1.

3 Signals in Communications
1.3.1 Types of Signals
Signals can be classified on the basis of the way in which their values vary over time:

Analog: This is a continuous function that assumes smooth changes in value with finite rates of change.
The microphone output is an example of an analog signal.
Discrete: This is a noncontinuous function whose values form a discrete set and occur at isolated points in
time.
Digital: A function that assumes a limited set of discrete values for constant durations of time is called a
digital signal. Changes of values are instantaneous.
A binary waveform is one that has only two allowable values and is commonly used for the
communication of digital data.
1.3.2 Characteristics of Signals
A signal can be characterized in the time or frequency domain. In the time domain, the signal’s
characteristics are identified as a function of time.
In the frequency domain, the signal’s characteristics are represented as its constituent frequency
components, as viewed on a spectrum analyzer. As most signals in communications are random, in
addition to time and frequency domain characterization, statistical characterization is also possible.

1.3.2.1 Frequency Domain Characteristics of Signals

Any complex waveform can be decomposed into either a discrete set of sinusoids or a continuum of
sinusoids, each having a different amplitude, frequency, and phase.
The tool for this characterization is Fourier analysis. Fourier analysis shows that any periodic signal is
composed of a dc component, a fundamental component, and a series of harmonics. The fundamental is a
sinusoid having the same frequency as the periodic signal, and harmonics are sinusoids at integer
multiples of the fundamental frequency.
1.3.2.2 Statistical Characteristics of Signals
A deterministic signal can be expressed in the form of an equation, where all terms are completely known.
However most signals in practical communications systems are not deterministic. To predict the behavior
of random, or nondeterministic signals, statistical techniques such as probability density function,
autocorrelation, and cross-correlation functions are used.
Auto correlation represents a signal’s similarity to a time-delayed replica of itself. Hence, it is a measure
of how fast the signal changes and, correspondingly, its frequency characteristics. The cross-correlation
function represents similar comparative properties for a pair of signals.

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1.4 Characteristics of the Communications Channel
The communications channel carries signals from the transmitter to the receiver. In the ideal situation,
signals must be carried without distortion. However, irrespective of the media used, the channel has a
limited bandwidth and introduces impairments to the signal.
1.4.1 Bandwidth
The ability of the channel to carry signals (power or energy) at different frequencies is expressed as the
channel’s frequency characteristics or frequency response.
The range that the channel can carry “reasonably well” is called the passband or the bandwidth of this
channel. This is 3.1 kHz for the local loop.

1.4.2 Channel Impairments

An ideal channel will carry the signal undistorted, while the non-ideal channel causes impairments to the
signal causing distortion at the receiving end.
1.4.2.1 Bandwidth Limitations
One of the main impairments caused by the channel is the elimination of some of the signal’s frequency
components due to the limited bandwidth. Figure 1.9 indicates the effect of different channel bandwidths
on a square waveform of 500 Hz.

1.4.2.2 Noise and Crosstalk

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In any system, irrespective of the transmission media, there is unwanted electrical energy present,
corrupting the information. This unwanted electrical energy is generally referred to as noise. Noise arises
from different sources, and the most may also be induced from natural sources such as thunderstorms and
man-made sources such as car ignition or electrical/mechanical apparatus.
Crosstalk is a type of noise that arises due to parasitic coupling between different cables lying close to
each other. This is caused by insufficient shielding, excessively large disparity between signal levels in
adjacent circuits, unbalanced lines, or overloaded carrier systems

1.4.2.3 Attenuation
As signals travel along a channel, their amplitude or power is progressively reduced because of losses in
the channel. These losses, called attenuation, may be due to;
(a) ohmic losses in conductors of the channel,
(b) dielectric and other losses, or
(c) distribution of signal power in space.
Attenuation increases with the frequency. Hence, signals with large bandwidth will undergo unequal
attenuation across their bandwidth, resulting in distortion of the signal in addition to attenuation.

1.4.2.4 The Cumulative Effect

The performance of communications channels is dependent on the combined effect of these impairments.
The Figure below shows the cumulative effect on signals.

