4 Failure Analysis of Semiconductor

Devices
 Contents

4.1 Importance of Failure Analysis 4- 1

4.2 Procedures for Failure Analysis 4- 1
4.2.1 Confirmation of information on failure 4- 4
4.2.2 External observation 4- 4
4.2.3 Confirmation of characteristic analysis/
failure mode 4- 4
4.2.4 Nondestructive analysis 4- 5
4.2.5 Unsealing 4- 7
4.2.6 Internal observation and measurement 4- 8
4.2.7 Search for failure locations 4-11
4.2.8 Processing technology for analyses 4-15
4.2.9 Surface microanalysis 4-17

i
 4 Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices

4. Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices

4.1 Importance of Failure Analysis
Failure analysis is the process of investigating semiconductor devices after failure by electric measurement,
and by physical and chemical analysis techniques if necessary, to confirm the reported failure and clarify the
failure mode or mechanism.
Progress of semiconductor devices has rapidly accelerated toward high integration, high density and high
functionality. In addition, use applications are widely penetrated into various civil and industrial fields.
Our company tries to consider high reliability through the design, development and manufacturing processes
of semiconductor devices with the goal of “zero failures” and to provide those products to customers.
However, it is impossible to eliminate all failures.
So, our company analyzes failures occurring during the manufacturing process, reliability test, mounting
process at the customer’s site and in the market (field), investigates the failure mechanism and cause thoroughly,
and feeds them back to each department in charge to prevent a failure from recurring.
4.2 Procedures for Failure Analysis
Figure 4.1 and Table 4.1 respectively show the procedures for failure analysis and an example of devices
to be used. When conducting failure analysis, it is recommended to adopt unified procedures, and it is
important to promote failure analysis so as to obtain information required to determine the failure mechanism.

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4 Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices

Reliability test
Arising failure Source Process
origin Burn-in
Market

Confirmation of Product class name

failure information Manufacturing code
Status of use
Symptom of failure
Discoloration/deformation
External observation Attachment of foreign substances
Crack

Check according to product specifications

Operation according to application circuits
Characteristic analysis V-I between terminals
Vibration
Heating
Baking Cooling
Condition change of characteristic operation
Damaged circuit analysis

Nondestructive X-ray fluoroscopy

analysis Ultrasonic flaw detection analysis

Mechanical unsealing
Unsealing Chemical solution
Plasma etching

Confirmation of Probe static characteristic measurement

symptoms Probe dynamic characteristic measurement

Microscopic observation
Photomicrography
Microscopic Cross-section photograph
observation Video monitor
Liquid crystal analysis

Secondary electron image

Reflection electron image
SEM Voltage contrast image
Probe determination analysis
Electromotive force image
EB tester

Etching/lapping
EPMA
Detailed chemical
physical analysis SIMS
AES

Analysis result

Feedback

Figure 4.1 Procedures of failure analysis

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 4 Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices

Table 4.1 Examples of main equipment used for failure analysis

Purpose Equipment
Stereoscopic microscope
Metallographic microscope
Infrared microscope
Ultrasonic microscope
X-ray fluoroscope
Observation Ultrasonic flaw detection equipment
Liquid crystal analysis equipment
Emission microscopic analysis equipment
Photographic projection equipment
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
OBIC/OBIRCH equipment
Curve tracer
Transistor tester/IC tester
LSI tester/memory tester
EB tester
Oscilloscope
Electrical Pulse oscillator
characteristic Ammeter/voltmeter
measurement Noise meter
Laser tester
CV meter
LCR meter
Manipulator
SR tester
Electron probe micro analyzer (EPMA)
X-ray fluorescence spectrometer
Auger electron spectroscopy (AES)
Ion micro analyzer (IMA)
Elemental Electron beam diffraction analyzer
analysis X-ray diffraction analyzer
Electron spectroscopy analyzer (ESCA)
Infrared absorption spectrometer
Emission spectrophotometer
Atomic absorption spectrometer
Ion chromatography equipment
Gas chromatography equipment
Mass spectrometer
Cutting machine/Grinding equipment
Sample packing device
Package unsealing equipment
Plasma etcher
Sample Deposition equipment
preparation Draft (discharge air/wastewater)
Etching liquid
Clean bench
Ultrasonic disc cutter
Laser cutter
FIB
NanoSpec (trade name)
Thickness/shape Ellipsometer
measurement Talystep (trade name)
Tunneling microscope

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4 Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices

