Unsymmetrical

 Bending  

Dr  Alessandro  Palmeri  
<A.Palmeri@lboro.ac.uk>  
 Teaching  schedule  
Week Lecture 1 Staff Lecture 2 Staff Tutorial Staff
1 Beam Shear Stresses 1 AP Beam Shear Stresses 2 AP --- ---
2 Shear centres AP Basic Concepts J E-R Shear Centre AP
3 Principle of Virtual J E-R Indeterminate Structures J E-R Virtual Forces J E-R
forces
4 The Compatibility J E-R Examples J E-R Virtual Forces J E-R
Method
5 Examples J E-R Moment Distribution - J E-R Comp. Method J E-R
Basics
6 The Hardy Cross J E-R Fixed End Moments J E-R Comp. Method J E-R
Method
7 Examples J E-R Non Sway Frames J E-R Mom. Dist J E-R
8 Column Stability 1 AP Sway Frames J E-R Mom. Dist J E-R
9 Column Stability 2 AP Unsymmetric Bending 1 AP Colum Stability AP
10 Unsymmetric Bending 2 AP Complex Stress/Strain AP Unsymmetric AP
Bending
11 Complex Stress/Strain AP Complex Stress/Strain AP Complex AP
Stress/Strain
Christmas
Holiday
12 Revision
13
14 Exams
15
2  
 Mo@va@ons  (1/2)  
•  Many  cross  sec@ons  used  for  
structural  elements  (such  us  Z  
sec@ons  or  angle  sec@ons)  do  
not  have  any  axis  of  symmetry  

•  How  does  the  theory  

developed  for  symmetrical  
bending  can  be  extended  to  
such  sec@ons?  

3  
 Mo@va@ons  (2/2)  
•  The  figure  shows  the  
finite  element  model  of  
a  can@lever  beam  with  
Y
Z

X Z  cross  sec@on  
subjected  to  its  own  
weight,  in  which  the  
gravita@onal  (ver@cal)  
load  induces  lateral  
sway  (horizontal),    
Y
Z
X
–  exaggerated  for  clarity  

•  How  can  we  predict  

this?  
4  
 Learning  Outcomes  
•  When  we  have  completed  this  unit  (2  lectures  
+  1  tutorial),  you  should  be  able  to:  

–  Determine  the  principal  second  moments  of  area  

AND  the  principal  direc@ons  of  area  for  
unsymmetrical  beam’s  cross  sec@ons  

–  Evaluate  the  normal  stress  σx  in  beams  subjected  

to  unsymmetric  bending  

5  
 Further  reading  
•  R  C  Hibbeler,  “Mechanics  of  Materials”,  8th  
Ed,  Pren@ce  Hall  –  Chapter  6  on  “Bending”  

 
•  T  H  G  Megson,  “Structural  and  Stress  
Analysis”,  2nd  Ed,  Elsevier  –  Chapter  9  on  
“Bending  of  Beams”  (eBook)  

6  
 Symmetrical  Bending  (1/4)  
•  Our  analysis  of  beams  in  bending  has  been  restricted  so  far  
(part  A)  to  the  case  of  cross  sec@ons  having  at  least  one  
axis  of  symmetry,  assuming  that  the  bending  moment  is  
ac@ng  either  about  this  axis  of  symmetry  (a),  or  about  the  
orthogonal  axis  (b)  
compressive tensile
stress stress
σx < 0 σx > 0

(right hand) My
(b)  
σx < 0
compressive
y G stress
axis of symmetry y
axis of symmetry G

(a)   x σx > 0
is

z x
ax

tensile

is
z
’s

Mz
ax
am

stress ’s
be

am

7  
be
 Symmetrical  Bending  (2/4)  

