Environmental Background of Rajasthan 56

2.1 PHYSIOGRAPHY of RAJASTHAN

T he territory which the state covers has developed after years of denudation

and erosion processes and has a very mature topography. The State can be divided

into two major divisions structurally along the Aravalli range which cuts the state

into East Rajasthan and West Rajasthan. These two divisions on the physiographic

basis stretch into two of India’s major physiographic divisions i.e. the Great Plains

and the northern part of the Central Highlands respectively (See Map-2).

On the basis of the existing relief features, Rajasthan has been divided into

the following physiographic divisions:

1. Western Sandy Plains

(a) Sandy Arid Plains

(i) Marusthali

(ii) Dune free Tract

(b) Semi-Arid Transitional Plains (Rajasthan Bagar)

(i) Luni Basin (Godwar Tract)

(ii) Plain of Interior Drainage (Sekhawati Tract)

2. Aravalli Range And Hilly Region

(a) Aravalli Range and Bhorat Plateau

(b) Northeastern Hilly Region

3. Eastern Plains

(a) Banas Basin

(b) Chappan Plains

Environmental Background of Rajasthan 57

MAP - 2
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 58

4. Southeastern Rajasthan Pathar (Hadoti Plateau)

(a) Vindhyan Scarpland

(b) Deccan Lava Plateau

1. WESTERN SANDY PLAINS

The western Plain covers a large part of Rajasthan in the west and the

northwest of the Aravalli axis. Its northern boundary is marked by Punjab and the

southwest by Gujarat and the western boundary is the international boundary

between India and Pakistan. The eastern boundary of the western sandy plain is

marked by the Aravalli range’s western sub-montane zone up to the northern point

of Udaipur district. Beyond which the boundary is marked by the great Indian

watershed and 50 cm isohyte.

The surface of western Rajasthan is covered with vast stretches of sand

occasionally interrupted by rocky protruding right up to the Pakistan border. The

Northwestern division is sandy, poorly watered and sterile. The Rajasthan desert in

the west has been subdivided into several natural regions because of the Aravalli

hills and the rocky terrain of Barmer-Jaisalmer-Bikaner tract.

The Western Sandy Plains are subdivided into two units:

(a) Sandy Arid Plains (Marushthali), and

(b) Semi-Arid Transitional Plain (Rajajsthan Bagar) divided into

(i) Luni Basin (Godwar Tract)

(ii) Plain of Interior Drainage (Shekhawati Tract) and

(iii) Ghaggar Plain

Environmental Background of Rajasthan 59

The line dividing the Sandy Arid Plains and the Semi-Arid Transitional Plain

is climatic, i.e. 25 cm isohyte. The western-most belt which is ‘The Great Desert’ is

covered by sand dunes, stretches from the Great Rann along the Pakistan border to

Punjab. The degree and extent of sand dunes greatly influence the economic activity

in this area. 63 per cent sand dune area of Rajasthan is concentrated in the desert

districts of Barmer, Jaisalmer and Bikaner.

2. ARAVALLI RANGE AND HILLY REGION

The principal and most dominant mountain range of Rajasthan is the Aravalli

range. The geological history of the Aravalli range can be traced back probably close

of the dharwar times. This range runs diagonally across the State from northeast near

Delhi and extends to southwest up to the Plains of Gujarat, for a distance of about

692 kilometers., the range runs from Khetri in the northeast to Khed Brahma in the

southwest Within Rajasthan for a length of about 550 kilometers. It is composed of

rocks belonging originally to the Delhi system, folded in a synclinorium occupying

the site of the geosynclines which have been deeply eroded.

The whole of this Aravalli range and Hilly Region has been further sub-

divided into two smaller physiographic units:

(a) ARAVALLI RANGE AND BHORAT PLATEAU

This division constitutes east Sirohi, nearly the whole of Udaipur except a

narrow belt in the east and whole of Durgarpur district.

The highest section of the Aravalli range known as ‘Bhorat’ Plateau lies

northwest of Udaipur between Kumbhalgarh - Gogunda and the average elevation of

this plateau is 1,225 metres.

Environmental Background of Rajasthan 60

(b) NORTH-EASTERN HILLY TRACT

Northern edge of Bhorat Plateau marks the boundary of north eastern hilly

tract in the southwest. North of Kumbhalgarh, especially at the Alwar hills the elevation

varies between 550 m to 670 m. Further north and northeast, the hills are broken and

their elevation decreases in the final extension of hills south of Delhi to about 306 m

above sea level. This level is about 60 m to 90 m above the surrounding plain.

3. EASTERN PLAINS

The area on the northeast, east and southeast of the Aravalli range is known

as the Eastern Plain. The Vindhyan Plateau marks the southeastern limit of the Plain.

The western boundary is demarcated by the eastern edge of the Aravalli up to north

of Udaipur. This Plain is further subdivided into two physiographic units-

(i) The Banas Basin

(ii) The Chappan Plain

(i) BANAS BASIN

The great watershed of India runs in an easterly direction starting From Udai

Sagar, east of Udaipur. The watershed acts as the southern boundary of the Mewar

Plains and south of this watershed is the Chappan Plain. The region is marked by

various types of erosional features, produced in the granite and gneiss rocks mark

the topography of the area. The soil is stony and the annual rainfall is about 73 cm.

From the foot of the Aravalli range the plain slopes gradually towards northeast.

River Banas and its tributaries drain the Mewar plain.

Environmental Background of Rajasthan 61

(ii) THE CHAPPAN PLAINS

This plain drained by the tributaries of the Mahi River lies south of the great

Indian watershed in southeastern Udaipur, Banswara and the southern part of

Chittorgarh district.

The Chappan area is deeply and intricately eroded resulting in the formation

of separate hillocks, which is not identical to the Mewar plain in the north. This

deeply dissected area is locally known as ‘Begaar’ and includes the hilly tracts of

Banswara and Dungarpur.

4. SOUTHEASTERN RAJASTHAN PATHAR (HADOTI PLATEAU)

The eastern part along the Chambal River is covered by the Hadoti Plateau.

