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391 views100 pagesTransportation Engineering Review
pe exam review
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© © All Rights Reserved
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CIVIL ENGINEERING
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING REVIEW
Robert W. Stokes, PhD, PE & James H. Banks, PhD
Wl Ideal review for breadth/depth exam with SI & USCS units
W@ Over 30 solved examples & problems
@ Code-specific, including the 2000 Highway Capacity Manual
PE EXAM PREPARATION PE
CIVII
EXAM
ENGIN
PREPARATION
RING
TRANSPORTATION ENG
NEERING REVIEW
Robert W. Stokes, PhD, PE & James H. Banks, PhD
(iin ny
ORES-F59-N7CJ This publicationis designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regardto the subject,
‘matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher isnot engaged in rendering legal.
accounting, or ther professional service. If legal advice or other expest assistance is required, the
services of a competent professional person should be sought
President: Roy Lipner
Publisher: Evan M. Butterfield
‘Senior Development Editor: Laurie McGuire
‘Managing Editor, Production: Dani
Quality Assurance Editor: David Shaw
(Creative Director: Lucy Jenkins
Copyright 2004 by Kaplan® AEC Eaucaion, a division of
Dearborn Financial Publishing, Inc.®
Published by Koplan® AEC Education,
A division of Dearbom Financial Publishing, Inc.®,
4 Kaplan Professional Company®
430 South Wacker Drive
CCaicago, IL 60606-7481
(G12) 836-4400
wwwengineeringpress.com
All rights reserved. The text of this publication, or any part thereof, may net be reproduced in any
‘manner whatsoever without written permission in writing from the publisher,
Printed in the United States of Amexica.
6 06 10 9 8 76 5 43 2 Transportation
Engineering
James H. Banks
OUTLINE
TRANSPORTATION PLANNING 3.
‘The Transportation Planning Process = Trevel Demand Modeling
HIGHWAY SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
AND DESIGN CONTROLS 6
Driver Performance m Vehicle Characteristics m Highway Functions
and Design Bements = Traffic Flow Characteristics
STATISTICAL METHODS 24
Descriptive Statistics m Probebilty m Confidence Bounds m= Hypothesis
Testing
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING STUDIES 31
‘Volume Studies a Speed Studies m Accident Studies m Traffic
Impact Studies
HIGHWAY ROUTE SURVEYING 38
Smple Crrcular Curves # Compound Curves = Parabolic Vertical
Curves m Spiral Curves # Slope Staking = Earthwork
AASHTO GEOMETRIC DESIGN GUIDELINES §3
Local Roads = Collector Roads « Rural Arterials Urban
Atterials m Freeways @ At-Grade intersections = Grade Separations
and interchanges m Roadside Design
HIGHWAY CAPACITY MANUAL 59
Basic Concepts = Two-Lane Highways Multiane Highways = Freeway
Faclites a Besic Freeway Segments m Weaving Areas = Ramps and
Ramp Junctions « UrbanStreets m Signaizedintersections m Unsignalzed
Intersections m Pedestrions m Bicycles
TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES 83
‘The MUTCD m Traffic Markings m= Treffic Signs a Traffic Sianals, ‘Transportation Engineerng
TRAFFIC SIGNALS TIMING 86
Elements of Signal Timing m Cycle Lengths m Change intervals = Signal
Coordination
PAVEMENT DESION 2
AASHTO Design Method = Asphalt institute Method = Portland Cement
Association Method
NOTES ON SELECTED SPECIAL TOPICS 102
Parking » Queuing Models m Evaluating Transportation
Atematives a Computer Applications
REFERENCES 105
PROBLEMS 108
‘The Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE, 1991a) defines transportation
engineering as “the application of technology and scientific principles to the
planning, functional design, operation, and management of facilities for any mode
of transportation in order to provide for the safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient,
economical, and environmentally compatible movement of people and goods.
Traffic Engineering is that phase of transportation engineering which deals with
the planning, geometric design and traffic operations of roads, streets and high-
ways, their networks, terminals, abutting lands, and relationships with other modes
of transportation.”