Digital Modulation
3.1 Introduction

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As we know, a computer needs to communicate between various devices like mouse, keyboard, and
printer or between various IC’s. The information stored in these devices and computers are in binary
format, (0s and 1 s). But the devices are connected only by means of electrical connection.
Hence, we must require conversion of binary data into analog signal prior to transmission through the
electrical wires. This type of conversion or mapping is called as Digital Modulation.
Types of Digital Modulation
i) Baseband technique.
ii) Pass band technique.
i) Baseband Modulation
Low-frequency modulation is called the baseband modulation approach. Some of the examples are
popular line coding approaches, like unipolar and polar formats.
a) Unipolar format
In this format, binary 1 is represented by some voltage and binary 0 by 0 V.
For example, binary 1 by +5 V and binary 0 by 0 V. It is shown in Figure 3.1.
b) Polar format
In this format, a positive voltage is used to represent binary 1 and a negative voltage is used to represent
binary 0. For example, binary 1 by +5 V and binary 0 by −5 V. It is shown in Figure 3.2.
ii) Pass band Modulation
It is a high-frequency modulation. In this approach, user binary data are multiplied by high-frequency
(RF) carrier at the transmitter side.
Major types of pass band modulation are; Binary and M-ary modulation techniques.
a) Binary Pass band modulation
In binary modulation technique, bit 0 or 1 can be transmitted for every symbol time interval. The various
binary modulation approaches are; Amplitude shift keying (ASK), Phase shift keying (PSK), and
Frequency Shift keying (FSK).
b) M-ary modulation
In this type, more than one bit can be transmitted for every symbol period.
Some of the techniques are: QPSK (Quadrature Phase Shift Keying) – here, we transmit two binary digits
at a time; M-PSK, M-FSK, and QAM (Quadrature Amplitude modulation) – here, M represents the
number of input levels.
For example, in 8-PSK, 8 different input conditions can be transmitted or 3 binary digits at a
time.

QPSK
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PSK
PCM
FSK

3.2 Binary Modulation Techniques

3.2.1 Amplitude Shift Keying
In ASK, binary digit 1 or symbol 1 is represented by some voltage and binary digit 0 or symbol 0
represented by 0 V. It is shown in Figure below.

3.3 Phase Shift Keying

In PSK, binary digit 1 or symbol 1 is represented by some phase angle (for example, 00) and binary digit 0
or symbol 0 represented another phase angle (for example 1800). It is shown in Figure below.

3.3.4 PSK Generation

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Generation of a binary PSK signal requires representation of the input binary sequence in polar format
with symbols 1 and 0 by +√Eb and −√Eb, respectively. The resulting binary wave (polar format) and
sinusoidal carrier are applied to the product modulator.

The desired PSK signals are obtained at the modulator output. The circuit is shown below.

3.4 Frequency Shift Keying

In BFSK system symbol 1 or binary digit 1 and symbol 0 or binary digit 0 are differentiated with the help
of different phase angles. For example, symbol 0 is represented by 00 and symbol 1 represented by another
phase angle 1800. In the same manner, in BFSK, symbols 1 and 0 are differentiated by different
frequencies, i.e. symbol 0 represented by one frequency f1 and symbol 1 represented by another frequency
f2.

Hence, in FSK, with the help of frequencies, 0 and 1 are differentiated in FSK. Therefore, the modulation
technique is called as Frequency shift keying. It is shown in Figure below.

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3.6 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
In the binary PSK system, symbols 0 and 1 are differentiated by phase angles 00 and 1800. In QPSK, two
bits can be transmitted simultaneously (or we can transmit 2 bits per symbol interval).
When the symbol size is two, transmission of four different informations is possible. The information may
be 00 or 01 or 10 or 11.
In QPSK, four informations are differentiated by four phase angles. Hence, the phase angle for different
points of information are π/4 = 450, 3π/4 = 1350, 5π/4 = 2250, and 7π/4 = 3150.

CAT II

a) Briefly describe the different types of antennas [6 marks]

b) Explain the following receiver parameters [6 marks]
i) Selectivity
ii) Sensitivity
iii) Dynamic range
iv) Insertion loss
v) Noise Temperature
vi) Dynamic range
c) Describe operations in digital modulation [3 marks]
i) PCM operation

ii) PSK generation

iii) PSK reception

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