Right-­‐Hand  Rule  
 
t  to  the  
If  the  thumb  poin My
 of  the  axis,  
posi0ve  direc0on
f  the  other  
then  the  curling  o
osi0ve  
fingers  give  the  p
ending  
direc0on  of  the  b
y G
axis of symmetry

x
Noteworthy:  Some0mes  a  double-­‐
is
z Mz
ax

headed  arrow  is  used  to  represent  a  

’s

moment  (as  opposite  to  a  single-­‐headed  

am

arrow  used  for  a  force)  

be

  8  
 Symmetrical  Bending  (3/4)  
A  posi@ve  bending  moment  Mz>0,  
(right hand) My
induces  tensile  stress  σx>0  in  the  right  
σx < 0 fibres  of  the  cross  sec@on  (looking  at  it  
compressive from  the  posi@ve  direc@on  of  the  x  axis)  
y stress

 
axis of symmetry G

compressive tensile
x σx > 0 stress stress
σx < 0 σx > 0
is

z
ax

tensile
’s
am

stress
be

➡  
A  posi@ve  bending  moment  My>0,   y G
axis of symmetry
induces  tensile  stress  σx>0  in  the  
boiom  fibres  of  the  cross  sec@on  
x

is
z Mz
ax
’s
am

9  
be
 Symmetrical  Bending  (4/4)  

My •  The  simplest  case  when  the  

bending  moment  My  acts  
about  the  axis  y,  orthogonal  to  
y G the  axis  of  symmetry  z  
axis of symmetry
•  Therefore,  the  beam  bends  in  
σx > 0
the  ver@cal  plan  Gxz  
z
is

x
ax

•  The  direct  stress  σx  is  given  by:  

’s
am
be

My z
Eq.  (1)   σx =
Iyy
10  
 Unsymmetrical  Bending  (1/3)  
•  The  case  of  unsymmetric  bending  deals  with:  
–  EITHER  a  bending  moment  ac@ng  about  an  axis  which  is  
neither  an  axis  of  symmetry,  nor  orthogonal  to  it  (le9)  
–  OR  a  beam’s  cross  sec@on  which  does  not  have  any  axis  of  
symmetry  (right)  

My My

y G y G
axis of symmetry

x x
is
z
is

z
ax
ax

’s
’s

am

11  
am

be
be
 Unsymmetrical  Bending  (2/3)  
•  The  first  case  is  trivial,  
and  can  be  solved  by  
using:  
–  Decomposi@on  of  the  
bending  moment:  

Mp = My cos(α )

Mq = −My sin(α )
 
Mp d Mq
–  Superposi@on  of  effects:   σ x (A) = ⋅ − ⋅e
I pp 2 Iqq
⎛ d /2 e ⎞
= My ⎜ cos(α ) + sin(α )⎟
⎝ I pp I pp ⎠ 12  
 Unsymmetrical  Bending  (3/3)  
•  Par@cular  cases…  

My d My
σ x (A) = ⋅ σ x (A) = ⋅e
I pp 2 Iqq
Bending  about  the  strong  axis   Bending  about  the  weak  axis  
13  
 Product  Moment  of  Area  (1/3)  
•  Let’s  introduce  a  new  quan@ty,  Iyz,  called  
“Product  Moment  of  Area”  
–  Defined  as:  

Iyz = ∫ y z dA
A

•  If  and  only  if  Iyz  =0,  a  bending  moment  ac@ng  on  one  of  
these  two  axes  will  cause  the  beam  to  bend  about  the  
same  axis  only,  not  about  the  orthogonal  axis  (symmetric  
bending)  
–  I.e.  a  ver@cal  transverse  load  will  not  induce  any  lateral  sway  
and  a  lateral  transverse  will  not  cause  any  ver@cal  movement  
14  
 Product  Moment  of  Area  (2/3)  
•  The  product  moment  of  area  is  
defined  mathema@cally  as  the   Iyz = ∫ y z dA
integral  of  the  product  of  the   A

coordinates  y  and  z  over  the  cross  

sec@onal  area  

•  Similarly  the  second  moments  of  

area  Iyy  and  Izz  are  the  integrals  of  the  
second  power  of  the  other  
coordinate,  z2  and  y2  

