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STUDY COMPANION in agricultural engineering

Segun R. Bello
B. Eng (Hons), FUT, Akure, MSc, Ibadan,
MNSE, MNIAE, FSINRHD, R. Engr . (COREN)

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Study companion
Questions and answers in agricultural engineering

Copyright © 2013 by: Segun R. Bello

Federal College of Agriculture Ishiagu, 480001 Nigeria
segemi2002@gmail.com; bellraph95@yahoo.com
http://www.dominionpublishingstores.yolasite.com
http://www.segzybrap.web.com
+234 8068576763, +234 8062432694

All rights reserved

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any
form or by any means, electronics, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the copyright holder.

ISBN-13: 978-149-282-574-6
ISBN 149-282-574-3

First published September 2013

Printed by Createspace US

Printed by Createspace US
7290 Investment Drive
Suite B North Charleston,
SC 29418 USA, www.createspace.com

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Some quietly revealed in the manner of the meek, some shout the way
they feel, some simply express it, others hears a call while some rely not
on words …but one thing I know, everybody’s got the power to pass it
across, make it known and happen the way of the ones that share their
confidence and make people special and better…

That ONE is you, Moji my love

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Dedication

To the glory of God Almighty

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Acknowledgements

I sincerely thank all present and past students of the department of agricultural and Bio-
environmental engineering technology and all who had come in contact with relevant works
of the author in various fields and practice. Your comments, feed-backs and requests gave rise
to this book; Study companion: 201 questions & answers in agricultural engineering.

The contributions of my colleague, Engr. Ezebuilo C. N. in the course of preparing this work
are immeasurable and I appreciate it. My special thanks go to my dear friend and wife, who
had always back-up the realization of God’s plan for me. She is truly virtuous and a help meet
indeed. I am grateful for her understanding and tolerance in taking full responsibility of
running our home during the entire preparation and review of the manuscript.

Despite all the help received from many people, it seems inevitable that there will be some
inaccuracies or errors in the text. For these the author accepts responsibility and apologizes in
advance for any incorrect statements or impressions given. Should errors be noticed, the
author would welcome factual corrections. He would also be happy to receive comments,
observations and additional information on any topic, section or statements in any part of the
book. This would be particularly useful should any updated or translated edition be planned.
Correspondence may be addressed to the author.

I am equally grateful to my lovely children, Ayomikun, Pelumi Damilola and Adeola, who
are epitome of love and care. I am encouraged and strengthened by their prayers, may God
bless them.

Jesus is Lord.

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Content
Preface ........................................................................................................................................... xiii
PART 1 STRUCTURED-RESPONSE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS................................... xv
CHAPTER 1 Agricultural Engineering & Society............................................. 2
1.1 Agricultural Engineering and Society ................................................................................. 2
1.2 Agricultural mechanization ................................................................................................. 7
CHAPTER 2 Management & Economics of Machine Use ............................ 17
2.1 Management of engineering utilities ................................................................................ 17
2.2 Farm records management .............................................................................................. 18
2.3 Economics of machine use............................................................................................... 19
2.4 Maintenance and repairs .................................................................................................. 38
CHAPTER 3 Farm Power & Machinery Development ................................ 43
3.1 Farm power ........................................................................................................................ 43
3.2 Agricultural tractor systems and operation ...................................................................... 45
3.3 Fundamentals of internal combustion engine ................................................................. 49
3.4 Power transmission system .............................................................................................. 76
3.5 Tractor auxiliary systems .................................................................................................. 80
3.6 The differential and final drive .......................................................................................... 86
3.7 Tractor tyres....................................................................................................................... 87
3.8 Farm machinery development .......................................................................................... 99
CHAPTER 4 Agricultural Field operations .................................................. 101
4.1 Agricultural field operations ............................................................................................ 101
4.2 Land clearing and development ..................................................................................... 102
4.3 Land surveying ................................................................................................................ 108
4.4 Farmstead development ................................................................................................. 110
4.5 Agricultural soils & and dynamics .................................................................................. 114
4.6 Tillage operation .............................................................................................................. 115
4.7 Machinery field performance .......................................................................................... 143
CHAPTER 5 Crop planting & establishment ........................................... 150
5.1 Crop planting methods & equipment ............................................................................. 150
5.2 Thinning operation........................................................................................................... 172
5.3 Crop establishment ......................................................................................................... 178
CHAPTER 6 Farm Structures and Environmental Control ...................... 186
6.1 Farm storage structures.................................................................................................. 186
6.2 Agricultural wastes management ................................................................................... 188
CHAPTER 7 Soil & Water Resources Management ............................... 192
7.1 Soil and water resources ................................................................................................ 192
7.2 Soil erosion & control ...................................................................................................... 204
7.3 Irrigation & drainage ........................................................................................................ 205

