AUTEX Research Journal, Vol.

10, No1, March 2010 © AUTEX

STUDY OF THE ABRASION RESISTANCE IN THE UPHOLSTERY

OF AUTOMOBILE SEATS
Ivona Jerkovic1, Josep M. Pallares2, Xavier Capdevila3

1
Engineer of Textile Technology, ijerkovi@inet.hr,
2
Certification director LEITAT (Laboratorio de Ensayos e Investigaciones Textiles
del Acondicionamiento Terrasense), josepmpallares@leitat.org,
3
Professor DETIP (Departament d'Enginyeria Textil i Paperera
de la Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya), xcapdevila@etp.upc.edu.

Abstract:

The automotive manufacturing industry is a key user of technical textiles. Cars consume a large amount of
material, and the textiles are not an exception. The objective of this study is to compare four abrasion testers,
which are used for the automobile sector. Previously the test parameters have been determined to make the
most precise comparison, and four car seat upholstery structures have been compared. Martindale is the most
complex abrasion tester: it generates a movement according to a curve of Lissajous and can test several
samples simultaneously for a machine cycle; for this reason, it has been determined that part of the total results
variations is attributable to the parameters of the used apparatus and tested structures as well.

Key words:

Abrasion tester, automotive textiles, upholstery, foam.

Introduction - Mechanical behaviour: strength resistance, tear, bursting

strength, stripes, pilling, abrasion, etc.
Every middle-size vehicle uses between 12 and 14 Kg of textile - Ageing behaviour: light resistance, colour fastness to light,
products, without including tire cords for pneumatic and fibers sweat, rub, etc.
which are used in composite materials. The 65% of this
- Physiological behaviour: air permeability and water vapour
quantity is used, approximately, in the interior (40 to 45 m2 of
permeability, thermal resistance.
textile material per car) with a weight between 350 and 450 g/
m2 for the seats upholstery. - Security features: flame resistance, resistance to emission
of volatile organic compounds, emission of condensable
Car production development of components, parts, pieces and compounds, formaldehyde emission, amines emission,
materials is orientated by the following criteria: surface resistance, etc.
- Soiling behaviour: hidrorepellency and oilreppelency.
- Comfort
- Functionality The most rigorous specifications for coating and upholstery
- Safety refer to the abrasion, the high temperatures resistance and
- Economy light resistance (UV).
- Ecology
The economic criteria affect the new manufacturing pieces
These criteria also are used for the interior coating textile and technologies and adjust the productivity needs and material
keeping in mind that the design of the interior is a differential saving. This can influence tot he customer appropriate price
element in the project of a car. and quality in the market.

Car seat is perhaps, the most important part of the interior, it is Finally, the environmental considerations (reuse, recycled,
the first element that the customer appreciates when he/she pollution, etc.) influence to the customers as an integral part of
opens the door to look inside and it is the main interface the society, and its economic aspect as well.
between person and machine.
Car Seats
Therefore, the comfort is the first criterion that values the
customer, specifically psychological comfort - makes reference Car seats are composed of the following elements:
to the aesthetic aspects - and physiological comfort captured
by the view and touch. During the sitting the thermal comfort is 1. Metal structure.
evaluated by the “cold-hot” sensation. 2. Filling: molded polyurethane foam.
3. Seat cover:
Functionality and material safety criteria are captured during - Exterior fabric,
use of the vehicle, by means of wear, seat ventilation, the internal - Foam,
environment, ease of care, etc. - Support material (reinforcement material).

All these aspects relate to the technical characteristics of Fabric, which is mostly used for the car seats, is polyester with
textiles, and the most important are the following: high abrasion resistance, UV light resistance and cleaning

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facility combined with a reasonable price, but disadvantage is In the Taber the abrasion is carried out by the action of two
that can not absorb nor transports humidity. abrasive wheels disposed vertically on the specimen and
situated in diametrical opposition that they turn in the opposite
The inner layer of foam, varies from millimetres to 12 mm, and direction by the effect of the circular movement of the specimen
it has function of absorbing the seat surface irregularities, holder, Figure 3.
improves the comfort (compressibility, resilience) and indicates
the stitches of the sewing lines with an adequate depth.

