 88.6 85.2

40 87.5 87.6 87.1 84.5 89.0 88.8 87.0 82.5

50 89.3 90.2 89.6 87.1 89.8 89.7 88.5 82.5

60 89.9 90.5 89.9 86.4 90.6 91.1 90.3 86.9

75 90.9 91.4 90.8 85.8 90.6 90.8 89.9 83.6

100 91.3 91.7 91.2 86.8 91.1 91.6 91.0 88.0

125 91.6 92.1 91.6 89.5 91.5 91.4 90.5 87.5

150 91.9 92.6 92.2 89.7 91.5 91.7 91.0 88.0

200 92.6 93.5 93.1 90.2 93.0 93.8 93.1 90.1

250 93.6 94.4 94.2 92.7 94.2 94.5 94.4 91.5

300 94.1 92.4 89.5 86.0 94.2 94.5 94.4 91.5

A-2 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 APPENDICES

Efficiencies for 1,200 RPM, Old Standard Efficiency Motors

Load Level In Percent

Motor
ODP TEFC
Size

100% 75% 50% 25% 100% 75% 50% 25%

10 87.4 87.9 86.5 79.3 84.9 85.9 84.4 80.0

15 87.0 87.4 86.3 79.6 87.0 87.2 86.0 79.7

20 87.7 88.6 88.3 85.1 87.7 88.8 88.2 83.6

25 89.0 89.5 88.8 85.2 88.9 89.5 88.5 81.3

30 89.5 90.2 89.7 87.6 89.6 90.3 89.0 83.8

40 89.4 89.9 89.2 85.2 89.9 90.4 88.6 84.5

50 89.7 89.2 87.8 71.7 90.6 91.2 90.5 86.0

60 90.8 91.5 90.9 87.5 90.8 91.0 90.2 83.1

75 91.5 91.7 91.8 88.9 91.6 91.6 90.7 86.5

100 92.0 92.5 92.1 88.3 92.1 92.1 91.9 84.5

125 92.0 92.5 92.1 88.3 92.1 92.1 91.9 86.0

150 92.6 93.1 92.6 90.0 93.1 93.3 92.6 90.8

200 92.9 93.1 91.7 89.9 92.6 93.2 92.5 88.4

250 94.1 94.2 93.3 92.7 94.4 94.4 93.9 90.0

300 94.4 94.6 94.5 92.8 94.4 94.4 93.8 91.0

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | A-3

APPENDICES

Efficiencies for 1,800 RPM, Old Standard Efficiency Motors

Load Level In Percent

Motor
ODP TEFC
Size

100% 75% 50% 25% 100% 75% 50% 25%

10 86.1 87.4 86.9 81.8 85.7 86.7 85.4 77.4

15 87.8 88.8 88.3 82.0 86.6 87.5 86.0 74.9

20 88.3 89.4 88.7 83.3 88.5 89.3 88.5 82.9

25 88.9 90.0 89.8 86.6 89.3 89.9 88.8 82.1

30 88.9 90.6 90.5 87.4 89.6 90.2 89.2 83.6

40 90.0 90.3 89.4 85.7 90.2 90.4 89.2 81.6

50 90.7 91.2 90.4 87.4 91.3 91.6 90.9 84.1

60 91.3 91.7 90.8 86.8 91.8 91.9 90.8 85.2

75 91.9 92.3 91.6 87.7 91.7 92.0 90.9 85.1

100 92.1 92.7 92.2 89.2 92.3 92.2 91.2 86.2

125 92.2 92.8 92.2 88.2 92.2 91.6 90.5 84.0

150 92.8 93.1 92.4 88.6 93.0 92.8 91.5 86.3

200 93.0 93.4 93.0 90.3 93.5 93.3 92.0 86.3

250 94.4 94.6 93.8 92.0 94.2 94.1 93.0 88.8

300 94.6 94.7 93.8 92.8 94.4 94.2 93.1 89.9

A-4 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 APPENDICES

Efficiencies for 3,600 RPM, Old Standard Efficiency Motors

Load Level In Percent

Motor
ODP TEFC
Size

100% 75% 50% 25% 100% 75% 50% 25%

10 85.0 86.1 85.0 78.7 85.0 84.7 82.7 74.1

15 86.6 87.7 86.8 80.5 85.7 85.8 83.6 73.2

20 88.1 88.9 88.8 85.4 86.6 87.7 86.1 76.7

25 88.4 89.2 88.7 83.7 87.5 87.4 85.3 75.2

30 87.7 88.9 88.8 84.7 87.7 87.0 84.7 75.4

40 88.6 89.7 899 86.9 88.5 88.0 85.8 75.2

50 89.1 90.1 89.8 88.4 89.0 88.7 86.7 77.8

60 90.4 90.9 90.9 87.8 89.4 88.4 85.8 76.6

75 90.4 90.6 90.1 85.7 90.6 89.9 88.0 78.9

100 90.5 91.2 91.0 89.0 90.9 90.3 88.7 81.9

125 91.2 91.9 91.4 90.3 90.9 90.1 87.9 77.4

150 91.7 91.8 91.9 90.1 91.5 90.9 88.4 81.7

200 91.5 91.7 90.9 83.6 92.7 92.0 90.1 83.5

250 93.0 93.0 92.8 87.4 94.7 94.7 93.8 91.0

300 93.9 94.3 93.5 90.6 94.7 94.4 93.5 89.8

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | A-5

APPENDICES

Appendix C: Motor Energy Savings Calculation Form

Employee Name__________________________________________ Facility/Location__________________________________________

Company_______________________________________________ Department_____________________________________________

Date___________________________________________________ Process_________________________________________________

Motor Nameplate and Operating Information Motor Load and Efficiency Determination

Manufacturer____________________________________________ Load___________________________________________________
Input Power (kW) / [Motor Size (hp) × 0.746/Efficiency at Full Load]