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CHAPTER 8 Handling of Agricultural Materials & Processing .................... 215

8.1 Agricultural material handling ......................................................................................... 215
8.2 Drying & moisture movement in agricultural materials ................................................. 225
8.3 Agricultural material drying processes ........................................................................... 229
8.4 Crop handling and storage ............................................................................................. 233
8.5 Crop harvest and handling ............................................................................................. 237
CHAPTER 9 Animal Housing Requirement................................................. 240
9.1 Animal thermal environment........................................................................................... 240
9.2 Animal housing requirement and design ....................................................................... 241
PART 2 MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS & ANSWERS ........................................... 250
CHAPTER 10 Alternative to multiple-choice questions............................ 251
Answers to alternative multiple-choice question......................................................................... 253
CHAPTER 11 Multiple-choice questions ................................................... 255
11.1 Agricultural mechanization ............................................................................................. 255
11.2 Agricultural tractor systems and maintenance .............................................................. 257
11.3 Land surveying and measurement................................................................................. 260
11.4 Soil and water conservation ........................................................................................... 261
11.5 Crop harvest and storage ............................................................................................... 262
Answers to multiple-choice questions ......................................................................................... 265
Bibliography................................................................................................................................... 267
Appendix ........................................................................................................................................ 270

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Preface

This book was designed as study companion to help students in secondary and tertiary
institutions offering courses in relevant fields of agricultural engineering profession. It helps
provide a guide for students preparing for professional and graduate examinations.

This study companion is packaged in two parts:

Part 1 presents typical professional examination questions in agricultural engineering, some

hints on solving specific problems. This part comprises of nine chapters and 201structure-
response questions and answers.

The structured questions covers various courses such as agricultural engineering applications,
an overview of various courses and content relevant to; Introduction to agricultural
engineering: Socials, structures and historical perspectives, farm power sources and units,
farm machinery and development, agricultural mechanization and technology, agri-business
and economics of machine use, natural (soil and water) resources and environment, farm
stead planning and management, agricultural tractor systems and agricultural operations,

Part 2 presents100 multiple choice and alternative questions and answers covering various
segments of the structured questions.

The discussed constructed-response structure questions and multiple-choice questions assess both
basic and professional engineering knowledge and the ability to apply principles to solving
real engineering problem. This content is the appropriate test for any candidate that had
completed a curriculum studies in agriculture and agricultural engineering education and
technology and is prepared to seat for certificate, diploma or bachelor’s degree examination.

Bello, R. S.
480001, Nigeria

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PART 1
STRUCTURED-RESPONSE
QUESTIONS & ANSWERS

This section of the book provides necessary hints to answering

some structured-response questions in agricultural engineering,
as well as answers to some choice examination questions.

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CHAPTER 1

Agricultural Engineering & Society

1.1 Agricultural Engineering and Society

1. Question

a. Who is an agricultural engineer? Enumerate his activities

b. What are the pivotal roles of agricultural engineers in national development?
c. List five areas of agricultural engineering specialization in Nigeria

Solution (a)

Hints: In answering questions of this nature, the examiner may request you to implicitly point out all
attributes (be precise, straight to the point) of and agricultural engineer rather than limiting
your answer to just one expression. However, you can still limit your response to one
expression, but hit the key point(s). Consider this response to the question:

An agricultural engineer is anyone who receives training and applies the knowledge of basic
sciences and engineering principles to the design of systems as engineering solutions to
problems encountered in agricultural production process.

His activities includes

a. The design of agricultural machines, such as tractors,

b. Design and manufacture of machinery such as implements, crop processing machines
etc
c. Design of structural facilities such as animal confinements, storage and handling
facilities,
d. Design if irrigation and drainage systems, and soil conservation measures.
e. Ergonomic evaluation of manufactured machines
f. Design and installation of safety devices in machine and evaluation of related devices
g. Maintenance of agricultural production process plants as well as
h. Testing and performance evaluation of production systems and process

Solution (b)

Hint: Questions requiring you to enumerate implies that you mention the points with supportive
expression where necessary.

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Consider the answer to this question

Agricultural engineering plays a pivotal role in the development of the country through:

a. Provision of food security: This is obtainable when food is abundantly produced above
subsistence level and all other factors of production duly monitored.
b. Reduce drudgery: This is achievable through mechanization of agricultural operations and
production processes
c. Infrastructural development: Enhance integrated development of rural infrastructures such
as electrification, small-scale and cottage industry growth etc
d. Conservation practices: Conservation of natural resources such as soil and water through
erosion control programmes, field irrigation and drainage programme etc.
e. Environmental management Improvement in environmental management through impact
assessment programmes, sewage disposal system integration etc
f. Industrial development: It also enhance industrial development through increased raw
material supplies
g. Improvement in production process: Improvement in subsistence agriculture through
agricultural development programmes