4.2.1 Confirmation of information on failure

When obtaining the device to be analyzed and to analyze the failure, it is necessary to confirm the following
items.
Product class name, manufacturer name, product specification, serial number (manufacturing time)
Delivery time, contents of receiving inspection, implementation time
Implemented device, implementation condition, circuit, device position in the circuit
Failure occurrence status (use environment, use conditions, period of use, failure occurrence time)
Failure mode (any of complete failure, gradual failure and intermittent failure; electric characteristic,
failure rate)
Route and period from failure occurrence to obtainment of failed products
By studying the above information well, the contents of failure and the failure mechanism can be estimated
to some extent and concrete procedures of later failure analyses can be determined.
The number of the failed devices is usually small and there are many cases with only one. Mistakes in
analysis procedures may lead to not only the destruction of samples but also an unknown cause of failure.
Before starting failure analyses, it is vital to gather and confirm information well. During analyses, it is
important to prepare non-defective products and carry on the analysis while comparing with them.
4.2.2 External observation
The failure analysis begins with observing the failed devices well and confirming the failure mode.
Stereoscopic microscopes (with 5 to 100 times power) are the most suitable for the external observation. Pay
attention to the appearance of encapsulation resin (discoloration, attachment of foreign substances, crack)
and the appearance of leads (plating, soldering, migration, whisker, fracture). If necessary, observe with
higher-power optical microscopes or scanning electron microscopes. If there is a foreign substance, identify
the element using the surface micro-analyzer described later. If the existence of a crack is suspected, detect the
position and the size using ultrasonic flaw detection equipment (SAT analysis).
4.2.3 Confirmation of characteristic analysis/failure mode
After the external observation, confirm the failure mode. Check the operating conditions of circuits using
curve tracers, oscilloscopes or LSI testers or the like, and compare them with the characteristics of product
specifications and non-defective products. If the failure does not reappear, measure at high temperature or
after vibration tests. If the failure is not found, it may not be caused by the device itself, so it is necessary to
study the occurrence status again.

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 4 Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices

4.2.4 Nondestructive analysis

a) X-ray fluoroscopy
This is the method to observe the internal state nondestructively without unsealing the package of the device.
As the transmission rate of X-rays differs according to the quality of materials or the thickness, the internal
structure is obtained as a contrast image of the X-ray. Aluminum (Al), silicon (Si) and the like with light
atomic weight have a high transmission rate and are difficult to identify, but gold (Au), cupper (Cu), iron (Fe),
solder (Sn, Bi, Ag, Pd) and the like have a low transmission rate, so the state can be identified easily. The state
of bonding wires (wire breakage, short-circuit, wire flow), the state of die bond (spread/void), voids and the
like in the encapsulation resin can be confirmed (Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3). Recently there is equipment
with small X-ray focus (1 μm to 10 μm) and it is applied to the analysis of compact packages such as CSP (chip
size package) or TCP (tape carrier package).

Au bump

Places short-circuited
by the attachment of
foreign

Figure 4.2 Case example of Figure 4.3 Case example of X-ray analysis of
X-ray analysis of wire flow short-circuit between CSP bumps

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4 Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices

b) Ultrasonic flaw detection analysis (SAT analysis)

Formerly, when analyzing the interfacial delamination between a package crack or Si chip or a die pad (lead
frame) and encapsulation resin, the method of cutting the package and grinding the cross section (destructive
analysis) was employed.
There are some problems in this method, such as inefficiency (working hours, number of processed
pieces), difficulty in positioning analysis places and the occurrence of troubles (delamination, crack). These
arise from the analysis being made by destroying the package.
On the other hand, SAT (scanning acoustic tomograph) is a method of analyzing using ultrasonic waves
without destroying the package.
The ultrasonic wave transmitting medium is partially reflected and partially transmissive if there is any
interface with a different medium (Snell’s law). If ultrasonic waves are projected from the surface of the package,
the ultrasonic waves transmit resin, reach the surface of Si chip and at the interface reflected waves and
transparent waves are generated (Figure 4.4).
Therefore, the defects and the structure inside the package can be analyzed two-dimensionally by receiving
the reflected waves moving (scanning) a lens tube (transducer) discharging ultrasonic waves and by performing
image processing (tone indication) of the characteristics (mainly the intensity of reflected wave) (Figure 4.5).
For example, if the delamination is generated at the interface between the resin and the silicon chip, almost
all the incident ultrasonic waves in the delamination (air layer) are reflected, so the reflected waves with high
intensity are received and the delamination can be detected. As the delamination and cracks generated in the
package are in a minute air layer, they can be also detected.
However, if the package surface is uneven, a black shadow may appear in a marking part as the ultrasonic
waves reflect diffusely on the uneven part.
SAT analyses are positioned as an analysis technology essential for semiconductor packages which will
become more and more important, including the reduction of the lead time for development, evaluation cost
reduction, analysis accuracy improvement, etc.

Ultrasonic pulse
Place where a black shadow
appears due to marking
(Transmitting wave) (Receiving wave) Chip

Water
Reflected wave Inner lead

Delamination
places
Resin Chip

Die pad

Figure 4.4 Ultrasonic exploration Figure 4.5 Case example of analysis (delamination
principle on a white part at the corner of the chip surface)