Iyy = ∫ z 2 dA I zz = ∫ y 2 dA
A A

•  G  is  the  centroid  of  the  cross  sec@on  

15  
 Product  Moment  of  Area  (3/3)  
•  The  “Parallel  Axis  Theorem”  (also  known  as  Huygens-­‐Steiner  Theorem)  
can  be  used  to  determine  the  product  moment  of  area  Iyz,  as  well  as  the  
second  moments  of  area  Iyy  and  Izz,  provided  that:  
–  The  cross  sec@on  can  be  split  into  simple  blocks,  e.g.  rectangular  blocks  
–  The  corresponding  quan@@es  for  the  central  axes  η  (eta)  and  ζ  (zeta),  parallel  
to  y  and  z,  are  known  
 
yi (< 0) Iyy = ∑ Iηη
(i )
+ zi2 A(i )
i

G
y I zz = ∑ Iζζ(i ) + yi2 A(i )
zi (> 0) i
Γi
ηi
Iyz = ∑ Iηζ
(i )
+ yi zi A(i )
z i
ζi A (i)
16  
 Moments  of  Area:  Worked  Example  
(1/5)   n
1.  Split  the  cross  sec@on  in  rectangular   m m
blocks  
?  
2.  Calculate  the  area  of  each  block  
A(1) = 30 × 30 = 900
A(2) = 30 × 50 = 1,500

3.  If  the  posi@on  of  the  centroid  G  is  

unknown   ?  
–  Calculate  the  first  moment  of  each  block  
about  two  arbitrary  references  axes   n

Qm(1) = A(1) ×15 = 13,500 Qn(1) = A(1) ×15 = 13,500

   
Q(2)
m =   A(2) × 45 = 67,500 Qn(2) = A(2) × 25 = 37,500
 
17  
 Moments  of  Area:  Worked  Example  
(2/5)   n
–  Calculate  the  posi@on  of  the  centroid   m m

dm =
∑ Q i
(i )
m
=
81,000
= 33.75 ?  
∑A i
(i )
2,400

dn =
∑ Q i
(i )
n
=
51,000
= 21.25
∑A i
(i )
2,400

4.  Calculate  the  two  second  moments  of   ?  

area  (and  the  product  moment  of  area,  if  
needed)  for  each  block   n
 
30 × 303 30 × 303
Iηη (1)
=   = 67,500 Iζζ =
(1)
= 67,500 Iηζ (1) = 0
   
12 12
50 × 303 30 × 503
Iηη (2)
= = 112,500 Iζζ =
(2)
= 312,500 Iηζ (2) = 0
12 12 18  
 Moments  of  Area:  Worked  Example  
(3/5)  
5.  Calculate  the  coordinates  
of  the  centroid  Γi  of  each  
block…  
  30 ⎛ 30 ⎞
y1 = 21.25 − z1 = − ⎜ 33.75 − ⎟
    2 ⎝ 2⎠
= 6.25 > 0 = −18.75 < 0
⎛ 50 ⎞ 30
y2 = − ⎜ − 21.25⎟ z2 = 30 + − 33.75
⎝ 2 ⎠ 2
= −3.75 < 0 = 11.25 > 0

19  
 Moments  of  Area:  Worked  Example  
(4/5)  
6.  Apply  the  Parallel  Axis  
Theorem  for  the  two  second  
moments  of  area…  
 
Iyy = ∑ i Iηη
(i )
(+ A(i ) zi2 )
   
= 67,500 + 900 × ( −18.75)
2

+112,500 +1,500 × (11.25)

2

= 686,250
(
I zz = ∑ i Iζζ(i ) + A(i )yi2 )
= 67,500 + 900 × (6.25)
2

+312,500 +1,500 × ( −3.75)

2

= 436,250
20  
 Moments  of  Area:  Worked  Example  
(5/5)  
7.  …  And  the  product  moment  of  
area  
 
Iyz = ∑ i ( Iηζ(i )
+ A(i )yi zi )
 
= 0 + 900 × 6.25 × ( −18.75)
   