Solution (c)

Hint: Such questions as this requires you to mention the various components of agricultural
engineering practice in Nigeria without explanation. Consider the following response to this
question

The following areas of agricultural engineering specialization has been identified in Nigeria
today

1. Farm power and machinery engineering

2. Soil and water conservation engineering
3. Irrigation and drainage engineering
4. Post harvest (Bio-resources) engineering
5. Wood products engineering
6. Farm structures engineering
7. Environmental engineering

2. Question

a. What is the full meaning of the following acronyms?

i. NIAE ii. NSE iii. COREN iv. WASAE
b. List at least two roles of each body in Nigeria in order of hierarchy and function

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Solution (a)

Hint: You are only requested to give the meaning of each acronym. Just give the meaning of each
acronym there is no room for any form of explanation. Also in (b) part, you are required to
just list (at least two roles) in order of their hierarchy. You may lose some marks if the
answers are not in order of arrangement

Consider the following response as appropriate to answering the question

Full meaning of each requested acronyms is:

i. NIAE: Nigerian Institution of Agricultural Engineer

ii. NSE: Nigeria Society of Engineers
iii. COREN: Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria
iv. WASAE: West African Society of Agricultural Engineers

Solution (b)

Hint: A listing of some roles is expected of you and not explanation. Just list the roles in order of
their hierarchy. You bored the examiner for unnecessary explanation of your point and this
may attract some penalty of losing mark(s) if the answers are out of point and not in order of
hierarchy.

Roles of Nigerian Institution of Agricultural Engineers (NIAE)

1. The institution provides a forum for members to interact among themselves.

2. Set ethical standards and standard of professional conducts for members including
benchmarks and best practices.
3. They administer disciplinary actions for members’ misconducts.

Roles of the Nigerian Society of Engineers (NSE)

1. This body provides a wider platform for other professional institutions’ operation
2. Serves as the umbrella association for all engineering disciplines in Nigeria
3. Organizes professional trainings, seminars, workshops for all members of engineering
family
4. Provides a bigger forum where they interact with other engineering professionals.

Roles of the Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN)

1. Regulates the training of members engineering profession

2. Responsible for the formulation of edicts of professional practice.

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3. Conducts certification examinations and admit members of engineering profession into

the Council as professionals

Roles of West African Society of Agricultural Engineers (WASAE)

1. Moderate the activities of agricultural engineering professionals across West-African

sub-region
2. Performs all other functions of NIAE

3. Question

Identify five areas of career opportunities / development in agricultural engineering

Solution

Hint: There are several areas of career development and opportunities offered by agricultural
engineering profession, however, you are requested to list just five. The examiner is quite
aware of the numerous career opportunities and as a result will be comfortable with your
options. Do not over task the examiner by listing more than five. The instruction is specific-
identify five.

Consider the following response as appropriate

Areas of career development and opportunities in agricultural engineering include

a. Educational institutions and regulatory agencies,

b. Research and development institutions,
c. Occupational health and safety organizations such as HSO,
d. International organizations such as AU, FAO, UNIDO, DFID etc,
e. Self employment
f. Industrial sector, agricultural machinery companies etc
g. Banking sector and financial institutions
h. Geophysical/information centers etc
i. Irrigation and drainage system manufacturers;
j. Builders of food and storage facilities manufacturing companies;
k. Farmsteads, and commercial building builders;
l. Government ministries and parastatals; Federal, state, and local governments,
m. Manufacturers of control systems, machinery security systems and measuring devices;
n. Consulting firms;
o. Power utilities operators; and alternate fuel producers among several others career
opportunities

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4. Question

In which areas has an agricultural engineering technology significantly advance

knowledge?

Solutions

Hint: The emphasis in this question is not the same as advancements in agricultural specialization,
rather the achievements of agricultural engineering in various fields of specialization. Consider
the following response as appropriate

Agricultural engineering technologies has made significant advancements in the following

areas among several others

1. Education and training: Advances has been made in the area of curriculum development
to suit the needs of indigenous capacity development
2. Farm implements and machinery: Advances has been made in developing self-propelled
and animal-drawn machinery, specialized combines etc
3. Crop planting and establishment: Advances in the development of seeders such as multi-
row pre-germinated rice-seeder, walking-type sprayers etc.
4. Development of stationary machines: Development of stationary machinery with high-
capacity such as threshers, pedal-operated machines such as potato-slicer, cassava lifter,
grain cleaners etc..
5. Ergonomic design: Ergonomics studies have also increased in the development of
friendly human-machine interface systems such as pedal operated systems, manually-
operated hanging-type equipments etc. and the evaluation of the commercially
available machines
6. Post-harvest engineering and technology: Agricultural engineering technologies has made
significant advancements in this area through improved storage systems for traditional
crops, improved processes for natural products etc
7. Electronics and mechatronics systems: The evolution of electronics and mechatronics
systems has grossly reduced human involvements in agricultural production process
with increased productivity such as automated electronic sorting and grading
machines.