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4.2.5 Unsealing
The purpose of unsealing is to expose the surface of the chip without damaging the surface of the silicon
chip, the wire and the lead frame and to make the later observation and measurement, but it is unexpectedly
difficult to unseal in a non-skilled method and firmly. During unsealing, it is important to select the method
in view of the types and the materials of packages. In case of ceramic encapsulation devices, the cover is
unsealed with a mechanical technique. Currently, mainstream plastic encapsulation devices are unsealed using
the following:
a) Encapsulation resin dissolution by chemicals
b) Encapsulation resin ashing by a plasma reactor
c) Mechanical unsealing
In addition, recently new types of packages such as CSP (chip size package) or TCP (tape carrier package)
are used, and various unsealing methods suitable for them are reported4.1).
a) Encapsulation resin dissolution by chemicals
Fuming nitric acid (70°C to 80°C) and sulfuric acid (200°C to 250°C) are used to dissolve epoxy group resin.
The URESOLVE (trade name) and the like are used to dissolve silicon group resin.
Though dissolution by chemicals can be done easily, it has the disadvantages that it requires much skill and
that the foreign substances on the surface of chips might be removed at the same time. In practical application,
samples useful for the later observation and measurement can be obtained if the wire and the lead are kept as
they are when the resin on the chip has been partially removed with a drill and dissolved until the whole
surface of the chip is exposed.
Unsealing using chemicals must be conducted in a draft as it is harmful and dangerous to human bodies.
Also, the waste disposal must be done in compliance with the law.
b) Encapsulation resin ashing by a plasma reactor
In this method, oxygen (O2) gas in a plasma state is reacted with encapsulation resin and removed. The
drawback of this method is that it takes a long time to process samples as the reaction rate is slow (approx.
50 μm/h), but its use has been gradually generalized as the state of the surface of the chip is well kept.
c) Mechanical unsealing
In this method, unsealing is conducted by cutting the resin with a mechanical force using metal scissors,
pincers, nippers, files, etc. The surface of the chip is exposed relatively easily by breaking the device when
it is taken out and put into a solder bath and thermal stress is applied to it. Though this method can be
conducted most easily, the drawback is the lack of certainty.

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4.2.6 Internal observation and measurement

The device, with the surface of the chip exposed by unsealing, is observed with a stereoscopic microscope
and then with an optical microscope. With the stereoscopic microscope, the state of chips (cracks, the
attachment of foreign substances), the state of die bonds, the state of wires and the state of leads are observed
carefully. It is important to change the lighting conditions by tilting the device in various directions. Then the
surface of the chip is observed with the optical microscope. Optical microscopes are essential to the observation
of the surface of chips as they have 1500 times power. As the surfaces of the chips differ in the thickness of
oxide films, etc., they are colored by interference. As the interference color depends on the film thickness,
abnormalities of the film thickness can be detected by comparing with non-defective products. The
abnormalities detected by internal observations are as follows:
Attachment of foreign substances
Pattern abnormalities
Abnormalities of the film thickness
Wire breakage, short-circuit
Corrosion of Al wire
Al migration
Cracks on passivation films
a) Optical microscopic observation
As optical microscopes have been used for a long time and there are a variety of different types, it is important
to select and use those most suitable, according to their features. Table 4.2 shows the types and the features
of optical microscopes.

Table 4.2 Types and features of optical microscopes often used for failure analysis

Types and attached Magnifying Features/applications

functions of microscope power
x0.7 Used for macro observations such as low power, long
Stereoscopic
to operating distance, wide field, three-dimensional
microscope
x160 observation and packages

Metallographic Microscopes used for the most varied purposes in the

microscope field of microelectronics. Usually used in the bright field
and incidence. The following functions are included.
Abnormalities on the surface can be detected by
Dark field projecting light at a sharp angle to the surface of
samples.
x25 Create a color coordinating the difference between the
Differential to unevenness on the surface of samples by using a prism
interference x1500 and polarized light.
Abnormalities and defects on the surface can be detected
Polarization system coordinately by using two rotating polarized light filters.

Observe the bonding condition between the silicon ship

Infrared system and the die pad utilizing a high transmission property of
infrared ray for silicon.

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 4 Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices

Metallographic microscopes are the most widely used in the field of semiconductors for observation by
projecting light on the sample and magnifying the light reflected from the surface of the sample with a lens.
With dark-field microscopes, the unevenness on the surface is emphasized by projecting light diagonally on
the sample. In differential interference, the unevenness of the sample appears colored for emphasis. Polarization
systems are effective for observing the structure of transparent samples by using polarized light and are used
for observing in liquid crystal analysis to detect the position of leaks on chips. In infrared systems, the state
of die bonds under the silicon chips can be observed by using a high transmission property of infrared ray for
silicon.
b) SEM observation
SEMs (scanning electron microscopes) as well as optical microscopes are widely used for failure analyses.
With SEMs, the surface of the sample is observed by projecting electron beams on the sample and detecting
the secondary electron emitted from the sample, and the sample can be magnified from a few times to 100,000
times. As SEMs have a large focus depth and it is easy to obtain the observations of stereoscopic shapes, they
are used not only for failure analyses but also for acceptance inspections of materials or parts and for quality
control in the manufacturing process. Figure 4.6 shows observation example of the surface of the chip by SEM.

