Running head: THE DISCOVERY OF PENICILLIN

The Discovery of Penicillin

Vanessa Grout

University of South Carolina- Lancaster

Abstract

The following research analyzes Alexander Fleming’s discovery of penicillin and his

ability to understand the importance of his observation as well as Florey, Chain, and Heatley’s

success in purifying the penicillin mold led to the production of the first antibiotic drug in

history. In addition, the discovery of penicillin and the production of antibiotic drugs led to a

scientific revolution in medicine. Out of the few scientific contributions, Alexander Fleming’s

discovery of penicillin was the greatest of all. Fleming’s refusal in patenting his scientific

research allowed for the unprejudiced availability of the life saving drug. An issue predicted by

Alexander Fleming, was the misuse and overuse of antibiotics that has caused resistance in some

bacterial strains. The future of antibiotics depends on the development of new medical

technologies and advancements in scientific medicine to defeat the growing number of resistant

bacterial strains.

Keywords: discovery of penicillin, science or technology, accident versus trial and error,

Alexander Fleming’s contributions in medical science, patents and ethics, and antibiotic

resistance
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The discovery of penicillin was developed through the collaborative approach by a

multidisciplinary team of scientists. Bacteriologist Dr. Alexander Fleming at St. Mary’s Hospital

first discovered the mold on a petri dish and acknowledged the mold’s antibacterial properties.

Pathologist Dr. Howard Florey at Oxford and biochemist Dr. Ernst Chain and microbiologist

Norman Heatley contributed to the production of the antibiotic drug known as penicillin. Today,

penicillin is an antimicrobial drug used to treat bacterial infections such as staphylococcus

aureus, streptococcus, and bacterial pneumonia (Wennergren, Lagercrantz, & Wennergren,

2007). Major impacts due to the development of antibiotics include prolonged life expectancy,

reduced risk of death after surgery, and the successful treatment of certain infectious disease. The

development of antibiotics has greatly influenced how we treat patients with bacterial infections

over the years.

According to the book The Germ Theory, “Penicillin was discovered by accident, versus

trial and error”(Gaynes, R.P, 2011, p. 266). Alexander Fleming discovered the mold, which

produced penicillin on a petri dish containing a culture of staphylococcus aureus that was

partially lysed by the mold. The discovery of the penicillin mold required research skills and

scientific knowledge of the microbiological event that had occurred on the petri dish. The Book,

Eureka, argues that the discovery of penicillin was based on Fleming’s observation and

bacteriology background which led to his ability to recognize the significance of the mold culture

in addition to his use of deductive reasoning (Horvitz, 2002, p. 118). Fleming used microscopic

examination to determine that the substance was a mold (Horvitz, 2002, p.120). In addition, he

conducted experiments to determine the effects of penicillin on certain types of infectious

bacteria. By 1932, Fleming abandoned the penicillin research due to lack of funding and the
Running head: THE DISCOVERY OF PENICILLIN 4

inability to purify the mold (Horvitz, 2002, p.121). Another book, The Mold in Dr. Florey’s

Coat, argues that credit should not be given to Fleming because his discovery of penicillin was

due to mere luck. Fleming observed the “penicillin effect” which caused the cell walls to

degrade, disabling the bacteria’s ability to replicate resulting in the death of bacteria (Lax, 2005,

p.17). In reality, it was Fleming’s discovery of penicillin that led to the start of the antibiotic

revolution. However, Florey and Chain were successful in isolating the mold and were able to

develop the first antibiotic drug (Lax, 2005 p.31).

How does the discovery of penicillin relate to science and technology? The development

of the first antibiotic could be considered a technology for the practical use of treating a patient

suffering from certain types of infectious disease. In addition, the concept of developing

penicillin could be based on scientific observation and method. However, during the 19th century

science was utilized for practical benefits (McClellan & Dorn, 2006, p. 392). According to the

book, Science and Technology in World History, a new concept known as applied sciences,

which integrated science and technology was born (McClellan & Dorn, 2006, p. 362). In reality,

antibiotics are products of theoretical science that are used to solve practical problems in society

(McClellan & Dorn, 2006, p. 362). Also, antibiotics are an example of theoretical science

transformed into technology (McClellan & Dorn, 2006, p. 396). Thus, the development of

antibiotics is considered a scientific and technological breakthrough in medicine.

Some skeptics argue that Alexander Fleming’s contributions in medical science were

minimal. One of Fleming’s scientific contributions included running a clinical trial for a drug

known as Salvarsan and being the first to use this chemotherapeutic drug to treat syphilis patients

(Gaynes, R. P., 2011, p. 268). Fleming was able to conduct clinical trials as part of his

bacteriology research. During WW1, Fleming cultured and identified bacteria on soldiers’
Running head: THE DISCOVERY OF PENICILLIN 5

wound infections. In addition, Fleming discovered that Joseph Lister’s sterilization method

through the use of carbolic acid not only destroyed bacteria, but also the body’s natural immune

cells or white blood cells. Fleming believed “that a chemical substance with anti-bacterial

properties could one day be injected into the bloodstream with the purpose of only destroying

bacteria that caused infection” (Gaynes, R. P., 2011, p. 269). Also, Fleming is given credit for

the discovery of lysozyme, an enzyme that causes the destruction of bacteria. Lysozyme is

produced by humans in body fluids such as tears or saliva and is a part of natural or humoral

immunity. Humoral immunity is responsible for creating antibodies. Most importantly,

Alexander Fleming discovered that lysozyme could destroy nonpathological or nondisease-

causing bacteria. Scientists currently use lysozyme today to dissolve capsules in laboratory

experiments (Gaynes, R. P., 2011, p.270). Even though Alexander Fleming’s contributions to

science were few, his discovery of penicillin had a momentous impact on the future of antibiotics

in medicine.