5. Question

Enumerate the role of agricultural engineering profession in national development

Solution

Agricultural engineering plays a pivotal role in the development of the country by helping to
solve the following problems:

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1. Increased food security: Food security is obtainable when food is abundantly produced
above subsistence level keeping all other factors of production under monitoring.
2. Reduction of agricultural stress & drudgery: Engineering input to agricultural has reduced
drudgery considerably in agricultural operations.
3. Development of rural infrastructure through farmsteads development and socials
4. Conservation of natural resources: Agricultural engineers have contributed to the
conservation of principal natural resources such as soil, agroforest and water etc.
5. Sustainable environmental management: Agricultural engineers presents a more holistic
measure of mitigating environmental degradation, forestalling over-bearing burdens of
global warming and consequential impacts on humanity.
6. Promotes industrial development: Agricultural engineers provides basis for massive raw
material supply for industrial development through increased food production and
enhanced food quality upgrade
7. Sustains agricultural production: Agricultural engineers employ sustainable agriculture
approaches that address farmers’ marginal interests of reduced stress and comfort,
reduced soil degradation and provision of adequate and dependable farm income to
reduce poverty and associated problems.

1.2 Agricultural mechanization

6. Question

a. What is mechanization and its involvement

b. What are the potential benefits of mechanization
c. List 5 ways in which increased returns are achieved?

Hint: Question (a) is in two parts. The word ‘what’ simply requires you to define the word
mechanization while the other part expects you to list the involvement of mechanization.

Consider the following responses as appropriate

Solution (a)

Mechanization can be simply defined as

a. An increase in production per worker per hectare of farmland cultivated or

b. An increase in farm benefits at lower costs per hectare of land cultivated.

Involvements of mechanization in agricultural operations:

1. Selection of agricultural operations,

2. Utilization of equipment and machinery,
3. Operation of such machinery and

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4. Maintenance of mechanical devices and systems in agricultural operations and

production

Solution (b)

The potential benefits of mechanization are;

a) Reduced drudgery,
b) Reduced costs and
c) Increased returns

Solution (c)

Increased returns are achieved in the following ways:

a. Increase in crop yield per hectare

b. Improvement in crop quality
c. Increase in production by the extension of cultivated area
d. Possibility of raising new crops and livestock which were initially not possible
e. High commodity price control
f. Providing off- farm employment

7. Question

a. In your view, does agricultural mechanization displace labour from the agricultural
sector? justify your response
b. What are the constraints of agricultural mechanization in your country

Solution (a)

Agricultural mechanization in the real sense of it has not displace labour from the
agricultural sector, rather it has create more labour for productive activities in agriculture
and other sectors of economy directly linked with agricultural products. For instance, the
justifications on the role played by agricultural mechanization in national development
clearly indicate that more labour in required to meet up the demands of the expected
expansion.

Solution (b)

Constraints/problems of mechanization in Nigeria

The following problems have been identified as hindrances to agricultural mechanization in

Nigeria.

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1. Huge cost of equipment.

2. Unstable government policies on mechanization and poor implementation.
3. Inadequate skilled labour and man power development.
4. Poor infrastructural development.
5. Poor price control (common commodity price).
6. Poor and inadequate credit facilities to farmers and investors
7. The neglect of agricultural mechanization by policy makers who intend to see every
problem from the economist’s point of view
8. Inadequate, scanty and uncoordinated data availability due to poor attention to research
findings.

This trend is being reversed by the recent advances of the federal government of Nigeria in
the agricultural revolution currently taking place in Nigeria and Africa in general.

8. Question

a. List the four broad levels of agricultural mechanization technology

b. Explain the features of each levels listed in (a)
c. Which of the technologies predominate in West Africa sub-region?

Solutions (a)

The four broad levels of agricultural mechanization are

1. Hand-tool technology (HTT)

2. Draft-animal technology (DAT)
3. Mechanical-power or engine-power technology (EPT)
4. Renewable energy technologies (RET)

Solutions (b)

Features of each

1. Hand-tool technology (HTT): This is the most basic level of agricultural mechanization,
where a human being is the power source, using simple tools and implements such as
hoes, machetes, sickles, wooden diggers, etc.
2. Draft-animal technology (DAT) : This technology developed more power than the HTT,
more readily available and reliable in most stringent conditions. They develop more power
than human power for agricultural operations. Because of their availability for use, they
are often referred to as the beast of burden.
3. Mechanical-power or engine-power technology (EPT) : These are traction machines designed
primarily to supply power to agricultural implements and farmstead equipment. An
agricultural tractor propels itself and provides a force in the direction of travel to enable

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attached soil engaging and other agricultural implements to perform their intended
function according to standard
4. Renewable energy technologies (RET): This technology level is considered clean, pollution
free, re-useable and inexhaustible. Concerns about the greenhouse effect and global
warming, air pollution, and energy security have led to increasing interest and more
development in renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, geothermal, wave power
and nuclear energy.