The reinforcement material has the task to give the dimensional

stability to sandwich structure, facilitates the sewing and seam
resistance. It can be a polyamide mesh or polyester and a
non-woven as well.

These three layers, fabric-foam-reinforcement, are fixed by

flame laminate. Machine setting controlling flame temperature,
gap separation of the roller and speed can be optimized for
each quality of the

The available technology for the weaving of the external fabric

is a part of the the textile technology. These are:

- Woven fabric.
- Woven fabric with loom of double woven (velvets).
Figure 1. The Martindale head.
- Weft needle fabric done in circular knitting machine
(generally with pile).
- Weft needle fabric for warp in Ketten (velvet) (Ketten knit
fabric).
- Weft needle fabric for warp in Raschel of double knitting
head (with pile) (Raschel knit fabric).

Each technolog has advantages and limitations, and car

manufacturers use your criteria or priorities for different fabrics.
These criteria are grouped by countries, geographical and
continent areas.

The basic criteria for the selection are cost, design and benefits
that corresponds to the attributes of textile products: price,
fashion and quality.

The second upholstery element, the polyurethane foam, show 1. Weight additional 4. Abrasive material
an excellent elasticity and its technology is quite good develop 2. Balance load 5. Specimen
but presents some disadvantages: low air steam permeability, 3. Block abrasion 6. Subjection mechanism
toxic gases and odours generation in the rolling process, non-
recyclability, etc. Figure 2. The Schopper schema.

Abrasion testing equipment

One of the criteria for the design and/or selection of the seat
upholstery is the functionality. The abrasion resistance is one
of the most important criteria (physical test).

Abrasion resistance is used to quantify, approximately, duration

of the textile material in normal use. This resistance is
determined by undergoing the textile to the mechanical action
of devices wich are called abrasion tester, and which simulate,
more or less, the wear by abrasive action. The concept
“abrasion” develops a complex phenomenon where the
abrasive or rubbing action make linear or radial tractions. Figure 3. The Taber abrasive principle.
There are three main abrasion testers for the car sector:
Martindale, Schopper y Taber. Martindale mechanical action Besides these abrasion testers, a “linear” abrasion tester,
against the abrasive element takes places according to a made in Leitat Technical Center, has been used. Mechanical
translatory movement of the specimen holder describing a action in this device takes place by linear displacement of the
Lissajous curve. The Figure 1 shows a head device. In the specimen holder under an abrasive head (Figure 4); this
Schopper the abrasive action takes place according to a alternative movement is carried out by a simple mechanism of
movement circular of the specimen holder a conical surface crank arm-crank.
that generates a curvature of 5 mm to the abrasive surface,
Besides the abrasive types, it is necessary to define the load
Figure 2; as a result, the abrasive effect appears tangentially.

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Table 2. The abrasive paper specifications.

FEPA-Standards 43-1:2006 ; 43-2:2006 y ISO 6344

Diameter particle
Grain designation Micrograin
micron (inches)

P 320 Very fine 46,2±1,5 (0,00180)