Motor ID Number_________________________________________
Motor Efficiency at Operating Load___________________________
Size (hp)________________________________________________
(Interpolate from Appendix B)
Enclosure Type___________________________________________

Synchronous Speed (RPM) _________________________________

Energy Savings and Value
Full Load Speed (RPM)_____________________________________
kW saved_______________________________________________
Full Load Amperage_______________________________________ Input Power − [Load × hp × 0.746/Efficiency of Replacement Motor
Full Load Power Factor (%)__________________________________ at Load Point]

Full Load Efficiency (%) ____________________________________ kWh saved______________________________________________

kW saved × Annual Operating Hours

Utility Rates
Total Annual Savings
Energy Rate ($/kWh)______________________________________
Total Annual Savings $_____________________________________
Monthly Demand Charge ($/kW/mo.)__________________________
(kW saved × 12 × Monthly Demand Charge) +
Annual Operating Hours (hrs./yr.)_____________________________ (kWh saved x Energy Rate)

Cost for Replacement Motor_________________________________

Annual Energy Use and Cost (or Incremental Cost for New Motor)

Input Power (kW) ________________________________________ Simple Payback (years)____________________________________

(Cost for Replacement Motor + Installation Charge − Utility Rebate) /
Annual Energy Use________________________________________
Total Annual Savings
Input Power × Annual Operating hours

Annual Energy Cost_______________________________________

Annual Energy Use × Energy Rate

Annual Demand Cost______________________________________

Input Power × Monthly Demand Charge × 12

Total Annual Cost_________________________________________

Annual Energy Cost + Annual Demand Cost

A-6 | Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems

 APPENDICES

Appendix D: Motor Repair versus Replace Breakpoint Worksheet

This worksheet will assist you to determine the repair versus replace breakpoint for NEMA Design A and B motors in your facility. In-
service standard efficiency motors below the breakpoint horsepower value should be replaced with a NEMA Premium Efficiency motor
when they fail. The old standard efficiency motor is then scrapped. Motors above the breakpoint horsepower value should be repaired in
accordance with model repair guidelines that reflect repair best practices and then returned to service.

Information necessary to determine the horsepower breakpoint includes the plant’s investment or simple payback criteria, typical motor
annual operating hours, utility incentive electrical rates ($/kWh, $/kW/mo), motor load (typically 70%), motor repair cost, expected
efficiency loss due to repair, and the cost of the premium efficiency replacement motor. Fill in the table below with repair cost quotes and
new premium efficiency motor costs that are obtained from your local repair shop and motor distributor.

What is the annual operating hours for motors in your plant?____________________________________________________________

What is the typical load on your in-service motors?___________________ % ______________________________________________

What is your plant’s simple payback criteria?_____________________ years ______________________________________________

Motor Breakpoint Horsepower Evaluation

Standard Premium Premium Energy Dollar Simple

Motor hp Motor Motor Motor Savings Savings Payback,
Efficiency Cost Efficiency kWh/yr $/year years

15

20

25

30

40

50

60

75

100

125

150

200

250

Continuous Energy Improvement in Motor Driven Systems | A-7

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