‘While the professional engineer may be involved in the planning, design,
operation and/or management of transportation facilities and services, it is typi-
cally only the design-related activities which must be supervised and approved
by a registered professional engineer. The general focus of this chapter, therefore,
ison the design of transportation facilities. Because travel in this country is largely
highway oriented, the specific focus of this chapter is the design of streets and
highways. This is not to say that the other aspects of transportation engineering
(e., planning, operations, and management) are any less important than the design
function. They are not. The development of a safe, efficient, and economical
transportation system requires the incorporation of all of these aspects of trans-
portation engineering in an integrated, systems approach to solving transportation
problems. The emphasis of this chapter on the design of transportation facilities
reflects the emphasis given this aspect of transportation engineering in most state
professional licensing examinations. Given the very special responsibility of the
designer with regard to public safety, this emphasis is entirely appropriate.
‘The material in this chapter is presented under the following major topics:
transportation planning: characteristics of the highway system in terms of drivers,
vehicles, roadways and traffic flow; statistical methods; traffic studies; route sur-
veying; geometric design guidelines; highway capacity; traffic control devices;
signal timing; pavement design; and special topics. Within many of these topics
are example problems which illustrate the fundamental principles and concepts
outlined in the text. In the case of those design methods which make extensive
use of special design charts, such as AASHTO Geometric Design Guidelines, the
Highway Capacity Manual, and Pavement Design Methods, the reader is referred
to specific references for additional details and example applications,
‘The chapter includes a list of recommended references for further study and
aan extensive set of sample problems which illustrate the applications of concepts image
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in their own right, are in most cases intermediate steps in arriving at the ultimate
‘goal of the process, which is the estimation of travel volumes on individual
roadways and transit routes in the study area, as obtained from the trip assignment
phase of the process.
Even a very general description of the calibration and application of travel
demand models in a regional (systemwide) context is beyond the scope of this
manual. However, the preceding discussion provides a useful introduction to a
simplified, but very important and widely used, application of travel demand
models. The application alluded to is commonly referred to as the “traffic impact
study.” The basic steps in conducting a traffic impact study are presented later in
this chapter. [The reader should consult Meyer and Miller (2001), Garber and
Hoel (1997), andlor the U.S. Department of Transportation (USDOT, 1977) for
an introduction to travel demand models.]
HIGHWAY SYSTEM CHARACTERISTICS
AND DESIGN CONTROLS
‘The characteristics of traffic flows on the highway system are the results of complex
interactions between the following three basic elements: drivers, vehicles, and the
roadway itself. Effective transportation engineering requires an understanding of
these three elements and the trafic flows resulting from their interactions.
Driver Performance
‘The perception of, and reaction to, cues and stimuli encountered by the driver of
a vehicle involve four distinct actions: perception, identification, emotion or deci-
‘sion (determination of appropriate response), and volition (reaction). The total
time taken for this sequence is referred to as PIEV (perception, identification,
emotion, and volition) time ot perception-reaction time. Perception-reaction time
portant factor in the determination of braking distance, which in turn
dictates minimum sight distance and the length of yellow phase at signalized
interactions. The distance traveled during this time is calculated from the following
equation:
d, =0.278v (lay
d,=1ATvt (ab)
where
4d, = perception-reaction distance (m or ft)
v= speed of vehicle (kni/hr)
1= perception-reaction time (sec)
0.278 = conversion factor (km/hr to m/sec)
1.47 = conversion factor (mph to f/sec)
In most situations, a PIEY time of 2.0 to 2.5 seconds is considered realistic.
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO) recommends a value of 2.5 seconds for design purposes (AASHTO,
2001). The AASHTO Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (2001)
is the standard reference in the ficld of geometric design. It should be one of the
reference documents taken to the exam. Key figures and tables from the Green image
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‘Transportation Engineering
where d, is the PIEV distance as previously defined. Equation (11) may also be
used for estimating vehicle speeds in accident investigations. In this application,
the braking distance is given as
(14a)
4,
254(f 4G)
vi-v"
30(f £G)
where fis the coefficient of friction and V is the velocity at the time of collision
(normally not zero).