+0 +1,500 × ( −3.75) ×11.25
= −168,750

21  
 Rota@ng  the  Central  Axes  
QuesBon:  What  happens  to  second  moment   Answer:  The  points  of  
of  area  (Imm)  and  product  moment  of  area   coordinates  {Imm,Imn}  
(Imn)  if  we  rotate  the  central  axes  of  reference   will  describe  a  circle  
for  a  given  cross  sec@on?  
n
Product  moment  of  
area  (+ve,  -­‐ve  or  null)   Mohr’s  
Imn   Circle  
 
 

n
Z  
-­‐Iyz   G

n
y  ≡
m m

n
Iyy   m
Izz   Imm  

m
n n

 ≡
m
m
Iyz  
Y   Second  moment  of   z

area  (always  +ve)  
  22  
 Mohr’s  Circle  (1/6)  
•  Named  aser  the  German  civil  engineer  Chris@an  Oio  Mohr  
(1835-­‐1918),  the  Mohr’s  circle  allows  determining  the  extreme  
values  of  many  quan@@es  useful  in  the  stress  analysis  of  structural  
members,  including  minimum  and  maximum  values  of  stress,  
strain  and  second  moment  of  area  
n
Product  moment  of  
area  (+ve,  -­‐ve  or  null)   Mohr’s  
Imn   Circle  
 
 

n
Z  
-­‐Iyz   G

n
y  ≡
m m

n
Iyy   m
Izz   Imm  

m
n n

 ≡
m
m
Iyz  
Y   Second  moment  of   z

area  (always  +ve)  
  23  
 Mohr’s  Circle  (2/6)  
•  We  can  draw  the  Mohr’s  circle,  
once  its  centre  CI  and  its  radius  Ri  
are  known:  
–  The  centre  is  always  on  the  
G horizontal  axis,  whose  posi@on  is  
y
the  average  of  the  second  moments  
m of  area  about  two  orthogonal  axes,  
e.g.  Iyy  and  Izz  
Imn   n CI ≡ {Iave,0}
z
Z   Iyy + I zz
Iave = =561,250  
-­‐Iyz     2
RI   –  From  simple  geometrical  
CI   Iyy   considera@ons  (Pythagoras’  
theorem),  the  radius  requires  the  
Izz   Iave   Imm   product  moment  of  area  as  well  
2
Iyz       ⎛ I − I zz ⎞
Y   RI = ⎜ yy ⎟
2
+ Iyz =210,004  
⎝ 2 ⎠

24  
 Mohr’s  Circle  (3/6)  
•  Points  Y  and  Z  in  the  Mohr’s  
circle,  representa@ve  of  the  
central  axes  y  and  z  in  the  
G cross  sec@on,  are  the  
y
α   m extreme  points  of  a  
diameter  
Imn   n
z
Z   •  A  rota@on  of  an  angle  α  of  
-­‐Iyz   the  central  axes  in  the  cross  
RI  
Iyy   sec@on  corresponds  to  an  
CI  
angle  2α  in  the  Mohr’s  
Izz   Iave   Imm  
M   circle  (in  the  same  
2α   direc@on),  i.e.  twice  the  
Iyz  
Y   angle  in  the  Mohr’s  plane  
25  
 Mohr’s  Circle  (4/6)  
•  We  can  determine  the  maximum  
and  minimum  values  of  the  
second  moment  of  area  for  a  
given  cross  sec@on:  
G
y Imax = Iave + RI =771,254  
Imin = Iave − RI =351,246  
Imn   •  The  axes  p  and  q  associated  with  
z
the  extreme  value  of  I  are  called  
Z   “principal  axes  of  iner@a”  
-­‐Iyz  
RI   –  They  are  orthogonal  each  other  
Iyy   –  In  this  example:  
Imin   CI   P    Ipp=  Imax  è  p-­‐p  is  the  strong(est)  
Q   Izz   Iave   Imax   Imm   axis  in  bending  
 Iqq=  Imin  è  q-­‐q  is  the  weak(est)  
Iyz   axis  in  bending,  e.g.  to  be  used  
Y   when  calcula@ng  the  Euler’s  
buckling  load  
26  
 Mohr’s  Circle  (5/6)  
•  We  can  also  evaluate  the  
inclina@on  of  the  principal  
axes  p  and  q  with  respect  to  
G reference  axes  y  and  z  
y αzq=αyp  
αyp  
•  In  this  example:  
Imn  
z
1 −1 ⎛ Iyz ⎞
Z   α yp = α zq = sin ⎜ ⎟ =26.7°  
-­‐Iyz   2 ⎜⎝ RI ⎟⎠
RI  
Imin   2αzq   CI   Iyy   P   –  In  general,  you  don’t  know  
Q   Izz   Iave   2αyp   Imax   Imm   whether  p  is  the  strong  
axis  or  the  weak  axis,  but  
Iyz  
it’s  for  sure  one  of  the  two  
Y   extreme  values    
27  
 Mohr’s  Circle  (6/6)  
•  For  any  beam’s  cross  sec@on,  
the  principal  axes  p  and  q  
always  sa@sfy  the  
G mathema@cal  condi@on  
y αzq=αyp  
αyp   I pq = 0