The Great Boundary Fault of the Aravallis forms its northwest boundary which

extends eastward across the Rajasthan border. River Chambal drains the large part of

this area. The Plateau has been divided into two smaller units:

(a) VINDHYAN SCARP LAND

The scarp lands formed by massive sandstones separated by shale have an

average elevation between 350m to 580m. The scarps are facing towards the south-

southeast between the Banas and the Chambal and extend towards the east over

Bundelkhand. A scarp block occupies the areas of Dholpur and Karauli.

(b) DECCAN LAVA PLATEAU

The Deccan Lava Plateau is also known as ‘pathar (stony) or ‘uparmal’ plateau.

It is a wide stony upland, including Kota-Bundi plateau section. The Chambal along

with its tributaries Kali Sindh and Parbati form a triangular alluvial basin of 210m-

275m at Kota.
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 62

2.2 GEOLOGY OF RAJASTHAN

From the oldest Archaen Metamorphic, represented by Bhilwara Super

Group to sub-recent alluvium and wind-blown sand, Rajasthan is endowed with a

continuous geological sequence of rocks (see Map – 3). A vast blanket of young

unconsolidated deposits are present in western and north-western parts of the state

which include the blown sand of the Thar Desert of western Rajasthan. A wide

variety of hard rock which include various types of metamorphic schist, quartzite,

marble and gneiss of pre-Cambrian age with associated acid and basic intrusive

rocks remain exposed in the rest areas of the state.

The formations include the rocks of Aravalli Super Group, Delhi Super

Group and Upper Precambrian Vindhyan Super Group and of Cambrian to Jurassic,

Cretaceous and Tertiary ages (State Remote Sensing Application, 1999). A pile of

basaltic flows of Deccan Traps of Cretaceous age occupy the south-eastern extremity

of the state. Several mineral deposits of economic importance occur in association

with the above rock units.

The geological sequence of the state is highly varied and complex, revealing

the co-existence of the most ancient rocks of the Pre-Cambrian age and the most

recent alluvium as well as windblown sand. The Aravallis, one of the most ancient

mountains in the world, have the oldest granitic and gneissic rocks at their base.

Delhi Super Group, the Vindhyan Super Group and younger rocks are highly

metamorphosed at certain places and show rich occurrences of minerals of great

commercial importance (Groundwater Atlas of Rajasthan, 1999).

Environmental Background of Rajasthan 63

MAP - 3
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 64

The Aravalli mountain system runs across the state from the north of Delhi in

the north-east to the Gulf of Cambay in the south-west. The great synclinorium in

the central part of the Aravalli range is occupied by rocks composed of Aravalli and

Delhi rocks. The Archaen consists of the Bhilwara Super Group.

The Aravallis Super Group is a vast formation composed of quartzites, shale,

conglomerates, composite gneiss and slate. These vast mountains came into existence

at the close of the Archaen era when the sediments which were deposited in the seas

of that age, underwent an upheaval by organic activities.

The Delhi Super Group overlies the Aravallis. Delhi Super Group is divided

into lower Ralio group which is rich in crystalline limestone, grit, schistose rocks

and quartzite; the middle Alwar group consists of quartzite, grits and schistose rocks

and the Upper Ajabgarh group.

The lower Vindhyans in the east and Marwar in the west are the lithological

formations consisting of a thick series of sedimentary rocks composed of sandstone,

limestone and shale. The deposition of these rocks in western Rajasthan are mostly of

an acidic nature include a thick pile of lava as its formation was preceded by igneous

activity. The granite bosses and sills in Jalore, Siwana, Mokalsar and Jodhpur areas

are the plutonic equivalent of these lava deposits. Rocks of the above mentioned

igneous activity are designated as Erinpura Granite and Malani Igneous suit.

The Jurassic era formations are distinctly noticeable in a vast area around

Jaisalmer and some of the fossils of this age are also found in the rocks here. The

outcrops of these rocks are, partly, covered by wind-blown desert sands. The Bap
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 65

(Jodhpur district) and Pokran (Jaisalmer district) beds composed of boulders of

Malani rhyolites showing effects of glaciations during the Upper Carboniferous age

have now been exploited for ground water.

Violent volcanic activity in the form of fissure eruptions marked the close of

Mesozoic era in the lower Cretaceous age. The rocks formed then are known as

Deccan Traps, found in the southern and south-eastern Rajasthan. The main

characteristic of this was a stupendous outburst of covered volcanic energy, resulting

into the eruption of thick streams of lava over the vast areas. Notable formations of

Upper Cretaceous to Lower Eocene age are present in form of the Deccan trap

extending over a vast area in Jhalawar and in the eastern parts of Chittorgarh and

Banswara districts. This was the time when a large area of peninsular India was also

covered with fissure eruptions of black lava.

Marine transgression seems to have inundated a large part of western Rajasthan

during Eocene times and left deposition of thick beds of fossilliferous limestone. To

the north of Jaisalmer, the Jurassics are overlapped by nummulitic limestone.

Over a large area of western and eastern Rajasthan the remains of Pleistocene

sandy alluvium, blown sand, kankar (calcium nodules), and carbonate beds and

evaporate deposits of recent and sub-recent age are found.

Several mega lineaments also traverse in the state. The Great Boundary

Fault, through which the Chambal River has carved its course, passes through south-

eastern part of the state. This fault is visible in Begun (Chittorgarh district) and

northern parts of Kota. It reappears again in Sawai Madhopur and Dholpur districts.
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 66

DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Location of the great Indian watershed and the existence of the Aravalli axis

greatly influence the drainage system of Rajasthan. The drainage to the Bay of Bengal

and the Arabian Sea gets divide due to the Great Indian watershed which runs along

the Aravalli axis from the Sambhar Lake southward to Ajmer (see Map-4). From here

before proceeding towards the southwest of Udaipur city the line runs to southwest, a

few kilometers east of Beawar and to Deogarh and Kumbhalgarh further extending to

in the west, past Udaisagar and runs to southeast to Bari Sadri, from Choti Sadri to

Pratapgarh. Table - 2 shows the river basin area during 2012 as per Tahal Report.

Table - 2 River Basin Areas in Rajasthan State (2012)

S.No. Name Basin Area (Sq.Km.)