Figure 4.6 Case example of observation of SEM

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4 Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices

With SEMs, not only is the shape of the surface of the sample observed using the secondary electron,
but a wide variety of information can also be obtained by adding various kinds of observation equipment.
VC (voltage contrast) method
In this method, voltage is applied to the sample electrode and the distribution of potentials on the
surface of the chip is obtained. Though the materials of wires are the same, the contrasts differ according
to potentials, so potential maps can be obtained.
EBIC (electron beam induced current) method
This method utilizes the phenomenon that electric current flows when the electron beam is irradiated on
the p-n junction, and it is used for the determination of the position of the p-n junction or the diffusion
depth.
CL (cathode luminescence) method
This method utilizes the phenomenon that the electron excited by electron beams and the positive hole
emit light at the time of recombination, and it is used for the determination of defects inside chips,
precipitation and the length of carrier diffusion.
EPMA (electron probe micro analysis) method
This is the method of elemental analyses using characteristic X-rays emitted from the samples. The
details of this method are described in “4.2.9 Surface microanalysis”.
c) TEM observation
While SEMs are equipment by which electron beams are reflected on the surface of the sample, TEMs
(transmission electron microscopes) to make observations by transmitting electron rays are also effective.
TEMs have a resolution of approx. 0.1 nm to 0.2 nm and it is possible to magnify to the atomic level. So, they
are used to observe tiny precipitate and lattice defects in chips, but it is rather difficult to prepare the samples
because the sample thickness must be reduced to approx. 0.1 μm.

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 4 Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices

4.2.7 Search for failure locations

Recent semiconductor devices may not be able to identify failure locations only by internal observations
because of the advanced miniaturization and high integration. To identify the failure locations is the most
important analysis to determine the failure mechanism. EB tester analysis, liquid crystal analysis or emission
microscope analysis, and wiring-part defect analysis using OBIRCH equipment are some of the methods to
search the failure locations, and each of them is effective. Each method is described below.
a) EB tester analysis
EB tester analysis is the method for detecting the operating waveform and the potential contrast image of
a device without contact by operating the semiconductor device with an LSI tester in SEM. An example of EB
tester analysis is shown in Figure 4.7.

Figure 4.7 Case example of EB tester analysis (wire breakage)

b) CAD navigation
This is a method to make identifying the region in large integrated circuits infinitely easier by linking design
layout data (electronic file) and the positional information of analysis equipment such as an EB tester.

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4 Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices

c) Liquid crystal analysis method

In case of leak current trouble in the device, the place of leak occurrence generates heat, so the temperature
of the place rises. A certain type of liquid crystal causes phase transition at near ordinary temperatures, and
becomes the transmission state of polarized light due to ups and downs of the transition point, so by using
this, the places of leak occurrence can be identified. Figure 4.8 shows a case example of liquid crystal analysis
methods.

Figure 4.8 Case example of liquid crystal analysis4.2)

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 4 Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices

d) Emission microscopic analysis

Emission microscopes are equipment for detecting luminous phenomena occurring when voltage is applied
to the device. In case of leak current trouble in the device, the electric field is concentrated on the failure
locations and hot carrier is generated. Then the weak light emitted during recombination is detected by highly
sensitive detectors and observed as a luminescence image, and the luminous places (failure locations) are
identified. Figure 4.9 shows the case example.
Recently multilayer wiring structures have become the mainstream, with the high integration of semiconductor
devices. So, the luminous phenomena may not be detected from the surface of chips. Then, these days, the
luminous places may sometimes be identified by processing the device and using the emission microscope
from the back surface of chips. Figure 4.10 shows the case example.

Figure 4.9 Case example of emission Figure 4.10 Case example of emission
microscope analysis microscope analysis from back surface

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4 Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices

e) Wiring-part defect analysis using OBIRCH equipment

OBIRCH (optical beam induced resistance change) methods are the methods for detecting the change in the
current due to the temperature rise of wiring caused by laser beam irradiation on Al wiring4.3). The temperature
rise at the moment the laser is irradiated on the point with defects such as voids at the wiring part is bigger
than that during irradiation on the points without defects. Consequently, the resistance increase in defective
parts becomes large and the current decrease becomes large, too. This current change is detected by a highly
sensitive detector and the defective parts are identified. Figure 4.11 shows the case example.

Failure point

(a) Failure identified by OBIRCH (b) Cross section observation of failure part by SIM
Figure 4.11 Case example of analysis in OBIRCH method4.4)

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 4 Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices

4.2.8 Processing technology for analyses

a) Etching
In order to carry on analyses, it is necessary to remove a part of the sample device by dissolution. Table
4.3 shows the etching liquid usually used. During etching, it is necessary to select an etching liquid that does
not dissolve other substances but dissolves only the intended substances. For the measurement of film
thickness, there are optical methods such as ellipsometers, NanoSpec (trade name) and mechanical methods
using contact needles such as Talystep (trade name).