In accident investigations, transportation engineers are often called upon to
estimate the speeds of the vehicles involved in the accident. A typical approach
to this problem is to assume that skid marks on the roadway represent braking
distance and solve the basic braking distance equation for the unknown initial
speed (the final speed is assumed to be zero). The speed estimated in this manner
will always be lower than the actual speed because any reduction in speed before
skidding and any speed at impact (if there is a collision) will not be reflected in
the length of the skid marks.
(14b)
Highway Functions and Design Elements
This section summarizes some basic terminology and concepts conceming high-
‘way functions, sight distances, and the horizontal and vertical alignments of
roadways. The roadway characteristics reviewed here are those related primarily
to the characteristics of the driver and vehicle. Detailed treatment of specific
aspects of the geometric design of streets and highways is also presented in this
chapter,
Functional Classification
Streets and highways serve two distinct and very different functions: (1) through
movement, or mobility, and (2) land access. Functional classification is the iden-
tification of sireets and highways in terms of the degree to which the competing
and conflicting functions of movement and access are to be served. Three general
classifications are commonly employed: arterials, collectors, and local streets.
Roadways are classified according to their function or use and then designed
to fulfill that function, Hence, the functional classification of roadways is the
initial requirement for design. An understanding of the following aspects of the
concept of functional classification is essential to effective design:
1, The relationship between the three primary roadway classifications and the
type of service provided is a continuous one. Travel involves movement
through a hierarchy of facility types. This means that each functional class
should intersect with facilities of the next higher and lower classifications.
Failure to recognize and to accommodate this hierarchy by appropriate design
is the principal cause of inefficiency in the roadway system.
2. Functional classification is a function of movement versus access, ranging
from little or no restriction of access to complete control of access. Counted
or projected traffic volume is not an element in functional classification. image
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‘Transportation Engineering
d.—distance traveled while the passing vehicle occupies the left lane:
d, = 0.27804, (8a)
4d, = 147, (18b)
‘d;—distance between the passing vehicle and the opposing vehicle atthe end
of the maneuver. [This clearance interval (d3) is assumed to vary from 30 m
(100 fd) to 75 m (250 f0).]
d,—distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time the
passing vehicle occupies the left lane (two-thirds of di):
dy=2d,/3 a9)
ime of initial maneuver (sec)
erage acceleration (km/hr/sec or mph/sec)
werage speed of passing vehicle (km/hr or mph)
ifference in speed of passed and passing vehicles (km/hr or mph)
ime passing vehicle occupies the left lane (sec)
‘The “average” acceleration results when a linear (constant) rel
acceleration and velocity is assumed. See Eq. (2).
‘The design lengths for passing sight distances for various speeds and the
corresponding individual values of d,, d;, ds, and dj are shown in Exhibit 3-6
(p. 123) and Exhibit 3-7 (p. 124) in the Green Book.
‘Stopping sight distances are usually sufficient to allow drivers to safely avoid
objects in the roadway. However, there ate many “busy” locations where longer
sight distances may be desirable. In such cases, decision sight distance require-
ments should be considered to provide the greater sight distances that drivers need,
Examples of critical locations where decision sight distance considerations apply
are
ship between
1. Interchanges, particularly where a “left” exit is located
2. Unusual/complex intersection
3. Changes in cross section, such as those at toll plazas and lane drops
4. Locations where significant “visual noise,” such as commercial signs, com-
petes for the driver's attention
5. Locations where unusual or expected maneuvers are required
Exhibit 3-3 (p. 116) in the Green Book contains suggested decision sight distances
for various conditions. Because decision sight distance give drivers sufficient
length to maneuver their vehicles, process additional information, and adjust their
speed, its values are substantially greater than stopping sight distance.
Sight distances can be determined in the design phase by measuring both
passing and stopping sight distances on roadway plan and profile sheets. Exhibit
3-8 (p. 129) in the Green Book illustrates this procedure for scaling and recording
sight distances on plans.