1 Shekhawati 9691
2 Ruparail 2550
3 Banganga 9949
4 Gambhir 4934
5 Parvati 1891
6 Sabi 4615
7 Banas 46902
8 Chambal 31229
9 Mahi 16598
10 Sabarmati 4118
11 Luni 69580
12 West Banas 1835
13 Sukli 994
14 Other Nallah of Jalore 1775
15 Outside Basin 135603
TOTAL 342264
Source: Tahal Report, Irrigation Department, Government of Rajasthan
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 67

MAP - 4
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 68

Smaller streams and their tributaries drain the west and south of the Aravalli

axis. Rivers Luni, Sukri, Banas, Sabarmati and Mahi are most significant. These

streams are non-perennial in nature. On the eastern side of the watershed, the river

Chambal is joined by the river Banas along with its main tributaries like Khari,

Moshi and Morel on the left bank and Berach, Bajasen and Golwa on the right. The

river Chambal ultimately joins the river Yamuna in Uttar Pradesh.

The inland drainage system is the most characteristic feature of the drainage

system of Rajasthan which is that nearly 60.2 per cent of the area of the state. Nearly

all this area lies west of the Aravalli range. In this part Kanti basin, Sota and Sahibi

basin, Barah basin of the Luni basin are found in large number of separate drainage

basins. The desert tract in the western part soaks all the water of these rivers.

The river Luni which rises at Ana Sagar at Ajmer is the only significant

water course in this area is and flows towards the southwest for a distance of about

32 km through the districts of Jodhpur, Barmer and Jalor in the semi-arid tract west

of the Aravalli range., the river has a small catchment area of about 32 sq km at the

source at Talod Road. A small tributary joins from the Pushkar valley and the basin

of the river widens. Near Ajmer, the river flows down the Aravalli slope and after 10

km flows towards the southwest. This river drains the total catchment area of about

34,866.40 sq kilometers. As it is a rain-fed stream the river is choked with advancing

sands at many places during the dry season. When the river is carrying maximum

water during the monsoon season it is not able to cut the Aeolian deposits. It

recieves many smaller hill torrents from the western slope of the Aravalli range, like

Lalri, Ghuhia, Bandi, Sukri, Jawai, Jojri and Sagai, all joining on the left bank. All
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 69

these streams contribute to the sub-soil within its bend. Up to Balotra the water of

river Luni but lower down it becomes more and more saline till the river drains near

the Rann of Kutch. The river Luni increases in width at Jodhpur district rather than

deepening the bed. This is because the floods develop so quickly due to the nature of

rainfall that the river has no time to rub the bed. The River Luni spills over the

country and occasionally damages the railway line to which it actually runs parallel

from Luni Junction to Gole during the rainy season.

The southern and the eastern part of Rajasthan, south, southeast and east of

the Aravalli range receives more than 80 cm rainfall and has some important streams.

The river Chambal is the largest stream and is joined by some tributaries like the

Banas, the Kali Sindh, and the Parbati. The river Chambal is a perennial river while

its tributaries might occasionally turn completely dry and exhibit their stony beds.

The river Chambal rising from the northern flanks of the Vindhyan scarps

near Manpur (884.4 m) in the south of Mhow runs for about 325 km through a long

narrow and steep gorge which overhangs the valley on both the sides rising about 60

m to 90 m above the valley floor. The river falls at 505 m near Chaurasigarh to Kota.

The river Chambal is joined by its first major tributary - river kali Sindh near

Monera village. Another tributary Parbati joins about 48 km downstream. Taking a

straight course for about 212 km, it bends southeast at Pinahat and flows to join the

river Yamuna near Muradganj, after a total run of about 965 kilometres. For a length

of about 153 km the river flows entirely in Rajasthan. the river forms the boundary

between Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh from Palia to Pinahat for about 241 km. it

forms the boundary between Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh Before joining the
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 70

river Yamuna in Uttar Pradesh. In Rajasthan two other tributaries Kurai and Banas

join the Chambal river on the left bank.

The Banas river flows through the heart of the Mewar Plains. Its chief

tributaries are Berach, Kothari, Khari, Dhoond and Morel. The river Banas rises

from the catchment area lying between Kankroli and Nathdwara and flows towards

the east as far as Mandalgarh and further it flows towards the northeast up to Tonk

where it again turns towards the east and finally this river turns at right angles and

flows south to join the river Chambal. The upper reaches of this stream are hilly and

have good rainfall.

Environmental Background of Rajasthan 71

2.3 CLIMATIC PARAMETERS

Atmospheric Sea Level Pressure and Winds:

There is a very systematic manner in which the seasonal variations of

atmospheric pressure take place over the state, with a maximum in the winter

(January) and a minimum in the monsoon season (July). Except during the late

summer and monsoon season the pressure gradient generally remains weak over the

state. During winters the higher pressure is to the north and during summers the

pressure decreases from south to north in Rajasthan.

The light winds are mainly from northwest-north-northeast over the state in

January which gradually turn anti-clockwise replaced by light north-westerly to

westerly or south-westerly winds in April.

In July with the advance of the summers, the pressure gradient increases and

correspondingly the winds from northwest to southwest also strengthen reaching

their maximum strength. The pressure decreases from west-southwest to east-

northeast over the state, in July. Having the weakest pressure gradient the month of

October is the transition period. The changeover of the pressure and wind pattern

commences and north-northeasterly winds appear October onwards.

Cloudiness

It is cloudless or slightly clouded during October to May but the part of the

period from January to March is more clouded, especially during afternoons. The

sky remains cloudless or lightly clouded over the state during April and May.

During July and August, the monsoon skies are heavily clouded. The skies remains
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 72

overcast for 5 days and clear on 7 days per month in West Rajasthan and for more

than 8-9 days and clear on 4-5 days per month in East Rajasthan on an average

during July and August. The cloud cover decreases to a great extent over the entire

state during October.

Thunderstorms and Dust storms

For the occurrence of thunderstorms and dust storms convective activity is

essential. Thunder activity becomes pronounced due to ground heating with the

advance of the summer and when the moisture is insufficient in the atmosphere, dry

thunderstorms or dust storms occur. Maximum numbers of thunderstorms occur,

with the approach of the monsoon current, while dust storms are mainly confined to

the summer months of March-June. Hail is sometimes accompanied with Pre-monsoon

and monsoon thunderstorms. The maximum occurrences of thunderstorms are during

July in the state and minimal in the months from November to January. The average

number of days of during the monsoon season is about 11 in West Rajasthan and 10

in East Rajasthan. The average annual number of thunderstorms in the West and

East Rajasthan are 17.0 and 15.0.