Solution (c)

HT, DA and EP technologies are used in the mechanization of agriculture in most countries of
Africa and the other Less Developed Countries (LDCs) of the tropical world. But HTT
predominates in West Africa sub-region, especially in for production field operations such as
land preparation.

9. Question
a. List some basic tools related to each of the four broad levels of agricultural
mechanization technology
b. List some basic sources of power in each of the technological

Solution (a)

Basic tools used in each level of farm mechanization include

a. Level 1: Hand tool technology (HTT): Machete (cutlass), hoes, axe, digger, sickle, knife etc.
Load carrying aids for head include baskets, basins, head pan, sacks, wheel barrows etc.
other locally made hand push equipment are also available and include hand push
weeders, hand wheel hoes, jab planters, etc.
b. Level 2: Animal draught/draft technology (ADT): Animal drawn equipment like ploughs,
harrows, planters, weeders and harvesters.
c. Level 3: Mechanical power technology (MPT): Land clearing equipment, tillage implements
(plough, harrow, ridgers, etc), planting equipment, and processing equipment etc.
d. Level 4: Renewable energy technologies (RET): Dead plants, heat, light, wind, generators,
electric motor, fuel cells (batteries)

Solution (b)

Basic sources of power employed in each level of farm mechanization include

a. Level 1: Hand tool technology (HTT): Human being

b. Level 2: Animal draught/draft technology (ADT): The main traction/draft animals include
cattle, camels, buffaloes, horses, donkeys and mules.

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c. Level 3: Mechanical power technology (MPT): Agricultural tractors, stationary engines,

hydrocarbon fuels, solid fuel etc
d. Level 4: Renewable energy technologies (RET): Forestry residues, hydropower (hydel) energy,
solar energy, wind energy, nuclear energy - fission and fusion

10. Question

What are the comparative advantages and disadvantages of each level of agricultural
mechanization technologies?

Solution

Advantages of hand-tool technology (HTT)

a. They are readily available and cheap

b. They are involved in decision making process and therefore reduce the cost of
management consultancy
c. Requires no complexity in performing an operation

Disadvantages

a. Limited area coverage

b. Labour shortages during the period of land preparation at the beginning of the rainy
season
c. Power limitation (human work output is limited)

Advantages of draft-animal technology (DAT)

a. Cheap to maintain,
b. They develop more power than human power for agricultural operations.
c. They are cheap to maintain, they have multi-purpose uses, and have self-replacement
value.
d. Because of their availability for use in most stringent conditions

Disadvantages

a. Animal requires continual attention either working or not.

b. They have limited daily working hours, slow, they have high person-to-power ratio.
c. They are naturally slow and are limited to smaller units,
d. They are too temperamental and very difficult to control

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e. Lack of appropriate implements, limited capital and credit, insufficient animals, animal
health problems, inadequate animal nutrition (quantity and/or quality), uncleared fields,
farmer traditions,
f. Lack of technical knowledge in harnessing systems,
g. Poor infrastructure and limited marketing possibilities.
h. Subject to adverse weather condition. Environmental factors such as temperature and
humidity affects their performance.
i. Disease attack also limits their performance and range of operation in the tropical and rain
forest zones.

Advantages of mechanical-power or engine-power technology (EPT)

a. They have multi-purpose use, operate in harder conditions than animals or humans,
operate in both wet and dry conditions,
b. They are capable of producing continuous power for a long period under favourable
operating conditions
c. They develop more power than human power for agricultural operations.
d. Because of their availability for use in most stringent conditions

Disadvantages

a. They produce exhaust fume that is not environmentally friendly

b. They generate a lot of noise thus constituting pollution menace
c. High operator fatigue, although ride-on versions are now available.
d. The initial cost of acquisition and operating them are very high
e. Requires a lot of maintenance and thus expensive to run

Advantages of renewable energy technology (RET)

a. They are environmentally friendly.

b. Because of their availability for use in most stringent conditions

Disadvantages

a. High technology required to harness it

b. Initial high cost of production and installation

11. Question

a. Define the following terms: Appropriate mechanization, optimum mechanization

and degree of mechanization

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b. Differentiate between levels of mechanization and the degree of mechanization

c. Which is the best form of mechanization and why.