Figure 4. Mechanical principle of the "linear" abrasion tester". P 400 Fine 35,0±1,5 (0,00137)
P 600 Extra fine 25,8±1 (0,00100)
or pressure between textile material and abrasive material,
the speed work and the number of abrasive cycles.
The valuation of the test must be given, by four indicators o Table 3. The Taber abrasive specifications.
parameters:
- Number of cycles to specimen rupture or appearance of a TABER Abrading wheels
hole. ABRASIVE
TYPE Nº COLOR
- Weight loss of the specimen after a certain number of cycles. ACTION
Light to
- Degradation of the specimen surface after a certain number CALIBRATED® CS 10 Green
medium
of cycles, for colour change in scale of gray (from 1 to 5).
CALIBRATED® H18 Grey Ordinary
In the automotive sector every manufacturer can use some
specific testing methods, internal (home) standard developed The valuation criterion adopted in this work is the weight loss
according to general international standard, such as: calculated through the following percentage index:
- BS 5690: 1991 (Martindale)
p0 − p1
- DIN 53 863 3/4 (Martindale) PI = × 100
pa
- DIN 53 863 2 (Schopper)
- DIN 53 754 (Taber) where:
- UNE-EN ISO 12947-1/2/3 (Martindale) p0 - initial weight of the specimen in grams,
P1 - specimen weight after abrasion in grams,
Pa - initial weight of the specimen part subjected to the
Work specifications for the abrasion tester abrasion in grams and is determined as follows:

In accordance with international standards and automotive Abrasive area

manufacture specifications test different materials have been pa = p0 ×
Specimen area
used - with a foam and without a foam - with the purpose to
find the test conditions similar between devices. The result Area calculations and values resulted in the appropriate
appears in Table 1. abrasion tester are detailed in the Table 4.

The abrasive materials for the Martindale, Schopper and the In the Martindale “r1” has been defined according to UNE-EN
linear abrasion tester are abrasives whose specifications are ISO 12947 and “r2” has been measured on the bottom of the
summarized in the Table 2, according to the European standard specimen holder without sample. In the Schopper “r” it has
for granulometry - system of classification of the FEPA been calculated from the abrasion area according to the GMW
(Federation of European Products of Abrasive) - that they are standard numbers GMW 3283, TL 522 26, TL 523 06/07. In
preceded of the letter “P” (in USA is used the system CAMI). the Taber “r1” and “r2” have been measured by tested plastic
And for the Taber two abrasive wheels are used whose specimen. And finally, in to the linear abrasion tester, the
specifications are in Table 3. measures “a” and “b” corresponding to the abrasion area has

Table 1. Specifications of the working conditions in the abrasion tester

Force Contact Measu-

Abrasion Dimensions Material Pressure Speed Cycles
applied area rements
tester specimen abrasive 2
2
(N/m ) (cycles/min) (nº)
(N) (cm ) (nº)
P320
MARTINDALE Φ 38±5 mm P400 10,20 11,34 9000 50 1000 4
P600
P320
2
SCHOPPER 100 cm P400 9,81 50 1962 76 5000 5
P600
CS10
TABER Φ 130 mm 9,81 0,72 136100 60 2000 5
H18

2
P400
LINEAL 21x6 cm 5 4,5 1111,11 33 5000 5
P600

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been measured on the fabric after the testing; the results are Table 5. Foam characteristics.
different for each fabric and direction of the sample (warp and
weft), and the value that appears in the table is the average of
Height (mm) 3 4,2 5
all results.
2
Weight (g/m ) 79 174 249
Table 4. Geometry of the specimen and abrasive zone. 3
Density (kg/m ) 26,34 41,43 49,80
Geometry of the Abrasive surface area Hardness (KPa) 7,11 7,11 7,11
Total
specimen and abrasive
area Calculation
2
Value (cm )
zone
considerations we have decided to use it to study the influence
of the foam in the upholstery abrasion resistance.
P = r22π P = (r22 - r12 )π
6,605 We intend to compare four types of structures with regard to
the lost of weight for effect of the abrasion as experimental
answer: Only the fabric, the laminated fabric with foam of 3
Martindale
mm more the reinforcement, the fabric with foam of 4,2 more
reinforcement and the fabric with foam of 5 more the material
of reinforcement. Each type of structure is a treatment or a
P = r 2π r 2π level of the factor structures. The results have been obtained
50
2 by the influence of test cycle, the specimen holder of the tester
(there are four), and the position in the tester (there are four).
Schopper Each of these disturbing factors is a block factor and as
assumption there is no interaction between the treatments
and the blocks. A Graeco-Latin design of 4 x 4 have been
2 2
P = r32π P= (r2 - r1 )π -6 performed to increase the accuracy in the estimation of the
2.789,73 x10
experimental error (if there is no repetition, only three degrees
of freedom is used in the comparisons). In the table 6 design
Taber is shown with the values of weight loss.