Fog

Fog occurs occasionally due to lack of sufficient moisture in the region. The

maximum frequency of occurrence of fog is during December and January in both

Western and Eastern Rajasthan. The favorable Conditions for occurrence of radiation

fog like light to calm winds, clear skies etc. exist after the withdrawal of the

monsoon till the month of February. During the monsoon season hill fog occurs at

few places, when air is almost saturated and is easily cooled below the dew point

while rising over high elevations.

Environmental Background of Rajasthan 73

Rainfall distribution

During the south-west monsoon period extending from June to September the

state receives about 90% of the total rainfall. The cold weather period (January and

February) receive the Remaining portion of rainfall which occurs in association with

the local convective activity. There is a wide variation in the mean annual rainfall

over Rajasthan as the extreme western parts of Jaisalmer district receive rainfall less

than 100mm in contrast to more than 900mm in the eastern parts of Jhalawar and

Banswara.

The lowest recorded annual rainfall in the past 100 years i.e. between 1900

and 2010 was 24 mm in the western Rajasthan and whereas it was never below 120

mm in the eastern Rajasthan.

Air temperature and relative humidity conditions

The pleasant winters in the state witness mean night temperatures above

4.7oC to 10.6oC. During summers the western Rajasthan becomes the hottest place

in the country with mean maximum air temperatures varying from 38.6 oC to 42.6oC

in May. The recorded extreme temperatures in the state were -4.4oC to 50.0oC in the

western Rajasthan and -2.8oC to 47.8oC in the eastern Rajasthan (Indian

Meteorological Department, 2010).

The relative humidity in the arid region of Western Rajasthan is also quite

high because of the unfavorable circulations of the atmosphere and low precipitation

that occurs in the arid region as compared to other semi-arid and sub-humid regions.
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 74

Wind regime and associated phenomena

The wind directions are mostly south-westerlies or west-south-westerlies

during large part of the year whereas during winter they are northeast to north.

During the winter season the Winds are light and variable but in summers especially

around May to July strong winds prevail in the most parts of Rajasthan. Summers

witness severe dust storm period too when the wind speed rises up to 60 kilometer

per hour causing erosion from the dry soils.

Evapotranspiration

The annual potential evapotranspiration values vary widely between eastern

and western Rajasthan. In Dungarpur and Banswara districts the annual potential

evapotranspiration is less than 1300 mm whereas it is more than 2000 mm in

Jaisalmer district.
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 75

2.4 RAINFALL

The principal rainy season when the Rajasthan state receives 91% of its

annual rainfall is during the South-West monsoon, which is depicted in Map - 5. The

total normal annual rainfall, shown in Map – 6, in the state varies from 1000 cm

over the South-Eastern parts to14 cm over the extreme North-Western parts. The rest

share of rainfall comes during the cold weather season about 2% (see Map - 7); the

summer season about 3% (see Map – 8) and during the post-monsoon season

(depicted in Map - 9) about 4% of the annual total rainfall respectively.

The onset of the southwest monsoon over the eastern parts of the state is

witnessed almost by the last week of June which extends over the entire state by the

first week of July. Amounting individually to about 34% of the annual rainfall each,

July and August are generally the rainiest months. Around 1 st September the

withdrawal of the southwest monsoon begins from the northern western parts of the

state and by 15th September it withdraws from the entire state. During cold weather

season a small amount of rainfall i.e. 1cm and 0.7 cm in East and West Rajasthan is

received. This respectively is of great significance for agriculture and if occurs in

association with western disturbances which move from west to east across the

northern parts of the country.

The districts of East Rajasthan receive more rainfall than those of West

Rajasthan. The mean annual rainfall in the East and West Rajasthan is about 64.9 cm

and 32.7 cm respectively.

Environmental Background of Rajasthan 76

MAP - 5
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 77

MAP - 6
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 78

MAP - 7
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 79

MAP - 8
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 80

MAP - 9
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 81

The average annual rainfall in Rajasthan between 1980 and 2009 has been

graphically shown in Graph – 1.

Graph – 1

District wise Average Annual Rainfall in Rajasthan

(1980-2009)
900
800
700
Rainfall in mm

600
500
400
300
200
100
0

Pratapgarh
Jhunjhnu
Dungarpur
Banswara

Bhilwara

Hanumangarh
Jaipur

Jhalawar

Rajsamand
Jaisalmer
Bharatpur
Barmer

Chittorgarh

Jodhpur

Pali
Karauli
Dholpur

Udaipur
Bikaner

Churu

Sawai Madhopur
Ganganagar

Jalore

Sikar
Dausa
Bundi

Sirohi
Ajmer
Alwar

Kota

Tonk
Nagaur
Baran

Districts

The maximum rainfall in the state is received in the Southern or South-

Eastern districts of the state. On the west of Aravalli hills Pali and Jalore districts

receive maximum amount of rain of 50 cm and 43 cm in West Rajasthan.

In the North or North-Western districts Jaisalmer district receives the lowest

rainfall. Bikaner, Ganganagar, Jaisalmer receive annual rainfall of 26cm, 24cm and

17cm respectively. The adjoining areas of these districts constitute the driest zone of

the state.
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 82

2.5 TEMPERATURE

The Rajasthan state experiences more or less uniform day temperatures over

the plains except during the winter when temperatures increase southwards and during

monsoon season when temperatures increase northwards. During the southwest

monsoon the night minimum temperatures are more or less uniform but generally

they are lower in higher latitudes.

As compared to the plains the day and night temperatures over the plateau

and at high level stations are lower. In the hottest month of May the mean maximum

temperature is approximately around 41°C - 42°C in the plains, but it is 2°C to 4°C

lower in the elevated and plateau regions of the state. The Graph–2 depicts the

average mean temperature of Rajasthan district-wise from the year 1980 to 2009.

Graph – 2

Centre-wise Average Annual Mean Temperature in Rajasthan

(1980-2009)
29
27
Temperature in °C

25
23
21
19
17
15
Jaisalmer
Bharatpur
Bansawara

Chittorgarh
Udaipur

Bikaner
Churu
Sikar
Bhilwara

Jalore
Jaipur

Jhalawar

Pilani

Bundi

Jodhpur city
Dungarpur

Tonk
Jawai Bandh

Kota

Nagaur
Barmer
Rawat Bhata

Phalodi
Dholpur

Ganganagar
Ajmer

Erinpura Road

Sawai Madhopur
Alwar

Anoopgarh
Dabok A.P.
Mount Abu

Jodhpur A.P.