Table 4.3 Etching liquid usually used

Substance Etching liquid composition Remarks

28ml : HF
100 to
SiO2 170ml : H2O
250nm/min
113g : NH3

PSG Same as above 550nm/min

100nm/min
HF
CVD at 800°C
Si3N4
10nm/min
H3PO4
180°C

1ml : HF
Polysilicon 26ml : HNO2 150nm/min
33ml : CH3COOH

1ml : HCl
Al
2ml : H2O

4g : KI
0.5μm/min to
Au 1g : I2
1μm/min
40ml : H2O

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4 Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices

b) Cross-section grinding
In case of observing the cross section of the sample (cross section of chip, cross section of lead frame, cross
section of encapsulation resin), observe by embedding the sample in the resin and exposing the intended cross
section by grinding. In this case, it may be necessary to cut or form the sample to be suitable for embedding.
In each case, process in such a way that mechanical stress is not applied, and so that there is no alteration of
samples due to temperature rise. When selecting embedding resin, resin with the best adhesion to samples
must be selected. When grinding, change sanding sheets successively from those with large particle size to
those with small particle size, but be careful not to leave scars due to grinding on the sample. Figure 4.12 shows
a photograph of the cross section of the chip.

Figure 4.12 Cross section of chips by cross-section grinding

c) FIB processing
In order to observe the cross section of arbitrary places of miniaturized semiconductor devices, FIB (focused
ion beam) equipment with alternative etching functions and SIM functions exercise its power these days. In
FIB equipment, micro alternative etching can be realized by narrowing down a gallium ion (Ga+) beam to
approx. 0.1 μmm and irradiating it to the sample. The usage of this equipment enables cross-sectional observation
to advance dramatically. Figure 4.13 shows a photograph of the cross section processed by FIB equipment.

Cu

Low- k

N iS i
55nm

S TI

Figure 4.13 Cross-section view of chip by FIB processing4.5)

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 4 Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices

4.2.9 Surface microanalysis

In analyzing failures, there may be some cases that require elemental analyses of trace substances. Recently,
surface microanalysis of solid substances has been developed significantly and samples of 1 μm3 can be analyzed
at a sensitivity of 100 ppm.
The principle of surface analysis is to identify elements by projecting electrons, ions, light, X-rays, etc. on
the sample and detecting electrons, ions, light, X-rays, etc. emitted from the sample. Table 4.4 shows a
synopsis of surface microanalysis technology.
a) EPMA (XMA) (electron probe micro analysis)
EPMAs are in the most widespread use for analysis, usually equipped with SEMs. Making observation with
SEM, the identification of elements on the spot and the measurements of the element distribution on the
surface of the sample can be made. In EPMAs, as specific characteristic X-rays are generated in the sample
elements in case of the incidence of electron rays on the sample, the elements are identified by dispersing
characteristic X-rays. Also, the abundance can be determined from X-ray intensity. There are WDX (wavelength
dispersion method) and EDX (energy dispersion method) detection methods of X-rays. Each method has its
positive features and both are widely used. Figure 4.14 shows measurement examples of the element
distribution of foreign substances by EPMA.

(a) SEM image in the wiring part (b) Measurement example of Al element in EPMA
Figure 4.14 Example of EPMA analysis of foreign substance in chip

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4 Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices

b) SIMS (secondary ion mass spectrometry)

In SIMS, argon (Ar), oxygen (O), etc. are irradiated on the sample and the elements are identified by mass
analysis of ions emitted from the sample by sputtering. There are many types of SIMS, using various
irradiation systems and detection systems, but the method that analyzes surfaces using fine ion beams is
called I(M)MA. I(M)MA can analyze all the elements. As its detection limit is approx. 1 ppm and it is highly
sensitive, it is used for the identification of foreign substances, the measurement of diffusion profile, etc.
c) AES (Auger electron spectroscopy)
In AES, elements are analyzed by incidence of low accelerated electrons and by dispersing Auger electrons
generated from the sample. As the depth resolution of this method is as shallow as 1 to 2 nm, it is very
effective for measuring the composition of 2 or 3 atomic layers on the surface of the sample. This method can
analyze all the elements except hydrogen (H) and helium (He). The sensitivity differs according to the
element, but it is approximately 0.1% of the atomic layer. It can measure the profiles of the depth directions
of foreign substances and thin films in conjunction with sputtering devices.
d) ESCA (XPS) (electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis)
ESCAs disperse photoectrons emitted from the sample by incidence of X-rays or ultraviolet rays to the
sample. As not only the identification of elements but also the chemical-bonding state can be seen, this
method can analyze the interface between semiconductors and insulating films.
e) XRFS (X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy)
XRFSs identify elements by incidence of X-rays to the sample and by dispersing X-rays emitted from the
sample. XRFSs are used for analyzing foreign substances, and for quantitative analyses of phosphorous (P)
of passivation films, etc.
These surface microanalysis technologies serve as very powerful tools for failure analyses because they
can make elemental analyses of micro regions of μm order at the sensitivity of approx. ppm. The handling of
the equipment and the interpretation of the results require high technology and experience.

