Contents

exponential and
logarithmic functions
1. The exponential function

2. The hyperbolic functions

3. Logarithms

4. The logarithmic function

5. Log-linear graphs
6. Modelling exercises
Learning
outcomes
In this workbook you will learn about one of the most important functions in mathematics,
science and engineering -- the exponential function. You will learn how to combine
exponential functions to produce other important functions -- the hyperbolic functions
which, as you will note from later workbooks, are related to the trigonometric functions.
You will also learn about logarithms and the logarithm function which is the function
inverse to the exponential function. Finally you will learn what a log-linear graph is and
how they can be used to simplify the presentation of certain kinds of data.

Time
allocation
You are expected to spend approximately nine hours of independent study on the
material presented in this workbook. However, depending upon your ability to concentrate
and on your previous experience with certain mathematical topics this time may vary
considerably.

1
The Exponential  

Function 6.1 

Introduction
In this Section we revisit the use of exponents. We consider how the expression ax is defined
when a is a positive number and x is irrational. Previously we have only considered examples
in which x is a rational number. We consider these exponential functions f (x) = ax in more
depth and in particular consider the special case when the base a is the so-called exponential
constant:
e = 2.7182818 . . .
We then examine the behaviour of ex as x → ∞, called exponential growth and of e−x as
x → ∞ called exponential decay.

' $
① have a good knowledge of indices and their
laws
Prerequisites ② have knowledge of rational and irrational
Before starting this Section you should . . . numbers

③ know how to take limits

& %

✓ approximate ax when x is irrational

Learning Outcomes
✓ assess the behaviour of ax : in particular
After completing this Section you should be the exponential function ex
able to . . .
✓ understand the terms exponential growth
and exponential decay
1. Exponents revisited
We have seen in Workbook 1 (Section 2) the meaning to be assigned to the expression ap where
a is a positive number. We remind the reader that ‘a’ is called the base and ‘p’ is called the
exponent. There are various cases to consider:
If m, n are positive integers
• an = a × a × · · · × a with n factors
• a1/n means the nth root of a. That is, a1/n is that positive number which satisfies
(a1/n ) × (a1/n ) × · · · × (a1/n ) = a
where there are n factors on the left hand side.
• am/n = (a1/n ) × (a1/n ) × · · · × (a1/n ) where there are m factors.
1
• a−n =
an
For convenience we again list the basic laws of exponents:

Key Point

am
am an = am+n n
= am−n (am )n = amn
a
a1 = a, and if a = 0 a0 = 1

bm−n b3 (5am )2 a2
Simplify the expressions (a) (b)
b2m (a3 )2

(a) First simplify the numerator

Your solution
bm−n b3 =
bm−n b3 = bm+3−n

Now include the denominator

Your solution
bm−n b3 bm+3−n
= =
b2m b2m
b2m
= bm+3−n−2m = b3−m−n
bm+3−n

3 HELM (VERSION 1: April 2, 2004): Workbook Level 1

6.1: The Exponential Function
(b) Again simplify the numerator
Your solution
(5am )2 a2 =

(5am )2 a2 = 25a2m a2 = 25a2m+2

Now include the denominator

Your solution
(5am )2 a2 25a2m+2
= =
(a3 )2 a6

(a3 )2 a6
= = 25a2m+2−6 = 25a2m−4
(5am )2 a2 25a2m+2

What is ax if x is a real number?

So far we have given the meaning of ap where p is, at worst, a rational number, that is, one
which can be written as a quotient of integers. So, if p is rational, then

m
p= where m, n are integers
n

Now consider x as a real number which cannot√be written as a rational number. Two common
examples of these irrational numbers are x = 2 and x = π. What we shall do is approximate
x by a rational by working to a fixed number of decimal places. For example if

x = 3.914712334317 . . .

then, if we are working to 3 d.p. we would write

x ≈ 3.915

and this number can certainly be expressed as a rational number:

3915
x ≈ 3.915 =
1000

so, in this case

3915
ax = a3.914712... ≈ a3.915 = a 1000
3915
and the final term: a 1000 can be determined in the usual way by using your calculator. From
henceforth we shall therefore assume that the expression ax is defined for all positive values of
a and for all values of x.

HELM (VERSION 1: April 2, 2004): Workbook Level 1 4

6.1: The Exponential Function
 By working to 3 d.p. find, using your calculator, the value of 3π/2 .

π
First, approximate the value of 2
Your solution
π
≈ to 3 d.p.
2
2 2
= 1.5707963 · · · ≈ 1.571 3.1415927...
≈ π

Now determine 3π/2

Your solution
3π/2 ≈
3π/2 ≈ 31.571 = 5.618 to 3 d.p.

2. Exponential Functions
For a fixed value of the base a the expression ax clearly varies with the value of x: it is a function
of x. We draw, in the diagram below, the graphs of (0.5)x , (0.3)x , 1x , 2x and 3x .

y
x
(0.3)
(0.5)x 3x 2x

1x

The functions ax (as different values are chosen for a) are called exponential functions. From
the graphs we see (and these are true for all exponential functions):

If a > b > 0 then

ax > bx if x > 0 and ax < bx if x < 0

5 HELM (VERSION 1: April 2, 2004): Workbook Level 1

6.1: The Exponential Function
The most important and widely used exponential function has the particular base 2.7182818 . . . ,
a number always denoted by the single letter e:

e = 2.7182818 . . .