Temperature Centres

The mean minimum temperature in the coldest month of January in the state is

7.4°C, which varies from 4°C in the north to 12°C in the south. With the arrival of
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 83

western disturbances much lower winter temperature may be experienced. Minimum

temperature 2°C - 5°C below the freezing point can be recorded at few stations of

northern Rajasthan. In the past 50 years the lowest minimum temperature at a plain

station ever recorded was -5.9°C at Jaisalmer on 12 January 1967 (12.8°C below the

respective normal for the coldest month), while the hill station of Abu had recorded

the lowest temperature of -7.4°C on 12 December 1994 (13.1°C below the respective

normal for the coldest month). The mean maximum and the mean minimum temperature

of the January month have been shown in Map-10 and Map-11 respectively.

The maximum temperature rise rapidly from February onwards till May and

minimum temperature from February onwards till June. The increase in maximum in

the period from January to May ranges from 13°C to 20°C at individual stations as

we proceed from south to north of the state. From the beginning of June to the end

of July, the maximum temperature falls by about 3°C to 7°C whereas the minimum

temperature falls only by about 3°C to 5°C from June to September. The mean

maximum and the mean minimum temperature of the July month have been shown

in Map-12 and Map-13 respectively. A slight rise in the maximum temperature is

experienced in the month of September due to increased insolation.

Post-September the night temperatures start falling rapidly while day

temperatures too start falling rapidly after October and by January both attain their

lowest values. There is about 8°C to 15°C fall in minimum temperature and

maximum temperature fall by 5°C to 7°C. In both cases, the fall increases from

southern parts of the state to the northern parts. Smallest diurnal range of

temperature is experienced during July and August of about 9°C in the state. After

the withdrawal of the monsoon the diurnal range of temperature increases. The

diurnal range is greatest in November month.

Environmental Background of Rajasthan 84

MAP - 10
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 85

MAP - 11
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 86

MAP - 12
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 87

MAP - 13
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 88

2.6 WIND VELOCITY

There is a direct link between wind velocity and seasons. The wind speed

reaches the highest in the month of June, which starts rising from the month of April.

The wind speed starts gradually decreasing and comes to minimum in the month of

November. In the Western Rajasthan Jaisalmer has the highest mean monthly wind

velocity followed by Jodhpur. On the eastern side Jaipur has the highest mean

monthly wind velocity. For the most of the days during a year the Wind speed

remains 1-19 km per hour all over the State (Indian Meteorological Department,

2010). During April the wind direction is from west to east and after crossing the

Thar Desert they become dry and warm. During summer hot and dust raising winds

are common in Rajasthan.

Environmental Background of Rajasthan 89

2.7 HUMIDITY

During the monsoon months, July to September the relative humidity is

generally high in the state of Rajasthan. The humidity is about 45%-47% in June,

which rises to a little less than 70% during August in West Rajasthan and to about

76%-77% in East Rajasthan. The Graph – 3 depicts the humidity regime in the state

from 1980 to 2009. The average annual humidity percentage during these 30 years

was 55.4 %. The trend line in the figure shows a gradual decrease in humidity

percentage in the state from 1980 to 2009.

Graph - 3

Average Humidity Percentage in Rajasthan (1980- 2009)

100.0
90.0
80.0
Humidity levels in %

70.0
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
1980

1984

1997

2001

2005
1981
1982
1983

1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996

1998
1999
2000

2002
2003
2004

2006
2007
2008
2009

Years

The diurnal variation in relative humidity is least during monsoon in the East

Rajasthan; on the contrary it is higher in West Rajasthan. In the summer afternoons

the relative humidity is least, i.e. about 20 to 30% in most of the state which makes

the summer very dry and hot. In the winters (January and February) the diurnal

variation is highest.
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 90

2.8 SOILS

The Aravallis divide Rajasthan state into eastern and western Rajasthan. The

soil improves in fertility from west and northwest towards east and northeast. In

many parts of the state the soils are saline or alkaline. The soils of the State have

been divided into the 7 groups (see Map – 14) on the basis of their occurrence, chief

characteristics and suitability for cultivation. These soil types are:

1. Desert Soil
2. Grey and Brown (Desert) Soil
3. Red and Yellow Soil
4. Ferruginous Red Soil
5. Mixed Red and Black Soil
6. Medium Black Soil
7. Alluvial Soils

1. Desert Soil: The largest area in Rajasthan is occupied by desert soil, which

covers the area west of the Aravallis up to the Pakistan border. The entire tract

is ill watered and unproductive and characterized with sand dunes, hillocks

and rock outcrops. The soils contain about 90 to 95 per cent sand and about 5

to 7 per cent clay. This windblown sand is partly derived from the surface

rocks and partly from sand blown in from the coastal regions. This soil has

high soluble salt percentage and has high pH value; the percentage of calcium

carbonate is high with very low organic content. The annual rainfall of this

area is less than 10 centimeters. In the case of most of the aeolian sand, the

CaO content varies from 1.0 to 1.5 per cent. The CaO content in the soil is less

in the sand dunes of the stabilized sandy areas at Jodhpur and at some parts of

Jaipur. The soil has the presence of high nitrogen content in the form of

nitrates. The phosphates and nitrates together make the desert sands fertile for

agricultural crops and plants at places where water supply is regular.

Environmental Background of Rajasthan 91

MAP - 14
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 92

2. Grey Brown (Desert) Soil: This group of soil occurs in the districts of

Barmer, Jalor, Jodhpur, Sirohi, Pali, Nagaur, Sikar and Jhunjhunu and covers

an area of about 36,400 sq km. The fertility of this soil increases towards the

east and northeast. The soil is saline and alkaline and has a high pH value.

The pH of the soils and sands ranges between 7.2 and 9.2 and they are

calcareous in nature. There is a presence of nitrogen in the form of nitrates

which enhance the soil fertility. The soil in Pali district (Sumerpur) shows

much variation. The hilly areas in the south have heterogeneous distribution

of soils. Towards the north uniform and heavier soils are present. In this area

various soil classes like coarse light soils, soils of the rocky areas, dark

medium heavy soils, yellowish-brown medium soils and brown medium soils

are present.