Solution (a)

i. Appropriate mechanization is the practice of applying actual machinery and equipment to

production process such that human involvement is minimal, production cost kept at
minimum and output yield is optimum.
ii. Optimum level of mechanization is the degree of mechanization that produces the most
beneficial production systems in terms of efficiency and economic returns.
iii. Degree of Mechanization (M) is described as the average energy input of work provided
exclusively by different levels of mechanization technology (labour) per hectare.

Solution (b)

Levels of mechanization involves the gradual improvements in the power development for
agricultural operation while

Degree of mechanization (M) describes the average energy input of work provided
exclusively by different levels of mechanization technology (labour) per hectare.

Solution (c)

The best form of mechanization is the appropriate mechanization. This is because of the
minimal capital input but very high return.

12. Question

Briefly explain 5 important factors in ensuring optimum level of mechanization

Solution

The following factors are important in ensuring optimum level of mechanization:

1. Soil- implement and tractor interaction - the duration of production operation is affected by
the soil-implement-tractor interaction. There is travel reduction (slip) as the tractor goes
over the soil during operation. The nature of soil, moisture content affects the travel
reduction considerably. The speed of operation has profound effect on tractor implement
performance. Maximum permissible forward speed is related to such factors as: Nature
of operation, condition of field and amount of power available
2. Crop-implement suitability: Implement chosen must be such as to produce optimum
growth condition for the selected crop. There must be a relationship existing within one
operation and the other.

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3. Appropriate power-implement match: This implies that there is optimum power implement
match for every available power from the power source. Factors affecting this include
nature of soil-soil types, rock out crops i.e. remnants of rock materials after weathering.
4. Selection of operation: Operations to be mechanized are affected by factors such as:
a. Type of crop to be mechanized
b. Availability of some specific machinery for specific operation
c. Weather condition of the area to be mechanized
d. Topography of the field area.
5. Selection of implement size: The following factors should be considered in choosing the size
of machine to buy:
a. Difference in cost between large and small machine
b. Amount of use that will be made of the machine each year
c. The amount and cost of available labour
d. The financial position of the buyer.
6. Decision of ownership of implement: In large hectares of land, it is advisable to buy
equipment but on small hectares of land or smallholdings, it is better to hire, considering
this from the viewpoint of costing. It may be disadvantaged to get machine for hire at the
appropriate time needed. When purchasing consideration is made on those implements
or machinery that will suite the size or power of the available machine.

13. Question

What are the factors responsible for low percentage of the productive land tilled with
motorized traction in the Sub-Saharan Africa?

Solution

Factors affecting mechanization in the tropics include:

a. Vegetation
b. Climate
c. Type of crop and crop varieties
d. Nature (i.e. type, depth and particulate matters) of soil; For instance, soil depth varies with
location. Soil with deep depth supports mechanical tillage
e. Insufficient research facilities.

14. Question

a. List seven objectives of mechanization

b. Enumerate (list) five problems of mechanization
c. What is meant by appropriate mechanization

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Solution (a)

Objectives of mechanization include:

1. Minimization of production costs,

2. Optimization of product quality,
3. Protection of the environment and minimization of farm production flexibility
4. To improve timeliness of agricultural operation and increased efficiency
5. To preserve and improve the quality of agricultural production e.g. the use of combines
6. To achieve better utilization of natural resources and increased raw material supply for
industrial use
7. To provide off- farm employment and increased human labour availability in other
sectors.
8. To enhance and stabilize high commodity price through improved inputs and food supply
9. To increase foreign exchange earnings by exporting more agricultural products and
diversification of economic base

Solution (b)

The following problems hinders agricultural mechanization

1. High cost of acquiring equipment.

2. Unfavourable government policies and implementation.
3. Inadequate skilled labour and man power development.
4. Poor infrastructure development.
5. Poor price control (common commodity price) mechanism and implementation.
6. Poor credit facilities for farm inputs.

Solution (c)

Appropriate mechanization is the practice of applying actual machinery and equipment to

production process such that human involvement is minimal, production cost kept at
minimum and output yield is optimum.

15. Question
a. List the involvements of mechanization and agricultural operations
b. Differentiate between degree of mechanization and mechanization index

Solution (a)

The involvements of mechanization in agricultural operations and production include:

1. The selection of agricultural inputs and systems,

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2. Handling and utilization of the selected inputs and systems,

3. Operation of machines and equipment and
4. Maintenance of mechanical devices and systems involved in agricultural operations and
production

Solution (b)

Degree of mechanization (M) is described as the average energy input of work provided
exclusively by different levels of mechanization technology (labour) per hectare.

Agricultural mechanization index: This is the measure of the assessment and grading of the
different levels of mechanization practiced in a particular area.

16. Question

What is the meaning of tractorization and motorization?

Solution

Tractorization simply means the introduction of tractors (farm power) into a particular
production system. The introduction of tractor vehicles (tractorization) into agriculture has
grossly increased engineering involvement in agriculture and hence the choice of equipment
acquisition, hazards prevention programme and increased maintenance activities.