Table 6. weight loss (%) in the Graeco-Latin design.

P = x ·y P = r 2π + a·b 1 2 3 4 Replication I
18,80
Rows: cycles
α,A β,B γ,C δ,D Columns:
1 positions
16,94 6,09 4,29 2,77
Greek letters:
Lineal sopports
Latin letters:
structures
δ,C γ,D β,A α,B
Automobile upholstery 2
5,20 3,68 14,91 5,17
A: fabric
B: upholstery 3
The textile material used in this study has been provided by a mm
supplier for the automobile upholstery. The external fabric is a C: upholstery
velvet mesh obtained in a circular knitting machine of curl cut, β,D α,C δ,B γ,A 4,2 mm
3
and it presents the following characteristics: 3,47 5,30 5,08 14,29 D: upholstery 5
mm
- Gauge: E18
γ,B δ,A α,D β,C
- Density: 13 mallas/cm 4
5,02 19,54 3,48 4,36
- Ground yarn: PES 167 dtex
1 2 3 4 Replication II
- Loop yarn: Nm 40/2
- Weight: 305,78 g/m2 Rows: cycles
α,A β,B γ,C δ,D Columns:
In the polyester polyurethane foams- foam - supplied, the 5 positions
21,10 5,92 4,76 2,81
following values have been obtained (Table 5). The non-woven Greek letters:
supports
upholstery is the polyester with height 0,81 mm and weight
Latin letters:
equal to 79,7 g/m2.
structures
β,D α,C δ,B γA
6 A: fabric
Experimental Designs 4,20 3,68 14,91 5,17
B: upholstery 3
mm
Structure influence
C: upholstery
Graeco-Latin square design γ,B δ,A α,D β,C 4,2 mm
7
3,47 5,30 5,08 14,29 D: upholstery 5
The Martindale is, probably, the abrasion tester most used in mm
the textile sector and the most complex (it generates a flat δ,C γ,D β,A α,B
8
cyclic movement in the shape of curve of Lissajous). By these 5,02 19,54 3,48 4,36

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The analysis of variance of the results of the Graeco-Latin

design is presented in Table 7. The statistical F structure is
significant to 1 % (its value p gives significance level equal to
0,0000, indicating that the effect structure is great).

Tabla 7. The Graeco-Latin anova design

Degrees
Source of Sum of Mean
of F
variation squares Square
freedom
Cycle 25,3669 6 4,2278 1,2377
Position 16,3370 3 5,4446 1,5940
Structure 997,5420 3 332,514 97,348
Support 8,6883 3 2,8961 0,8478 Figure 6. Residual plot for lost of weight.
Replicas 2,6000 1 2,6000 0,7612
Residual 51,2318 15 3,41572
TOTAL 1.101,77 31

There are differences between averages of the structure factor

results. The graphic of averages considering the confidence
intervals of 95% according to the LSD method (minimum
significant difference) is presented in the Figure 5 and detects
the differences A≠B, A≠C, A≠D. This way gives the practical
conclusion that the worst structure is the fabric A (“without foam”)
and statistically their losses are bigger that the losses of the
fabrics with foam (B, C and D).

However, the validity of the anova remains are related to the

design hypotheses (in term of residual) and one of that,
Figure 7. Linear relationship between the standard deviation
constant variance, is not verified, as it proves the Figure 6,
and the means of the factor structures.
where the residual is behaved as a fuel form.