3. Red and Yellow Soil: The western part of the districts of Udaipur, Bhilwara

and Ajmer has this soil type. Due to the higher degree of hydration of ferric

oxide the soil has acquired yellow color. Silty-loams to silty-clay loams are

common in the region. The pH ranges from 5.5 to 8.5. The carbonate, salt

content and humus content in the soils are poor. Nitrogen contents vary from

0.006 to 0.016 per cent and organic carbon contents vary from 0.057 to 0.126

per cent.

The surface texture of soils at Pisangan in Ajmer district varies from sandy to

sandy loam. Sometimes ferruginous concentrations are also found. The

surface colour of the soil varies from light yellowish, through brown

yellowish-brown to dark brown. In this area the soil has been classified in to

following types - Sandy Soil, Shallow Soil and Dark Medium heavy Soil.
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 93

4. Ferruginous Red Soil: The red soil which had been formed from ancient

crystalline and metamorphic rocks occupies the central and southern part of

Udaipur district and the entire Dungarpur district. As compared to the black

soils, red soil has a smaller content of lime, potash, iron oxide, and phosphorus.

In different areas the red soil greatly differs in depth and fertility, the

characteristics of lighter texture, porous and friable structure and it is

invariably free from ‘kankar’ nodules. On an average this soil is poorer in

nitrogen, phosphorus and humus.

5. Mixed Red and Black Soil: This soil with neutral to alkaline pH is found in

the eastern parts of the districts of Udaipur, Chittorgarh, Dungarpur,

Banswara and Bhilwara.

6. Medium Black Soil: Soil of this type is black and deep which is most

commonly found in the districts of Kota, Bundi, and Jhalawar in the

southeastern part of the State. The internal drainage is fairly good due to the

presence of vertical cracks of varying sizes. In most of the above soils the

presence of organic carbon and nitrogen are low to medium.

7. Alluvial Soils: Alluvial soil occupies Alwar, Bharatpur, Jaipur and Sawai

Madhopur and the central part of Ganganagar district, all lying on the

northeastern part of the state. The soil is deficient in lime, phosphoric acid

and humus. It varies from clayey to sandy loam in texture. The top soil

contains 'kankar’ which lie either on sands or sandy clays. A wide variety of

crops including wheat, rice, cotton and tobacco are grown in this soil.
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 94

2.9 VEGETATION (TRESS AND SHRUBS)

The state of Rajasthan is endowed with a wealth of a wide range of vegetaion.

They can be discussed in two broad categories i.e. into two distinct groups – one

comprising the arid vegetaion, falling into western part of the state while the other

belonging to semi-arid to sub humid of eastern and southern Rajasthan (see Map-15).

A. Vegetation of Western Zone

Being largely influenced by edaphic and biotic factors, the western Rajasthan

is characterized by sparse vegetation. Vegetation of this arid tract has well adapted

to existing arid conditions. The potential vegetation of this region has been modified

due to intense biotic factors. The vegetation of western Rajasthan has been grouped

under the following categories based on two prominent indices i.e. density and

frequency. These have been used to identify the dominant and co-dominant species

of vegetation.

1. Calligonum- Haloxylon- Leptadenia Type

It is represented in the area of large stabilized longitudinal, parabolic and

transverse dunes having the lowest rainfall zone (10 to 15cm). Only shrubs an

under-shrubs which are well adapted to prevailing conditions are predominant in this

tract. This region is represented by psammophytic Scrub Desert Vegetation. Phog is

the major dominant shrub on the dunes in Barmer region while it is associated with

Haloxylon in Jaisalmer tract.

Environmental Background of Rajasthan 95

MAP - 15
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 96

2. Salvadoran Oleoides- Euphorbia Caducifolia Type

A distinct habitat of good vegetation along runnels and scanty vegetation in

small pockets of soil deposition is represented on the vast rocky plateau of

Jaisalmer. Salvadora is the dominant species on this rocky areas with negligible soil

cover, here euphorbia caducifilia (Thor) form the main associate. Many other

lithophytes forming shrubs colonize the tract.

3. Zizyphus Nummularia – Capparis Decidua Type

The exposed and buried pediments and gravelly plains of Jaisalmer with poor

sandy loam or loamy and soil cover allow highly adapted species to colonize this

habitat. Due to the adaptive capability to the adverse desertic conditions Ziziphus

and Capparis are present here. In many regions, largely scattered stunted tree species

of Prosopis and Acacia etc are prevalent. The limited associated species of the

lithophytic Scrub Desert are also present.

4. Suaeda Fruticosa – Salsola Baryosma Type

This type of vegetation is generally present in low lying saline basin and

depressional areas, with one percent slope. In western Rajasthan, these are located at

Malhar (Jodhpur), Pachpadra, Uterlai, Thob (Barmer) Lawan, Pokhran etc. mostly

Suaeda dominates these tracts.

5. Prosopis – Capparis – Zizyphus Type

The region is dominated by Trees - Prosopis cineraria, Tecomella undulate

etc. and Shrubs - Capparis deciduas, Calotropis procera etc. Large part of the flat

plains in 25 to 30 cm rainfall zone is dominated by this type which covers the older
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 97

alluvial plains and buried pediment plains. Due to cultivation the natural vegetation

of this zone is highly modified.

6. Prosopis – Tecomella Type

In the sandy undulating plains and ridges of low dunes with very deep soil

profile in the district of Barmer, part of Churu and Sikar exhibit the prevalence of

this type. As the farmers themselves conserve these plants so species have their

predominance in arable lands also. Trees – Prosopis cineraria, Tecomella undulate,

Salvadora oleoides, Balanties aegyptiaca. Shrubs – Calotropis procera, Leptadenia

pyrotechnica, Lycium barbarum, Acaica jacquemontii, Clerodendrum phlomoides,

Ziziphs nummularia, Mimosa Hamata.