It will not be clear to the reader why this particular value is so important. However, its
importance will become clear as your knowledge of mathematics increases. The number e is
as important as the number π and, like π, is also irrational. That is, e cannot be written as the
quotient of two integers. The value of e is stored in most calculators. There are numerous ways
of calculating the value of e. For example, it can be shown that the value of e is the end-point
of the sequence of numbers:

1
2
3
16
64
2 3 4 17 65
, , , ..., , ..., ,...
1 2 3 16 64

which, in decimal form (each to 6 d.p.) are

2.000000, 2.250000, 2.370370, ..., 2.637929, . . . , 2.697345, ...

This is a slowly converging sequence. However, it does lead to a precise definition for the value
of e:
n
n+1
e = lim
n→∞ n
An alternative way of calculating e is to use the (infinite) series:

1 1 1 1 1
e=1+ + + + + ··· + + ...
1! 2! 3! 4! n!

where, we remember,

n! = n × (n − 1) × (n − 2) × . . . (3) × (2) × (1)

It can be shown that the first eleven terms of this series provide a value of e with an error of
less than 3 × 10−8 . (The reader is encouraged to carry out this calculation).
Although all functions of the form ax are called exponential functions we usually refer to ex as
the exponential function.

Key Point
ex is the exponential function

HELM (VERSION 1: April 2, 2004): Workbook Level 1 6

6.1: The Exponential Function
 y
ex

x
The exponential function (and its variants) appear in various areas of mathematics and engi-
neering. For example, the shape of a hanging chain or rope, under the effect of gravity, is well
described by a combination of the exponential curves ekx , e−kx . The function e−x plays a major
2

role in statistics; it being fundamental in the important Normal distribution which describes
the variability in many naturally occurring phenomena. The exponential function e−kx appears
directly, again in the area of statistics, in the Poisson distribution which (amongst other things)
is used to predict the number of events (which occur randomly) in a given time interval.
From now on, when we refer to an exponential function, it will be to the function ex that we
will refer.

Use a calculator to determine the values (to 2 d.p.)

(a) e1.5 , (b) e−2 , (c) e17 .

Your solution
e1.5 = e−2 = e17 =
e1.5 = 4.48, e−2 = 0.14, e17 = 2.4 × 107

e2.7 e−3(1.2)
Simplify the expression and determine its numerical value to 3 d.p.
e2

First simplify the expression

Your solution
e2.7 e−3(1.2)
=
e2
e2
= e2.7 e−3.6 e−2 = e2.7−3.6−2 = e−2.9 = 0.055
e2.7 e−3(1.2)

7 HELM (VERSION 1: April 2, 2004): Workbook Level 1

6.1: The Exponential Function
3. Exponential growth
If a > 1 then it can be shown that, no matter how large K is:
ax
→ ∞ as x → ∞
xK
That is, if K is fixed (though chosen as large as desired) then eventually, as x increases, ax
will overtake (and remain ahead of) the value xK as long as a > 1. The growth of ax as x
increases is called exponential growth, though it is common practice to refer to the growth
of the particular function ex as exponential growth.

A function f (x) grows exponentially and is such that f (0) = 1 and f (2) = 4.
Find the exponential curve that fits through these points.

First: assume the function is f (x) = ekx where k is to be determined from the given information.
Clearly, f (0) = 1 (irrespective of the value of k). Now find the value of k.
Your solution
when x = 2, f (2) = 4 so e2k = 4

By trying values of k: say 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, . . . find the value such that e2k = 4.
Your solution
e2(0.6) = e2(0.7) = e2(0.8) =

e2(0.7) = 4.055 (too high) e2(0.6) = 3.32 (too low)

Now try values of k closer to 0.7. Try k = 0.67, 0.68, 0.69, . . .

Your solution
e2(0.67) = e2(0.68) = e2(0.69) =

e2(0.69) = 3.975 (low) e2(0.68) = 3.896 (low) e2(0.67) = 3.819 (low)

Finally try values closer to 0.69; say k = 0.691, 0.692, . . .

Your solution
e2(0.691) = e2(0.692) = e2(0.693) =

e2(0.693) = 3.999 (low) e2(0.692) = 3.991 (low) e2(0.691) = 3.983, (low)

We conclude that the exponential function we seek is e0.693x . We shall see, in Section 4, that a
more efficient way of finding the value of k can be used.

HELM (VERSION 1: April 2, 2004): Workbook Level 1 8

6.1: The Exponential Function
4. Exponential decay
As we have noted, the behaviour of ex as x → ∞ is called exponential growth. In a similar
manner we characterise the behaviour of the function e−x as x → ∞ as exponential decay.
The graphs of ex and e−x are shown in the following diagram.

y
e−x ex

In fact e−x tends to zero so quickly as x → ∞ that, no matter how large the fixed number K is,

xK e−x → 0 as x → ∞

Choose K = 10 in the expression xK e−x and calculate xK e−x using your cal-
culator for x = 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35.

Your solution
x 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
x10 e−x
1.7 55 1324 2.1 × 104 1.7 × 105 4.5 × 105 6.5 × 104 x10 e−x
35 30 25 20 15 10 5 x

Exercises
1. Find, to 3 d.p., the values of
(a) 2−8 (b) (5.1)4 (c) (2/10)−3 (d) (0.111)6 (e) 21/2 (f) π π (g) eπ/4 (h) (1.71)−1.71
2. Plot y = x3 and y = ex for 0 < x < 7. For which integer values of x is ex > x3 ?
2. For integer values of x, ex > x3 if x ≥ 5
0.400
Answers 1. (a) 0.004 (b) 676.520 (c) 125 (d) 0.0 (e) 1.414 (f) 36.462 (g) 2.193 (h)

9 HELM (VERSION 1: April 2, 2004): Workbook Level 1

6.1: The Exponential Function