Sight distance depends on the driver's eye height, the height of the object on
the road, and the height of obstructions along the roadside. The 2001 Green Book image
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‘Transportation Engineering
Metio
a 1
\ | — speed reduction
a 7
1
7 —
ze
&
ts {=
s, i [—~
rn C1
PSY
2
1
100” aw” ao” «ao ” 900” 00” 700” 000
Lorath trae i)
US. cusamay
8
| \ [| Speed reduction
SH
A \ SNS
a
is
Uparade (7)
00 1000.0 20000
Length of grade (ft
3000.0
Figure 6 Crticallengtns of grade for dasign, assumed typical heavy tuck of
¥20 kakW (200 Ib/hp), enterng speed = 110 km/hr (70 mpm)
[Source: AASHTO (2001)
is less than the length of the curve. The equations for determining minimum lengths
for various types of vertical curves are
Minimum length of crest vertical curves with S < L:
L=(AS'V658 [for stopping sight distance (m)]
L=(AS*Y2158 {for stopping sight distance (ft)]
L = (AS°V/864 [for passing sight distance (m)]
L=(AS*¥2800 [for passing sight distance (ft)]
(23a)
(23b)
(24a)
(24b) image
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Example 5
‘The following travel times were observed for four vehicles traversing a 1.6 km
segment of highway.
Vehicle Time (min)
1 16
2 12
3 1s
4 WW
‘The space and time mean speeds of these vehicles are approximately’
(a) 4, = 63.8 mph, 1, = 60.5 mph
(>) 4, = 64.2 mph, jt, = 65.4 mph
(©), =63.8 mph, 1, = 69.2 mph
(@) 4, = 65.4 mph, 4, = 62.4 mph
©) 4, =61.6 mph, 4, = 65.4 mph
Solution
From Eq. (32), the space mean speed is , = (ndYE1,
1.7) = 1.07 km/min = 64.2 km/hr.
FromEq.(31), the time mean speed is yt, = D(d/t,Yn
(1.6/1.5)] + (1.6/1.7)V/4 = 1.09 kmn/min = 65.4 kn/hr,
‘The correct answer is (b).
1.616 +124 15+
1.6/1.6) +(1.6/1.2) +
‘The third measure of traffic steam conditions, density (sometimes referred to
‘as concentration), is the number of vehicles traveling over a unit length of highway
at a given time. Density is generally expressed in vehicles per km (vehicles per
mile) or vehicles per km per lane (vehicles per mile per lane).
‘The general equation relating flow, density, and speed is
G4)
where
rate of flow (veh/hr)
pace mean speed (knv/fhr or mph)
density (veh/km or veh/mi)
‘These three parameters (flow, speed and density) are macroscopic measures
in that they apply to the traffic stream as a whole. Spacing and headway, on the
other hand, are microscopic measures because they apply to individual vehicles
within the traffic stream. Spacing (or space headway) is the distance between
vehicles in a traffic stream, and headway (or time headway) is the time between
successive vehicles as they pass a reference point along the roadway. Some
important relationships between these macroscopic and microscopic parameters
are shown below:
4, =4d (8)
d=(Uk) (36) image
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where
P(A) = probability event A will occur
ing = number of ways A ean occur
'N = total number of possible outcomes
For example, the probability of being dealt an ace from a newly shuffled deck of
52 cards is 4 (number of aces in the deck) divided by 52 (total number of possible
outcomes), or 0.08.
In situations involving the probability of the occurrence of multiple events,
the following rules apply.
Rule I. Addition rule for mutually exclusive events (A or B can occur, but not
simultaneously):
P(A or B)= P(A)+ P(B) (49)
Rule 2. Multiplication rule for independent events (two events could both
‘occur, but the occurrence of one does not influence the occurrence of the
other):
P(A and B) = P(A)P(B) (50)
Rule 3. General addition rule (A or B can occur, but outcomes are not neces~
sarily mutually exclusive):
P(A of B) = P(A)+ P(B)— P(A and B) @n
Rule 4. General multiplication rule (probability of two events occurring when
they are not independent, i., the probability of one event occurring differs
depending on whether the other has occurred):
P(A and By = P(A)P(BIA) (2)
where P(BIA) is read as “the probability of B given the occurence of A.”