7. Prosopis Cineraria – Acacia Nilotica Type

The flat alluvial plains of Shekhawati region having deep to very deep, sandy

loam soils support this type present at Nagaur, Sikar, Churu and Jhunjhunu. The low

dunes and undulating hummocky plains in the region show the dominance of

Prosopis only. The irrigated fields of in flat plains are invariably occupied by both

Prosopis Cineraria – Acacia Nilotica species in varying density. Prosopis cineraria

show high density. Trees – Prosopis cineraria, Acacia nilotica, Ailanthus excels,

Acacia cupressiformis, Ziziphus maruitiana, Tecomella undulate. Shrubs – Zyziphus

nummularia, cappairs deciduas, lyceum barbarum, calotropis procera.

8. Salvadora Oleoides – Prosopis Cineraria – Capparis Deciduas Type

The flat alluvial plains with heavy soils of sandy clay loam to clay, deep to

very deep and moderately saline soils of district Pali, Jalore, southern Barmer, north

eastern tract of Churu and Jhunjhunu support this type. Soil column and hardness of
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 98

the pan is very much reflected by the growth of tree species. Trees – Salvadora

sleoides, S. perisca, Tamarix articulate, Acacia nilotica, A. leucphloea, Balanites

aegyptiaca. Shrubs – Indigofera oblongifolia, Calotropis proceera, Tamarix

ereocoides, Cassia auriculata, Capparis deciduas, Zyziphus nummularia.

9. Acaia Nilotica Type

Deep buried pediment plains, flat alluvial plains with deep sandy clay loam

soils but non-saline at the foot hills of Aravalli range in district Pali, Ajmer and part

of Udaipur can be witnessed with the predominance of these two species. Trees –

Acacia nilotica, Acacia cupressiformis, Azadirachta indica, Salvadora oleoides,

S. persica, Tamarix articulate, Ziziphus mauritiana, Moringa oleifera, Albizia

lebbeck and Ficus supp. Shrubs – Cassia auriculata, Capparis deciduas, Zyzyphus

nummularia, Indigofera oblongifolia.

10. Acacia Senegal – Euphorbia Caducifolia Type

The granite and sand stone hills of Rajasthan are generally well vegetated

while limestone and rhyolite hills support very poor vegetation. The protected hills

in the rainfall zone of 20 to 35 cm support Acacia Senegal as the dominant forest

type. Low hills / rocks, generally unprotected support Euphorbia caducifolia scrub.

Trees – Acacia Senegal, Maytenus emarginatus, Anogeissus pendula, Moringa

concanesis, Wrightia tinctoria. Shrubs – Euphorbia caducifotia, Capparis deciduas,

Ziziphus nummularia, Grewia tenax, Cordia gharaf.

B. Vegetation of Eastern Zone

The Eastern Zone constitutes the plains, valleys, deeply buried or exposed

pediment plains and the Aravalli range. The zone lies in the region which receives
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 99

rainfall between 50 and 80 cm. The plains lie in the double cropping region and

hence the existing vegetation is largely modified due to cultural interferences.

Degraded vegetation is present on the rocky wastelands, which is a result of the high

biotic impact.

1. Acacia Leucophloea – Prosopis. Cineraria – Acacia Nilotica Type

Acaica leucophloea dominates the shallow to moderately deep, buried and

exposed plains whereas A. nilotica is the main species in the plains with deep soil in

western part of Jaipur, Tonk, Alwar and Bhilwara district along with Jaisamand and

Ajmer and north western Udaipur. Plains show sparse tree density as the region is

extensively cultivated. Prominent Trees are – Acacia leucophlea, A. Senegal,

A. nilotica, Aegle moremlos, Azadirachta indica Balanites aegyptiaca, Ficus

bengalensis, F. religiosa, Propis cineraria Salvadora perisica, S. oleoides, Phonix

sylvestris, Pithecellobium dulco Ziziphus mauritina, Mangifera indica, Madhuca

indica. Prominent Shrubs are – Acac jacquemontii, Calotropis procera, Mimosa

hamata, Capparis deciduas, zeylanica, C. sepiaria, Dichrostachys cinerea, Cassia

auriculata, Lanta camera, Zizyphus nummularia.

2. Acacia Nilotica Type

On the north east, east and south east of the Aravalli range the alluvial plains

are largely under double cultivation and dominated by this type of specie. The density

of trees is general limited due to cultivation but they exhibit good growth due to good

irrigation. Dominate Trees – Acacia nilotica, A. cupressiformis, Azadirachta indica,

Mangifra indica, Madhuca indica, Phoneix sylvestris, Ziziphus maauritiana, Ailantl

excels, Ficus bengalensis, F. religiosa, Pithecellobium dulce, leucopholea, Cordia

Environmental Background of Rajasthan 100

dichotoma, Prosopis cineraria. Dominant Shrubs – Zizyp nummularia, Capparis

deciduas, C. zeylanica, Ficus palmate, Kirgan reticulate and Lantana camara.

3. Acacia Nilotica – Capparis Decidua Type

This vegetation type is present at dissected ravine terrain along the Chambal

Valley covering Dholpur, Sawai Madhopur and Kota districts. This dissected upland

has dry situation where as at all lower level, the flat land experiences fast flow of

water.

4. Butea Monosperma – Madhuca Indica – Ziziphus Mauritian Type

Banswara, Dungarpur, South Chittorgarh and Udaipur districts with undulating

pediment plains and rocky valleys exhibit this type of vegetation. Here Madhuca

indica and Zizphus maruitianna occur in place with deep soil deposition but Butea

monosperma (Dhak) dominates the terrain. The dominant Trees here are – Madhuca

indica, Azadirachta indica, Zizyphus maruitiana, Mangifera indica, Phoenix sylvestris,

Aegle mormelos, Acacia leucphloea, Cassia fuistul and Balanits aegyptica. Dominant

Shrubs are – Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, Holerrhena pubescens, Euphorbia neriifalia,

E. vinulia, Dendrocalamus, Cassia auriculata, Dichrostachys cinera.

5. Anogeissus Pendula – Boswellia Serrata Type

Alwar, Ajmer, Bhilwara, Jaipur, Tonk, Sawai Madhopur, western Chittorgarh

and eastern part of Udaipur are largely dominated with this form of major mixed

deciduous vegetation of the Aravalli range. Vegetation at different slope zones is –

higher slopes – Anogeissus pendula, Boswellia serrate, Sterculia urens, middle

slopes – Acacia Senegal, Bauhinia racemosa, Cassia fistula, Capparis sepiaria,

Dichrostachys cinerea, Diospyros melanoxylon, Lannea cormandelia, Wrightia

Environmental Background of Rajasthan 101

tinctoria. Angle mormelos, Adina cordifolia. Lower slopes and valleys – Butea

monosperma, Cassia auriculate, Acacia leucophloea, Dendroclamus strictus,

Euphorbia caducifolia, Holoptelia integrifolia.