Alexander Fleming refused to have penicillin patented because he believed it would save

more lives if it were available to the public. Fleming’s decision to not patent his scientific

discovery proves his good moral character as a true scientist in search of a life saving drug. From

an ethical standpoint, Fleming chose a utilitarian and beneficent approach by not patenting this

antibiotic cure for the greater good of humanity. However, other scientists had their techniques

on growing penicillin patented as well as some pharmaceutical companies patented the

production of the antibiotic drug. In addition, some pharmaceutical companies produced their

own strain of a different species of penicillin that led to an increase in supply and lowered costs

of penicillin (Gaynes, R. P., 2011, p.285). In 1945, Alexander Fleming, Ernst Chain, and Howard

Florey received the Nobel Prize in Medicine and Physiology (Gaynes, R. P., 2011, p.287).
Running head: THE DISCOVERY OF PENICILLIN 6

According to the book, Eureka, by Leslie Alan Horvitz, the public chose to recognize Fleming as

the only contributor to the discovery of penicillin instead of Florey or Chain because “it is easier

for people to identify with a lone scientist experiencing an epiphany than a team of researchers

conducting experiments over years” (Horvitz, 2002, p. 125). For example, Fleming obtained

penicillin from Oxford’s supply to treat a dying patient with streptococcus meningitis and

successfully treated the patient. Times Magazine published the successful outcome of penicillin

but credited Oxford University. Times Magazine was later corrected and eventually gave credit

to Fleming but not Florey or Chain (Gaynes, R., 2017).

Fleming predicted antibiotic resistance by stating, “the administration of too small doses

leads to the production of resistant strains of bacteria” (Horvitz, 2002, p. 126). Antibiotic

resistance of penicillin has developed through enzymes that destroy penicillin and deactivate its

antibacterial properties. Today, antibiotic resistance is caused by the overuse or misuse of

antibiotics (Horvitz, 2002, p.126). There are a multitude of factors that have led to antibiotic

resistance. For example, patients discontinue taking antibiotic medications once their symptoms

are relieved, but the infection remains. Factors such as over-prescription of antibiotics have led

to side effects such as diarrhea and even secondary pathological conditions such as clostridium-

difficile. Livestock is being injected with antibiotics for prevention of illness and to aid in growth

in addition to contributing to human antibiotic resistance (Horvitz, 2002, p.127). Recently, there

has been a growing trend among the public in support of antibiotic-free meat. The

implementation of preventative measures such as immunizations or vaccinations, accurate

diagnosis of diseases and accurate prescribing of antibiotics, as well as the use of antibiotics

according to prescribed instructions may help reduce the prevalence of antibiotic resistance.

Other solutions according to the book, The Antibiotic Era, include better government
Running head: THE DISCOVERY OF PENICILLIN 7

regulations, proper monitoring of prescription of drugs, and educational solutions to improve

patient compliance (Podolsky, 2015, p.112) Lastly, hand hygiene may help reduce the spread of

antibiotic resistant infections such as MRSA or methicillin resistant staphylococcus aureus or

VRE also known as vancomycin resistant enterococci.

In conclusion, Alexander Fleming’s discovery of penicillin and his ability to understand

the importance of his observation as well as Florey, Chain, and Heatley’s success in purifying

the penicillin mold led to the production of the first antibiotic drug in history. In addition, the

discovery of penicillin and the production of antibiotic drugs led to a scientific revolution in

medicine. Out of the few scientific contributions, Alexander Fleming’s discovery of penicillin

was the greatest of all. Fleming’s refusal in patenting his scientific research allowed for the

unprejudiced availability of the life saving drug. An issue predicted by Alexander Fleming, was

the misuse and overuse of antibiotics that has caused resistance in some bacterial strains. The

future of antibiotics depends on the development of new medical technologies and advancements

in scientific medicine to defeat the growing number of resistant bacterial strains.

References

Gaynes, R. (2017). The Discovery of Penicillin--New Insights After More Than 75 Years of

Clinical Use. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 23(5), 849-853. doi:10.3201/eid2305.161556

Gaynes, R. P., & American Society for Microbiology. (2011). Germ Theory : Medical Pioneers

in Infectious Diseases. Washington, DC: ASM Press. (p. 265-292).

Horvitz, L. A. (2002). Eureka! : Scientific Breakthroughs That Changed the World. New York:

Wiley. (p. 112- 127).

Lax, E. (2005). The mold in Dr. Florey's coat: The story of the penicillin miracle. New York:

Henry Holt.

McClellan, J. E., & Dorn, H. (2006). Science and technology in world history: An introduction.

Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. (p. 362, 392- 399).

Podolsky, S. H. (2015). The Antibiotic Era : Reform, Resistance, and the Pursuit of a Rational

Therapeutics. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.

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Wennergren, G., Lagercrantz, H., & Wennergren, G. (2007). "One sometimes finds what one

is not looking for" (Sir Alexander Fleming): the most important medical discovery of the

20th century. Acta Paediatrica, 96(1), 141-144. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2007.00098.x