‘The basic rules of probability outlined above assume that the distribution of
the values of the variables in question is known. Usually, this is not the case, and
a procedure for computing probabilities when dealing with unknown populations
is needed. That is, it would be very useful to be able to write mathematical
equations, graphs, or tables to describe the population in question. A number of
theoretical distributions are often used to describe the possible values of a variable
and the probability that each value will occur. The theoretical distributions most
commonly used in transportation engineering are (1) the Normal distributio
(2) the Poisson distribution, (3) the Exponential distribution, and (4) the
square distribution, [The chi-square distribution is commonly used in statistical
tests (goodness-of-fit tests) rather than in traffic models directly. The Exponential
distribution is used primarily in microscopic traffic flow models. Therefore, the
discussion in the section is limited to the Normal and Poisson distributions. ]
The Normal Distribution
The theoretical distribution most frequently used by engineers and scientists in the
Normal distribution, Many variables such as heights, test scores, and linear dimen-
sions in general conform to a Normal (or approximately normal) distribution. Many
non-Normal distributions can be transformed to induce normality (for example, by image
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null hypothesis. The test is performed on the null hypothesis. When we reject the
null hypothesis, we accept the alternative hypothesis as being true. In making this
decision, we incur two possible types of error: (1) Type | error (concluding the
hypothesis is false when it is really true), and (2) Type II error (concluding the
hypothesis is true when it is really false). These errors are commenly referred to
‘as rand 8, respectively (Daniel, 1978). The basic steps in hypothesis testing are
outlined below.
Step |: State the statistical hypotheses. If the parameters of interest are the
means of two populations, the following hypotheses could be considered:
Hgith= Hy ht, # Hy
Hyd, Soy Hy:Hy> Hy
Hy:Hy2 Hy yy SH,
The first case is an example of a “two-sided” or “two-tailed” hypothesis. In this
case, we are asking, “Can we conclude that the two populations have different
means?” If the issue is which population has the larger mean, then the second or
third pair of statements would be appropriate. These represents “one-sided” or
“one-tailed” hypotheses. In hypothesis testing, the alternative hypothesis is the
statement of what we expect to be able to conclude. If the question is whether
population 1 has a larger mean than population 2, then Hy: fly S pl would be
tested. If this Hp can be rejected, we accept Hy: Jt > Hs as true.
Siep 2: Calculate the test statistics. To test the hypothesis, the analyst selects
an appropriate test statistics and specifies its distribution when Ho is true; that is,
the test procedure is based on the underlying distribution of the statistics used to
estimate the parameters in question. For example, testing the significance of the
difference between means from two independent samples may be based on the t
statistic,
%,)/[s2m,+0n.))" @
where %, X, and n, 1, refer to the means and sample sizes of the two groups, and
5; is obtained by pooling the two sample variances 5? and s3;
= [0m - D3 +n, ~ Doi] Mn, +0, -2) (70)
Siep 3: State the “decision rule.” (The decision rule is usually formulated even
prior to stating the statistical hypotheses. Its location in the sequence of steps
presented here is largely illustrative.) The issue here is to determine whether the
magnitude of the test statistic computed from sample data in step 2 is sufficiently
extreme (either too large or too small) to justify rejecting #,. Two basic approaches
are commonly used to formulate the decision rule. In the first, the analyst rejects
Hy if the probability of obtaining a value of the test statistic of a given or more
extreme value is equal to or less than some small number or (referred to as the
level of significance). Commonly used values for @ are 0.10, 0.05, or 0.01. The
second approach involves stating the decision rule in terms of critical values of
the test statistic. Because critical values are a function of the level of significance,
the two approaches are equivalent. Tabulated values for cr and the corresponding,
critical values for commonly used probability distribution can be found in many
statistics textbooks.