This heteroscedasticity is because the structures with higher

average have bigger variability and there is, therefore, a relation
between the standard deviation and the average. To obtain
homocedasticity we transformed data, based on the family
Box-Cox transformation, have been transformed. The value λ
which has been estimate forms the regression line between
the logarithm of the deviation and the logarithm of the averages
a of the structures, viewed in the Figure 7. As the result of this
relation is a slope, approximately, of 1,5. The transformation,
which has been utilized to obtain constant variance is root
inverse data transformation.

Figure 8. Residual plot for inverse SQR Lost of weight.

The analysis of variance of the Graeco-Latin design processed

results shown in Table 8. The analysis also identifies the
contribution to the total variance position (its value-p of F=5,10
is 0,0094, lower than 0,05).

Table 8. Transformed Anova Graeco-Latin design.

Degrees
Source of Sum of Mean
of F
variation squares Square
freedom
Cycle 0,003904 6 0,0006507 1,2335
Figure 5. Means and 95,0 percent LSD intervals. Position 0,008085 3 0,0026951 5,1090
Structure 0,384153 3 0,128051 242,75
Applying the transformation to the data of the Graeco-Latin
Sopport 0,0010406 3 0,00034687 0,6574
design, the Figure 8 shows the new graph of residues, where
a bigger stability of the variance can be observed. Replicas 0,0004063 1 0,00040634 0,7702
Residual 0,0079126 15 0,0005275
TOTAL 0,405502 31

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The graphic of factor structures averages is shown in the Figure linearly with the height the three structural parameters are
9, and it can be observed that the confidence intervals of confused.
different structures are not equal, A≠B≠C≠D.
It is observed also that the graphic analysis notes that the
positions 1 and 2 give higher result than the 3 and 4, and
provides an indication of improvement which can deserve a
posterior study.

Figure 9. Means and 95,0 percent LSD intervals with the

transformed answer (result).

Complete blocks random design

Whereas the structure factors and positions influence Figure 11. Means and 95,0 percent LSD intervals.
statistically to the results of weight loss, for the first fabric
presents behaviour notably worse than the other ones, and When the linear relationship between the losses and the height
plan design in blocks random completely (structures with foam of the foam (or the weight) can be represented, a quadratic
as treatments and the positions as blocks) with the aim to type linear model (x2) is obtained , obviously, negative as it
study the influence of the foam as well. The analysis of the shows the Figure 12, with a correlation coefficient 0,84 and a
variance is shown in the Table 9. As it was already known the determination coefficient R2=74%.
structure (p value 0,000) and position (p value 0,0107) are
influential statistically. The adequate parameters are presented in Table 10.

Table 9. Anova design in complete blocks at random. Table 10. Parameters of the model between the losses and the foam.

Sum of Degrees of Mean Error Statistical

Source F Parameter Estimation Value p
squares freedom Square standar T
Structure 9,11625 2 4,55813 100,51 β0 6,79914 0,302266 22,49 0,0000
Position 1,29316 3 0,431052 9,5 β1 -0,129674 0,016415 -7,89 0,0000
Residual 0,272115 6 0,0453521
TOTAL 10,6815 11

To obtain differences between the structures and positions

the method of the minimum significant difference (LSD) of
Fisher has been applied, which is presented graphically in
Figures 10 and 11. The practical conclusion is that the
upholstery with foam of 5 mm provides the best result,
statistically its weight loss means is smaller that the means
of the foam of 4,2 mm and 3 mm, and the foam of 4,2 is better
than that of 3. However, as the weights and the densities vary

Figure 12. Plot of fitted model. Lost vs height.

Abrasion testers comparison

Completely randomized design

In order to compare the four abrasion testers the same

abrasive paper P 320 has been used, except for the Taber
where abrasive wheels, CS 10, has been used.