Motorization: This is the introduction of machines or engine-powered (machinery) into a

particular production system;

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CHAPTER 2

Management & Economics of Machine Use

2.1 Management of engineering utilities

17. Question

a. Differentiate between the terms management and engineering management

b. Equipment failures are traceable to some factors? List the major

Solution (a)

Management: Management is an organized variable (employers, coordinator, proprietors etc.)

that deals with the definition of a goal in terms of services, production, profit, monitoring and
evaluation.

Management engineering: Engineering management refers to the effective utilization of

engineering resources and utilities such as human, materials and money to achieve
organizational objectives.

Solution (b)

Machine and equipment failure are largely traceable to the followings:

1. Design features: Machine design failures do actually happens and equally depreciation due
to usage. This factor has no control.
2. Age: This factor can only be controlled to some extent when the designed service life is
exceeded, depreciation sets in leading to an increase in service and repair costs, frequent
part failure etc.
3. Environmental factor: When machine operates in unpleasant weather and heavy or sticky
soil, there is the tendency of machine breakdown or over-bearing of some components,
thereby increasing the frequency of component breakdown.
4. Poor maintenance practice: This factor is interrelated to human factor problems, but differs
slightly in that knowledge of good maintenance practice will save the machine from
maintenance neglect.
5. Human factor: The single most prevalent factor for machine breakdown and failure is
largely traceable to the Attitude of the stakeholders at all levels toward maintenance.
Negligence of small unpleasant noises and creaking equally leads to major breakdowns.

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2.2 Farm records management

18. Question
a. What is farm record?
b. What are the purposes of keeping farm records
c. What are the derivable benefits from a good record keeping?
d. Outline characteristics of a good farm record

Solution (a)

Farm record is a management tool which allows efficient management of resources to

determine your level of profitability and hence financial success.

Solution (b)

Farm records are kept for the following purposes

1. Helps you define and evaluate business success as measured by income generated
2. To determine business sustenance, family living,
3. To determine extent of future investments and business expansion, and
4. To fulfill other desirable needs.

Solution (c)

Drivable benefits

1. Farm records are essential for planning and decision making.

2. Good farm record enhances income tax management
3. Farm records enable you to determine credit needs and support loan requests.
4. Farm records helps in taking decision on miscellaneous uses such as products pricing
regime deciding whether to hire services or buy equipment etc.

Solution (d)

Characteristics of good record keeping systems

1. A good farm record system should be easy to keep.

2. They should provide essential information on a timely basis.
3. They should contain an appropriate level of detailed records.

19. Question

What are the components of field record for documenting the following operations?

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a. Crop production and

b. Animal production

Solution (a)

Field records for crop production include such items as:

 Field identification or description

 Land or parcel size
 Cropping history
 Crops grown, cultural practices used and yield information
 Current field activities
 Soil test data
 Labour hours by activity.

Solution (b)

Livestock or poultry records also provide useful information which includes:

 Chicken purchases records and dates

 Mortality rates at every stages of production
 Feed records, quantities purchased, and quantities fed
 Production records, eggs per day
 Culled birds record and damaged eggs
 Rodent control activities
 Sale of pullets or hens

2.3 Economics of machine use

20. Question

a. List three ways in which machinery costs enter farm management?

b. List and explain briefly the two components of machinery cost?

Solution (a)

Machinery costs enter farm management in the following three areas:

1. Minimizing costs of production,

2. Selecting the profit-maximizing crop mix, and
3. Considering structural or technological changes, such as farm expansion or contraction, or
alternative tillage systems.

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Solution (b)

The two components of machinery cost

1. Fixed (ownership) costs

2. Variable (operating) costs

Brief explanations

1. Fixed costs, also called ownership costs, do not change as the machine is put into more use.
They include depreciation, interest, insurance and housing. Fixed costs per unit of work
done drop as the hours or acres of use per year increase.
2. Variable (ownership) costs vary directly with the amount of machine use, and timeliness costs.
These costs affect the profitability of the business. The true value of some of these costs is
not known until the machine is sold or worn out. But the costs can be estimated by making
a few assumptions about machine life, annual use, and fuel and labour prices.

21. Question

a. Describe all components of fixed or ownership machinery costs giving relationships

where necessary.
b. What is ownership cost?

Solution (a)

Variable of fixed or ownership costs include:

1. Depreciation

Depreciation is a cost resulting from machine use, wear, obsolescence, and age of a machine.
Age and accumulated hours of use usually are the most important factors in determining the
remaining value of a machine. The degree of mechanical wear may cause the value of a
particular machine to be somewhat above or below the average value for similar machines
when it is traded or sold. Total depreciation is evaluated by the following relations:

= PUR −
Where
= Total depreciation
= Salvage value
PUR = Purchase price

2. Salvage or trade-in value

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This is an estimate of the sale value of the machine at the end of its economic life or at the time
of trade-in. It is the amount the farmer can expect to receive as a trade-in allowance, an
estimate of the used market value if he or she is expected to sell the machine outright, or zero
if the farmer plans to keep the machine until it is worn out.