Step 4: Apply the decision rule. Ifthe probability of obtaining the computed
or a larger value of the test statistic is Sa, reject Hp and conclude that H, is true. image
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‘Transportation Enginaerng
“Jinks,” are computed as follows:
R,=(A x 10°WV, (82)
Ry =(A x 108M (83)
intersection accident rate (accidents per million vehicles entering the
intersection annually)
A= annual number of accidents
annual traffic entering the intersection
roadway section accident rate (accidents per million vek-km or veb-mi
of travel)
MT = annual veh-km or veh-mi of travel = ADT x 365 dayvyear x section
length in km or mi
Other accident measures include the severity index (Sf) and equivalent prop-
erty damage only (EPDO).
SI = number of fatalities/total number of accidents (64)
EPDO = PDO + (INJ x w) + (FAT Zs, (Where s,= the pooled standard deviation of the two samples), image
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Step 9: Capacity analysis. The adequacy of the existing street system to
accommodate the traffic volumes estimated in step 8 is assessed using standard
capacity analysis techniques. The results of the capacity analysis provide the basis
for determining any on- andior off-site improvements that might be needed to
accommodate the projected total traffic volumes. These might include adding lanes
to existing roadways, adding turn lanes at key intersections and/or at site access
points, installing signals and/or other traffic control devices at key intersections,
and redesigning traffic signal phasing and timing plans.
‘The reader is referred to Travel Estimation Techniques for Urban Planning
(TRB, 1998) for additional information conceming simplified traffic impact
analyses.
(exampe7 |
‘The staff of a local traffic engineering department has estimated that large shopping
centers generate an average of 49.64 vehicle trips per day per 1000 sq. ft. of retail
floor area. This estimate is based on a sample of 146 shopping center sites. The
sample standard deviation is +22.26 trips. The likelihood that a particular shopping
center will generate more than 86 trips per 1000 sq. ft is most nearly
| Solution
From Eq, (66) the 95% confidence interval is
CL = x4 2{sNn) =49.64:41.96(22.2641148) = 49.64.4361
Therefore, there is a 95% chance that the true mean trip rate for such shopping
centers is between 46.0 and 53.3 tips.
Equation (66) can be used to assess the likelihood that a shopping center will
generate more traffic than 86 trips per 1000 sq. ft (note that this is a “one-tail”
situation).
E+Zs = 49.64 +1.7(22.26) = 86.0
63.
In this case it can be concluded that there is only a 1 in 20 chance that a shopping
center will generate more than about 86 trips per 1000 sq. ft. The correct answer
is (b).
HIGHWAY ROUTE SURVEYING
Highway surveys involve measuring and computing horizontal and vertical angles,
elevations, and horizontal distances. The results of these surveys are used to
prepare detailed plan and profile base maps of proposed roadways. In addition,
the elevations determined in the survey serve as the basis for calculation of image
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‘Transportation Engineering
Concentric Circular Curves
‘The location and full lengths of inner and outer concentric circular ares relative
to the roadway centerline are often required for reference during roadway con-
struction. These indicate the locations of property lines, curb lines, and/or grading
reference points.
Referring to Fig. 10 for the appropriate notation, Hickerson (1964) provides
the following basic relationships concerning outer an:
L=RA
L=RA
or
L,=L+wa
or
L,=L+a
L=RA
or
Lj=L-wA
on
L,=L—a (Note that L, +L,=2L, and L, - L;= 2a)
where
otal central angle
L, R= length and radius of the centerline curve
L,, R, = corresponding elements of outside curve
L,, R, = corresponding elements of inside curve
C= arc (or chord) subtended by @
Co, C= outside and inside arcs subtended by @
radial distance from center to outer or inner curve
.017453 WA (A
er concentric curves:
(98)
99)
(100)
(101)
(102)
(103)
(104)
Figure 10 Concentric circular curves image
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‘Transportation Engineering
3G,
Ss
Figure 14 Sope staking notation
where
d = horizontal distance from G, to the slope stake
b = width of roadbed
= slope ratio = ratio of horizontal to vertical (+ for cut, ~ for fill)
C = vertical distance from G, to the existing grade
‘The procedure for determining slope stake locations in the field is a matter
Of trial and error based on known values of $ and C at the center of the roadbed.