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 Table 4.4 Summary of surface microanalysis technologies
Source: OYO BUTURI, Vol. 51, p. 827 (1982)
Abbrevia- Name Input Detection Principle or Method Obtainable Information Application Resolution
tion
Energy dispersion of Auger Able to analyze the surface Surface oxidation, contamination, (Radius) 0.1 mm to 1 mm
electron (by CMA, etc.), record element (above Li) and depth in impurity analysis, depth direction (Thickness) 1 nm to 2 nm
AES Auger Electron Electron Auger electron of differential curves. conjunction with ion guns elemental analysis, composition
Spectroscopy (0.1 keV to 5 keV) analysis of layer such as
intermediate reaction

Analytical Electron Electron Electron STEM+EDX(+ELS) (+DLTS) Able to collect complementary Micro region TED (to 20 nm) (Radius) 0. some nm
AEM (100 keV to (transmission/ (+SACP selection field data with various attachments as Micro region EDX (to 10 nm)
Microscopy 200 keV) diffraction) channeling pattern) well as STEM functions Micro region SACP (to 3 nm)

Electron Light emission by recombination Nonradiative state in the Defects in semiconductors, (Radius) >0.5 μm
(Some to some Photon of electron-hole of electron beam unexcited part or the quick precipitates, impurity (Thickness) to 1μm
CL Cathodeluminescence
dozens of keV) excitation recombination part segregation, measurement of
carrier diffusion length
Distribution of electromotive force Existence centering carrier Existence of dislocation penetrating (Radius) 1 μm to some μm
EBIC Electron Beam Electron Current effects of metal-semiconductor by recombination such as crystal p-n junction, analysis of degradation (Thickness) Some μm
Induced Current (10 keV to 40 keV) electron-hole of electron beam defects near junctions of light-emitting device,
4

excitation, or both ends of p-n junction measurement of diffusion length

Pulse-height analysis of Elemental composition analysis Utilization as a means of (Radius) >10 nm
EDX Energy Dispersive X-ray Electron irradiated X-ray energy (pulse- through the energy distribution EPMA (in case of using STEM)
X-ray Spectroscopy (Some to 30 keV) height) by semiconductor of X-ray intensity (sensitivity of (Thickness) 0.3 μm to some μm
detectors (SSD) such as Si (Li) 0.1% and more) (Energy, substance dependence)
Spectroanalysis of the light Energy level and relative Degradation analysis of light- PL law is used in case of
EL Electroluminescence Current Light emitted during recombination of concentration centering band emitting device, defects in special analysis.
a few carriers forward bias is gap, emission recombination process introduction, impurity
applied to and injected to evaluation
Dispersion by EDX or WDX of Elemental composition analysis Composition analysis on wafer (Radius) >0.5 μm
EPMA Electron Probe Micro Electron Characteristic characteristic X-rays generated (above Na with EDX, above and device (ultrathin film, not (Thickness) 0.3 μm to some μm
Analysis (Some to 50 keV) X-ray by electron beam irradiation boron (B) with WDX) applicable), contamination, (Energy, substance
detection of attachment dependence)
Electromagnetic ESR in case of paramagnetic Position of impurity in
EPR Electron Paramagnetic wave Electromagnetic samples semiconductor bulk crystal,
Resonance (to 10 MHz) wave defective structure
Generic designation of XPS and Utilization of SOR
ESCA Electron Spectroscopy UPS (synchrotron orbital radiation)
for Chemical Analysis is expected.
Measurement of resonant Identification of impurity ion, Identification of defects by
Electron Spin Electromagnetic absorption spectrum by transition defective structure, electron spin hydrogen (H), etc. in α-Si
ESR wave Electromagnetic between Zeeman levels generated relaxation, electron spin
Resonance
(to 10 MHz) wave placing electron spin in the interaction
magnetic external field

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Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices
 4
Abbrevia- Name Input Detection Principle or Method Obtainable Information Application Resolution
tion
High electrical field is formed at Record of emission probability Semiconductor structure, (Radius) Some nm
Electrical field the end of needle-like metal, on the surface of high electrical surface diffusion, analysis of (Thickness) Monoatomic layer
FEM Field Emission (to some dozens Neutral atom energy more than work function field as a figure, surface atomic depth of field penetration
Microscopy of keV) is obtained and atom is radiated structure, atom motion
to outside of vacuum.
Field evaporation ion at the end Record of ionization energy Si atomic structure (superlattice (Radius) 0. some nm to
Electrical field of needle-like metal or surface distribution on the surface of structure, etc.), atomic structure some nm
FIM Field Ion Microscopy (to some dozens Ionized atom
(Thickness) Monoatomic layer
field distribution is converted to high electrical field as a figure of compound semiconductor
of keV) ionization rate such as rare gas.