= CLP x RVF

Where
= Salvage value
CLP = Current list price
RVF = Remaining value factor

3. Remaining value percentage

Remaining value percentage (RVP) is the percent (in decimal form) that a machine’s market
value is of its current list price (both evaluated in the same year). RVP helps determine a
machine’s economic depreciation, which is the amount of market value lost each year due to
age, wear, and obsolescence (not to be confused with tax depreciation).

RVP = RVP1 = dep x dep

ifAGEn1, and 0.85 if AGEn< 1;

Where
RVPn = RVP in year n (1 following RVP distinguishes the ASAE formula from an alternative
presented later),
AGEn = A machine’s age in years in year n.
dep1 and dep2 = Depreciation factors for different machinery classes

Market value

Market value in year n, MVn, is the remaining value percentage of machinery X current list
price:

MVn = CLPnX RVPn

4. Purchase price and selling price

Machinery cost analysis must account for changes in valuation as well as any associated cash
flows. One way to accomplish this is to consider a purchase (PUR) and a selling (SELL) price,
each occurring at market value in the year it occurs. Even if a machine is already owned, this
method accounts for changes in the machine’s value over time. Although a machine is
purchased only once, in analysis, it is helpful in spreadsheet formulas to think of PUR as

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being valued in each year. That is, PUR is valued at market value only in the year it is
purchased (here, 2006), and otherwise it equals 0:

PUR = MV ; if n = , else 0

Similarly, the selling price in year n, SELLn, is

SELL = MV ; if n = , else 0

5. Interest cost

This is the interest on the capital invested in the machine when the operator borrows money
to buy such machine. Interest costs are calculated by adding the new cost plus the trade-in
value of the machine, dividing by two to give an average value over the machine’s life, and
then multiplying by the chosen interest rate.

+
=
2

6. Capital recovery

Capital recovery is the amount of money that would have to be set aside each year just to
repay the value lost due to depreciation and pay interest costs. The joint costs of depreciation
and interest can be calculated by using a capital recovery factor expressed as

= +( )

Where
= Capital recovery
= Total depreciation
= Capital recovery factor
= Salvage value
= Interest rate

7. Income tax, insurance, and housing (TIH)

These three costs usually are much smaller than depreciation and interest, but they need to be
considered. Insurance and housing make up a small part of the ownership costs of a machine.
Insurance should be carried out on farm machinery to allow for replacement in case of a
disaster such as fire.

Insurance costs can be calculated using the same formula as interest costs given above but
substituting the chosen interest rate with the chosen insurance rate.

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Housing costs are estimated by multiplying the housing rate per square foot by the square feet
of housing required.

To simplify calculating TIH costs, they can be lumped together and estimated as 1 percent of
the purchase price where property taxes are not significant (William and Michael, 2005).

= 0.01 ℎ

If the actual data are not known, the following percentages according to ASAE496.2 standard
can be used:

 Taxes 1.00;
 Housing 0.75;
 Insurance 0.25;
 Total 2.00% of purchase price

Solution (b)

Total ownership cost

The total ownership cost is the sum total of the estimated costs of all fixed variables;
depreciation, interest, taxes, insurance, and housing.

Utilizing the relation,

= , , , ,

22. Question

List and state the expressions for the different methods of calculating depreciation

Solution

Methods of calculating depreciation

1. Straight line method

2. Double declining method
3. Sum of the years’ digits method

1. Straight line method

In this method, depreciation factor is determined if the original value of the item is divided by
its service life (total number of years).
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The resulting quotient will be the amount (depreciation factor) by which the item depreciates
each year i.e.

Determine the depreciated market value of the machine at the end of each year as follows:

Annual dep value = − Annual dep factor

2. Double declining method

In this method, the value of the item will decrease by a constant percentage each year. Hence,
the actual amount (depreciation factor) will vary from year to year. To obtain the depreciation
factor, we divide 2 by the life of the item. This factor is multiplied by the value of the item at
the beginning of each year (not the original value of the item) to obtain the annual
depreciation.

2
=

Determine the depreciated market value of the machine at the end of each year as follows:

= −( )

3. Sum of the years’ digits method

In this method, the value of the item will decrease by a percentage that is different each year.
The depreciation factor will be a fraction whose denominator is the sum of the digits 1 to n,
where n represents the service life of the item.

, ,….

= … … … … … … 3.7
1+2 +⋯+
,…

Determine the depreciated market value of the machine at the end of each year as follows:

−1
= −
1+2 +⋯+

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