‘The basic procedure is (Ives and Kissam, 1952)
1, Establish HI (by means of differential leveling from the nearest benchmark).
2. Compute the grade rod, R, = HI - finished (profile) grade.
3. Record the cut or fill at the centerline of the roadbed (R, ~ R,)-
4. Locate the rod at the estimated offset for the slope stake. The estimated offset
from the centerline is computed as if the ground were level [offset = (b/2) +
Sx centerline cut or fill].
5. Take a rod reading at the estimated distance and find the actual cut or fill (R, —
R). If the actual and estimated values differ by more than about 30 mm
(0.10 ft) have the rod held at a greater or lesser offset than for level ground
using the following general rule as a guide: On uphill cuts or downhill fills,
move the rod away from the centerline; on uphill fills and downhill cuts, move
the rod toward the centerline, Repeat the process until d = (b/2) + SC.
6. Set and label the slope stakes. The stakes should be marked with the station
number, the offset from the centerline, the cut or fill, and the slope ratio.
Earthwork
‘One of the major objectives in evaluating alternative route locations is to minimize
the amount of cut and fill. To determine the amount of earthwork required for a
given alignment, cross sections (such as those developed using the slope staking image
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‘Table 2 AASHTO design guidetnes for local roads (Continued)
Design Elements Local Rural Roads Local Urban Roads
Width 23m (10 Mtns; 3.3 m (1) design; 3.5 m (12 9
industrial areas With parking: 2.2-m (7) resident
29 m(O A industrial commercial
Median a 212m 40 A) lefttumradios
(Curbs la 100-150 mm (4-6 in) high
Drainsge na 20.20% grade
Cul-de-sacs a 10m (0 frais residential, 15 m (0 f) commercial
Ex 5-8 p. 399
Alleys a 5-6 m (16-20 8) wide, Ex.5-9, p. 401
Sidewalks la 1.2.m (49 residential, 24m (8 8) commercial
Drivevays la 1.0m G f) return rains
Structures,
New Ex.5-6,.3 Ex 5-6, p. 390
In place Ex. 57, . 399 Ex. 57. p. 390
Verical clearance 43m(4f) 43m(4f)
Rightof-way Variable Sufficient to accommodate ultimate planned roadway
Foreslopes ‘max. we
Horizontal clearance 28m (7-108) 205 mish)
Intersections
‘Angle 60-50" 60-90"
Sight disiance Ch. 9, pp. 653-681 (various cases). Cupter9, pp. 635-681 (varouscases)
Curb radius Based on design vehicles 7.5 m 25 f0 (residential, 10 m 30 f0 (commercial)
RR crossings MUTCD & Chap.9 MUTCD & Chap 9
Trafic contol MUTCD MUTCD
Sweet lighting a Ex. 5-11, p. 406
Comments
‘See “Highway System Characteristics and Design Controls” for details in tis chapter concerning functional classification, sight
distances, and horizoatal and vertical alignment design controls
‘See Table 7in this section for gaidelines for at-grade intersections
"Manual on Uniform Trafic Contre Devices.
Collector Roads
Table 3 AASHTO design guideines for colector 1oads
Design Elements Rural Collectors Urban Collectors
Tialfic volumes 20-year design volume 10-20-year design volume
Design speed 70-80 kmh: (45-50 mph) __>50 kar (30 mph)
Ex. 61, p. 426
Sight istance
Stopping Fx 6.2 p26 Ex, 6-2,p, 426
Passing Ex. 63, p.427 Ex.63,p.427
Grades Ex, 64, p. 427 Ex. 6-8,p. 436
Crown High-type pavements: 1.5-2% | 1.5-3.0%
Low-type pavement: 36%
‘Saperelevation 50.12; O.8if snow/ice present <0.06
Number of lanes
Width
2
Ex. 6-5, p. 429
2+ shoulders (use capacity analysi)
Residential 30-3.6 m (10-12 ft)
Industrial 3.6 m (1211)
Parking 2.1-33 m (7-11
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‘Table 7 AASHTO design guideines for at-grade intersections (Continued)
Design Elements __At-Grade Intersections
Driveways ‘Should not be within functional boundary of intersection
Railroad crossings TWwo-crossing event cases. See Ex. 9-103 to -105, pp. 738-742 for required sight distances.