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Electron High voltage TEM TEM image of thick sample Dynamic observation of (Radius) Some nm
High Voltage Electron Electron
HVEM (transmission/ dislocation
Microscopy (0.5 MeV and more)
diffraction)
Same as RBS
IBS Ion Back Scattering

Sputter-ionize surface substances One-dimensional elemental Composition analysis of (Radius) 1 μm to 2 μm,

with primary ion, analyze with composition analysis, depth multilayer epitaxial layer, surface ionization type ion:
IMMA Ion Microprobe (Mass) Ion (Ar, O, Cs, etc.) Secondary ion mass analyzer, micro beam direction composition analysis impurity diffusion, residual
Analysis (Some keV to 0.1 μm
30 keV) scanning method and image (composition sensitivity ppb to ppm, impurity analysis (Thickness) Some nm to
conversion method. larger dependence on elements) 10 nm

Photon Change the number of frequency Identification of substances from Measurement of concentration (Wave number) > 0.1 cm-1
Infrared Absorption Photon (wavelength) of infrared rays and absorption band peculiar to of oxygen (O) and carbon (C)
Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices

IR (Infrared rays
Spectroscopy (transmission) irradiate, measure the absorption molecule or analysis of molecule in silicon
2.5 μm to 16 μm)
spectrum by molecular vibration. structure
Vertical incidence of low-speed Surface crystal structure, Thin film crystal structure, (Thickness) Some atomic
electron beam on the surface of absorption state, surface atom semiconductor surface layer
LEED Low Energy Electron Electron Electron the sample, image formation of rearrangement, etc. absorption layer
Diffraction (15 keV to 500 keV) (diffraction) reflective diffraction pattern on (superperiodic lattice structure)
hemisphere fluorescent screen
Incidence of low-speed electron Surface electronic state of single Electronic structure of
Electron beam on the surface of the sample, crystal (band structure) semiconductor clean surface,
LEELS Low Energy Electron (≤ some hundreds Electron measurement of energy distribution impurity absorption surface
Loss Spectroscopy of eV) of reflection electron by applying AC structure
to electron gun accelerating voltage
Measurement of resonant Nuclear internal field, Analysis of hydrogen (H) and
absorption spectrum by transition identification of nuclide from fluorine (F) in α-silicon
NMR Nuclear Magnetic Electromagnetic Electromagnetic between Zeeman levels generated nuclear spin relaxation, atomic
Resonance wave wave by placing nuclear spin in the arrangement of substances
magnetic external field
 Abbrevia- Name Input Detection Principle or Method Obtainable Information Application Resolution
tion
Spectroanalysis of the light Energy level and relative Evaluation of crystal growth, (Radius) Some μm
emitted during recombination of concentration centering band analysis of defects in process The depth depends on
PL Photoluminescence Light Light electrons excited by irradiation gap and emission recombination introduction such as ion optical-absorption length.
of light such as laser implantation, identification of
impurities
Backward anelasticity Rearrangement of surface Wafer surface rearrangement, (Radius) 5 nm to 20 nm
H+, He+ ion (Rutherford), estimation of construction atoms, interstitial atomic site of impurity (The heavier element,
RBS Rutherford Back (Some hundreds of Scattered ion energy dispersion and quantity site of impurity atom using diffusion, structural analysis of the smaller)
Scattering eV to some MeV) of scattered ion channeling phenomena, thin films (SiO2/Si, etc.)
existence of defects
AES scanning micro electron Three-dimensional elemental Local composition analysis of the (Radius) ≥ 50 nm
SAM Scanning Auger Electron Auger electron beam (SEM type: ≤ 20 nm, composition analysis of surface surface of wafer, device, analysis (Thickness) 0. some nm to
Microscopy (3 keV to 20 keV) CMA type: to 100 nm) thin films, rather difficult of various contamination, 2 nm
analysis of chemical shift oxidation, reaction layer
Scanning Auger Same as SAM
SAES Electron
Spectroscopy

Secondary Scan micro electron beam and Uneven surface shape, Various materials, surface (Radius) > 3 nm
4

Scanning Electron Electron electron record the intensity of secondary qualitative composition analysis shapes of devices, length
SEM Microscopy (5 keV to 50 keV) Reflection electron (SE) and reflection measurement standards, etc. can
electron electron (BE) in synchronization be recorded simultaneously.
with primary beam scanning.
Scan micro ion beam and record Uneven surface shape, material Surface thin layer shape of (Radius) >10 nm
Scanning Ion Ga+ ion Secondary the intensity of secondary difference, grain size or various materials and device
SIM Microscopy (5 keV to 30 keV) electron electron (SE) in synchronization direction difference. (Depth to 40 nm), grain status.
with primary beam scanning.

Sputter-ionize surface Elemental composition analysis Composition analysis of surface (Radius) 100 μm to 500 μm
Ion (Ar, O) substances with primary ion and of surface substances (secondary monoatomic layer, surface (Thickness) Monoatomic
SIMS Secondary Ion Mass (Some hundreds of Secondary ion analyze with mass analyzer. distribution not applicable), but absorption, contaminated layer to some atomic layer
Spectrometry eV to 10 keV) Primary ion is not scanned. higher sensitivity than I(M)MA impurity analysis, impurity
analysis of ion-implanted layer
Detect the flowing current when Specific resistance Resistivity measurement of (Width-Thickness) Some μm
forward voltage is applied to metal bulk, epitaxial wafer
SR Spreading Resistance Voltage Current probe contacted with the surface of
semiconductor, and obtain specific
resistance. Two-probe method