To calculate the experimental error five replicas have been

carried out in each tester; in the Martindale, which provide four
Figure 10. Means and 95,0 percent LSD intervals. positions, the result of each replica is the average of these

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duplicate values. In the linear abrasion tester the result According to the experimental results, the abrasion testers
assessed in each of the five replicas is the average of ones Schopper (with paper P 320) and Taber (with wheel CS 10)
obtained in two directions of the each sample (warp, weft). produce average weight losses, in upholstery of seats of
automobile, which are statistically equal, although the Taber
The results of this design have been obtained with the needs less time in obtaining this abrasion.
upholstery of 5 mm and are given in the Table 11. The analysis Moreover, the Martindale causes losses notably higher than
of the variance is in the Table 12. other devices.

Table 11. Results of the completely randomized design. The polyurethane foam or foam influences to the abrasion
resistance of car seats upholstery: increases the height and
Weight loss (%) weight of the foam, from the studied range, losses are
ABRASIÓN Replications decreased in quadratic form.
TESTER I II III IV V
Non-usage of a foam significantly reduces abrasion
1. Martindale 4,99 4,93 4,70 4,84 5,18
resistance.
2. Schopper 0,70 0,79 0,60 0,65 0,74
3. Taber 0,98 0,90 0,68 0,92 0,69 References:
4. Lineal 2,97 2,94 2,85 2,90 2,67
1. APLIMATEC, Primer Congreso Internacional de
Tabla 12. Anova of the completely randomized design. Aplicaciones Técnicas de los Materiales Textiles, FERIA
DE VALENCIA, Noviembre 2002.
Degrees
Source of Sum of Mean 2. Detrell J. “Textiles Técnicos”, UPC, Barcelona, 1992.
of F
variation squares Square
freedom 3. Fung Walter and Hardcastle Mike, “Textiles in automotive
Abrasión engineering” Cambridge, The Textile Institute, Woodhead
59,7243 3 19,9081 1126,78 Publishing Ltd., 2001.
tester
Residual 0,28284 16 0,0176775 4. Fung Walter, “Coated and laminated textiles”, Cambridge,
TOTAL 60,0072 19
The Textile Institute, Woodhead Publishing Ltd. 2002.
5. Goksel F., Kaya A., Gucer S. “Investigations on abrasion
The value of the observed significance or p value of the resistance of the automotive seat fabrics”, Turkey, Aachen-
statistical F=1126,78 is 0,0000 (very strong value). it can be Dresden, International Textile Conference. 2009.
concluded that there is difference or effect of the abrasion 6. Horrocks A.R., Anand S.C. “Handbook of technical textiles”,
tester as for the weight loss. Cambridge, The Textile Institute, Woodhead Publishing
Ltd. 2000.
The graph of averages by using LSD is presented in the Figure
7. Jerkovic Ivona, “Structural Parameters of the Abrasion
13. It is observed that the confidence intervals of the abrasion
Resistance in Car Seats”, E-TEAM Master Thesis 2009.
tester Schopper and of the Taber (2 and 3) are similar, actually
they are statistically equal as for their average results, and the 8. Kalaoglu F., Onder E, Ozipek B. “Influence of varying
losses that generate are smaller than the other two-abrasion structural parameters on abrasion characteristic of 50/50
tester. Wool/Polyester Blended Fabrics” Textile Research Journal
73(11), 2003.
9. Kurt Salmon Associates “Textiles Técnicos aplicados en
el Automóvil” (Dossier 3) Consejo Intertextil Espanol, 2002.
10. Naik A. “Textiles en el Automóvil” 2001 International
Textiles Congress. Terrassa (Barcelona).

∇∆

Figura 13. Means and 95,0 percent LSD intervals.

Conclusions

The abrasion tester are devices that accelerate the rubbing

wear which the textile materials sustain in their life cycle,
through mechanical movement abrasive action movement of
the textile material against an abrasive material.

According to decreasing order to mechanical complexity there

are the Martindale, Schopper, Taber and the “linear” abrasion
tester.

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