6. Tectona Grandis Type

This tract is largely dominated by tectona grandis (Teak) and its main

associated species - Bosellia serrata and dalbargia latifoila. It is present in the hilly

areas of south - eastern part of Udaipur, southern Chittorgarh and Banswara district.

The regions with gentle slope mostly exhibit a good density of trees and shrubs

species. Vegetation type changes with change in slope zones. On the Higher slopes-

Bauhinia racemosa, Boswellia serrata, Emblica officinalis; Middle slopes- adina

cordifolia, aegle mormelos; and Lower slopes - Holerrhena pulsescens, Euphorbia

caducifolia etc. are seen.

7. Mangifera Indica- Syzygium Cumini Type

Some important species of this type distributed in this zone are: Butea

monosperma, Anogeissus, Moringa concanensis, Anogeissus latifolia, Magnifera

indica, Sterculia urens etc. This type of vegetation is present at Mount Abu and the

composition of this vegetation is the reflection of the change in them due to the

increase in altitude. The region supports dry deciduous, semi-deciduous and evergreen

species of plants.
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 102

2.10 LAND USE

The land use pattern of a region determines the ecological balance in the

region and helps to understand the environmental status as well. It includes the

management and modification of natural environment in to build environment such as

settlements, cultivated land etc. Approximately half of the area of the Rajasthan state

is under cultivation with an average Cropping Intensity of 125%. 12.6% is put to Non

agricultural Uses i.e. not available for cultivation. The other Land Use classes include

13.27% of land As Culturable Waste, 7.76% under Forest, 10.75% Fallow Land, 5 %

under Pastures and Grazing Land. The land use pattern of the state area-wise is given

in Table – 3 and the percentage-wise classification is presented in Figure - 1.

Table – 3 Land-Use pattern in Rajasthan state

S.N Land Use Details Area (in lakh hactare)

1 Total Geographical area 342.66
2 Forest 26.60
3 Non agriculture use 17.60
4 Barren & unculturable land 24.98
5 Area unfit for cultivation (3+4) 42.59
6 Cultivable wasteland 45.46
7 Pasture 17.08
8 Land under misc trees crops& groves 0.14
9 Uncultivated land excluding fallows (6+7+8) 62.69
10 Fallow 36.82
11 Net Area sown 173.94
12 Gross area sown 216.64
13 Net area Irrigated 52.39
14 Gross Area irrigated 63.93
15 Cultivable land(6+10+11) 256.22
16 Rainfed cultivable land (6+10+11-13) 203.83
Source: Perspective and Strategic Plan for Development of Rainfed and Watershed Areas in
Rajasthan for 18 Years Period (2010)
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 103

Figure – 1

Land Use Classification in Rajasthan

1%
0% 1% 2% 2%
Land under misc trees crops& groves
3%
Non agriculture use
Pasture
21% 4% Forest
4% Barren & unculturable land
4% Fallow
Area unfit for cultivation
5% Cultivable wasteland
Net area Irrigated
5% Uncultivated land excluding fallows
18%
Gross Area irrigated
Net Area sown
14% Rainfed cultivable land
Gross area sown
16% Cultivable land

During 2007, the maximum area under forest was in Ajmer, Alwar and

Udaipur districts, whereas the lowest three districts were Nagaur, Jodhpur and

Churu. Udaipur, Jaisalmer and Bikaner districts lead in area that is not available for

cultivation and Sikar, Dausa and Jhunjhunu are the bottom three districts.

Under the use of Permanent pasture and other grazing lands Bharatpur,

Hanumangarh and Ganganagar have the least area whereas Barmer, Jodhpur and

Bhilwara have the largest area under this category. Churu and Rajsamand districts

have no land under miscellaneous trees, crops and groves. Districts Nagaur, Jalore

and Hanumangarh cover the least whereas Dungarpur, Ganganagar and Jhalawar

cover the maximum area under the same category.

Culturable Wasteland is highest in Ajmer, Alwar and Jaisalmer and minimum

at Hanumangarh, Jhunjhunu and Bharatpur. Fallow lands other than current fallow
Environmental Background of Rajasthan 104

cover the highest area in Alwar, Ajmer and Jodhpur whereas they are lowest at Karauli,

Dholpur and Bharatpur. The current fallow land covers the highest area in Ajmer,

Alwar and Barmer whereas the lowest are at Karauli, Banswara and Rajsamand.

Under the category of Net Area Sown and Net Area Sown more than once

Ajmer and Alwar stand on the top two positions with Barmer and Hanumangarh at

the third positions respectively. Dhoplur, Dungarpur and Rajsamand are the lowest

three in the category of Net Area Sown and Dungarpur, Sirohi and Rajsamand are

the last three of Net Area Sown more than once.

It can be seen that the western districts of Jaisalmer, Bikaner and Barmer

have large stretches of sandy soils therefore a very high percentage of cultivable

waste and fallow land is present in the region. The net sown area is also less than the

other types of land uses here. Higher percentage of seasonal pasture lands exist in

Barmer, Jodhpur, Jalore and Nagaur districts. Generally, Forest areas are evidently

absent in the entire western Rajasthan.

Churu, Nagaur, Jodhpur, Pali and Jalore districts lying in the mid western

districts of arid and the semi arid zone support only rain-fed crops in this area and

because of low rainfall the percentage of fallow land is quite high. The net sown

area is the highest in the semi-arid zone and the sub-humid parts of eastern

Rajasthan which also accounts for extensive agriculture. Due to the presence of hilly

terrain in parts of Bhilwara, Chittorgarh, Udaipur, Kota and Baran districts the

percentage of cultivable waste and the land put to non agricultural use is highest.

The percentage of forest areas in Kherwara (Udaipur), Dungarpur, Banswara, Sirohi,

Kota, Jhalawar, Baran, and Sawai Madhopur districts are noticeably high.