Electron Electron TEM including the mechanism SEM mode image by secondary Usable as AEM (Radius) to 1 nm
Scanning Transmission (Some dozens to (transmission/ able to scan primary irradiation electron applicable, most able to (Thickness) Some nm
STEM diffraction)
Electron Microscopy 200 keV) beam add EELS, etc.
Secondary electron

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Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices
 4
Abbrevia- Name Input Detection Principle or Method Obtainable Information Application Resolution
tion
Using the dependence of emitted Carrier flow in electronic circuit, Potential change in the unit of (Radius) > 3 nm
secondary electron dose on etc., potential change, signal ps in IC circuit, operating
Strobo- Electron Secondary surface potential of substances, propagation rate, etc. analysis
Stroboscopic SEM (Some keV to electron measure potential distribution by
SEM 30 keV) phase synchronization with
pulsed irradiation beam.
Diffraction by primary thermal Crystal cross-section shape, Crystal defects in (Radius) to 0. some nm
Electron
Transmission Electron Electron electron or field-emission crystal structure analysis by semiconductor materials (Thickness) to 5 nm
TEM (transmission/
Microscopy (30 keV to 200 keV) electron, or record of transmission diffraction, existence of defects, (dislocation, precipitates, etc.), (Stereographic image)
diffraction)

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magnified image, also called CEM etc. crystal structure analysis
Energy dispersion of Elemental composition analysis Surface treatment state, (Thickness) Monoatomic layer
Ultraviolet Photon photoelectron (valence electron, of surface substances, electronic interaction of transition metal
UPS Photo-emission (Ultraviolet ray, Photoelectron conduction electron) of surface level, estimation of and absorbed electron,
Spectroscopy 4 eV to 40 eV) ultraviolet excited wavelength, dissociation or non-dissociation, interfacial reaction layer
measurement of electronic chemical-bonding state structure
energy of shallow levels
Disperse wavelength of Elemental composition analysis Used as a means of EPMA (Radius) Some μm
X-ray irradiation X-ray by Bragg through wavelength distribution (Thickness) 0.3 μm to
WDX Wavelength Dispersive (Some to some X-ray reflection by dispersive crystal of X-ray intensity (sensitivity: some μm
X-ray Spectroscopy dozens of keV) (diffraction) and measure the intensity by 0.01% and more) (Energy, substance
photoelectric conversion. dependence)
Record diffraction X-ray pattern Crystal structure analysis, detection Crystallinity, defect (twin (Thickness) 0.1 to some
Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices

X-ray or intensity by Bragg reflection of directions, photographic crystal, etc.) evaluation dozens of μm
XD X-ray Diffractometry X-ray (diffraction) on crystal lattice surface. method, chart method (single
crystal, powder, etc.)

X-ray Microprobe Same as EPMA

XMA Analysis

Energy dispersion of X-ray With the shift of atomic orbital Elemental composition, band (Thickness) 1 nm to some nm
X-ray (usually AlK ray, Mgk ray, etc.) energy in chemical-bonding structure of crystal, measurement
XPS X-ray Photo-emission Photoelectron excited photoelectron (core state, detect chemical shift of bonding state, analysis of
Spectroscopy (Some keV to
10 keV) electron) especially in light elements. interface between semiconductor
and insulating film

X-ray Fluorescence X-ray, RI Characteristic Spectroanalysis by EDX or WDX Elemental composition analysis Analysis of surface attached (Thickness) 0.1 μm to
XRFS Spectroscopy radiation source X-ray of secondary (fluorescent) X-ray (above N), difficult for below Ni substances some μm
(10 keV to 100 keV) (fluorescence) in two-crystal method
Parallel scanning of dispersion Crystal defect (dislocation), Defect distribution in wafers (Radius) to 5 μm
X-ray X-ray
XRT X-ray Topography X-ray beam together with the precipitates, imaging of impurity (bulk, device process, distorted (Thickness) to 10 μm
(Some keV to (diffraction) sample, record of diffraction image concentration stripe on distribution, etc.) (Section topograph)
30 keV)
corresponding to single crystal photograph or TV screen
 4 Failure Analysis of Semiconductor Devices

Reference documents:
4.1) Matsushita, Matsushima, and Wada, “Basic Reliability of CSP and Consideration of Failure
Analysis Technique”, The 26th Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers, pp. 99-104 (1996).
4.2) Kataoka and Wada, “Higher Accuracy of Liquid Crystal Analysis Technique”, The 26th Union of
Japanese Scientists and Engineers, pp. 113-118 (1995).
4.3) Nikawa and Inoue, “Failure Analysis Technique of LSI Using Laser Beam Radiation”, The 25th
Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers, pp. 29-36 (1995).
4.4) Nakano and Wada, “Al Void Growth in W Via Hole by Stress Migration”, The 44th Japan Society
of Applied Physics, 29a-pc-20 p. 758 (1997).
4.5) Fujii et al., “65 nm Process Technology”, Matsushita Technical Journal Vol. 52, No. 1, p. 13 (2006).

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