‘Traffic control MUTCD* and capacity analysis. See “Highway System Characteristics and Design Control” inthis chapier.
* MUTCD, Manual on Unifoom Trafic Control Devices.
Grade Separations and Interchanges
Table 8 AASHTO design gudelnes for grade separations and interchanges
Design Elements Grade Separations
‘Types Ex. 10-310 1045, pp. 760-762
Warrants See p. 763-764
Lateral clearance Four-lane roadways: 3.0m (10 ft) median. Six or more
lanes: 66 m (22 f) (3.0 m shoulders + median barrier)
Verical clearance 44m (145 f) min
Horizonial distance required _6,0-8.4 m (20-28 f) difference inelevation. Horizontal
for grade separation distance between readways varies with design speed, gradi
cent, and rise and fall required. See Ex. 10-8, pp. 772-173
Interchanges
‘Tyres Seven basic types. See Ex. 10-1, p. 748 Most commoa
type is the Diamond interchange. (See Ex. 10-16 0 -18,
P-783-784, for examples.)
‘Warrants Six basie warrants (design designation, congestion relief,
elimination of hazard, topography, user bereits, trafic
volume). See pp. 149-750.
Spacing Urban areas: 1.5 km (1 mi). Rural areas: 3 km (2 mi)
Ramps
Design speed '220_knvhr (15 mph). See Ex. 10-56, p. 830
Grades 3-86. See pp. 832-833
Superelevation See pp. 834-836
Cross slopes 15-20%
Pavement width 3.0-13.6m (12-45 N), See Ex, 10-67, p. 843,
Lateral clearance See pp. 842-844 for eight design values,
Spacing 120-600 m (400-2000 ft) See Ex. 10-68, p. 848,
Design See Exhibits pp. 849-865 for typical ramp desigrs.
Comments
Roadside Design
‘The design of safe andeefficient roadways must consider the elements of alignment,
grade, traveled way, and the roadside environment. Because accidents involving
single vehicles running off the road constitute more than 50% of all fatal accidents,
the design of the roadside environment is an essential element in the total engi-
neering of the roadway. The guiding philosophy behind roadside design is the
provision of a traversable roadside recovery area or clear zone, which should be
free of obstacles such as unyielding signs and supports, drainage structurcs, utility
poles, and steep slopes. Studies have indicated that on high-speed highways, a image
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‘Table 11b_LOS orteria for basic freeway segmerts, metric unis (Continued)
Los
Criterion A Bc »p_i«E
‘Maximum ve 033 051 «74 = 0911.00
Maximum service flow rate (pefhrn) ——770—=—1210—1740.—2135. 2350
a
‘Maximum density (pe/kmitn) 7 no 16 B
‘Minium speed (kmh) 100.0 100.0 100.0 B21
Maximum ve 030 048 = 070 1.00
Maximum service flow rate (pohe/is) 70011001600 2300
ts EO
Maximum density (pefknvin) 7 no 6 2 OR
‘Minimum speed (kmh) 90.0 900 90.08.1804
Maximum ve 028044 «= 064087 1.00
Maximum service low rate (pchefir) 3099014401955 2250
‘Note: The exact mathematical relationship between density and we has not always been
‘maintained at LOS boundaries because ofthe use of rounded values. Density is the pri=
mary determinant of LOS. The speed criterion isthe speed at maximum
density fora given LOS.
Source: "TRB (2000).
ratio for each LOS is shown (these values were determined from speed-flow and