Imn   –  That  is,  their  representa@ve  

z points  P  and  Q  in  the  Mohr’s  
Z   circle  belong  to  the  horizontal  
-­‐Iyz   axis  
RI  
Imin   2αzq   CI   Iyy   P  
•  An  axis  of  symmetry  is  always  
Q   Izz   Iave   2αyp   Imax   Imm  
a  principal  axis  of  the  area  
Iyz  
Y  

28  
 Mohr’s  Circle:  Par@cular  Cases  
•  If  for  a  given  cross  sec@on  
Imin=Imax,  then  all  the  central  
axes  m  will  have  the  same  
Mm second  moment  of  area,  i.e.  
y G m Imm=Imin=Imax,  and  all  the  
central  axes  m  will  be  principal  
m axes  of  area,  i.e.  Imn=0  
x
z –  This  is  the  case,  for  instance,  of  
both  circular  and  square  
shapes  
Mm
–  The  neutral  axis  (where  σx=0)  
y G m will  always  coincide  with  the  
axis  about  which  the  bending  
m moment  is  applied  
x
z

29  
 Bending  about  Principal  Axes  
•  In  general,  a  bending  
σx < 0 moment  Mp  ac@ng  
compressive about  the  principal  
stress axis  p  will  cause  the  
beam  to  bend  in  the  
Mp
s orthogonal  Gxq  plane  
ipal axi
princ
G •  The  simple  formula  
p
σx > 0
of  direct  stress  σx  
due  to  pure  bending  
is x
tensile
stress can  be  resorted  to:  
x
s’ a q
eam Mp q
Eq.  (2)   σ x =
b
I pp
Distance  (with  sign)  to  the  neutral  axis  
–  Similar  to  Eq.  (1)  
  30  
 Normal  Stress  due  to  Unsymmetrical  
Bending:  General  Procedure  (1/4)  
•  If  the  bending  does  not  act  
My along  one  of  the  principal  
axis  (p  and  q),  then  the  
G
bending  moment  can  be  
y ααyp   decomposed  along  the  
p principal  axes  

z
•  In  the  figure,  My  is  the  
q bending  moment  about  the  
horizontal  axis  (due,  for  
( < 0) instance,  to  the  dead  load):  
Mq
M y (> 0) ααyp     ⎧⎪ M p = M y cos(α )
> 0) ⎨
⎪⎩ M q = −M y sin(α )
Mp (

   
31  
Normal  Stress  due  to  Unsymmetrical  
Bending:  General  Procedure  (2/4)  
•  If  the  bending  does  not  act  
My along  one  of  the  principal  
axis  (p  and  q),  then  the  
G
bending  moment  can  be  
y ααyp   decomposed  along  the  
p principal  axes  

z
•  Similarly  for  the  case  of  the  
q bending  moment  Mz  (due,  
for  instance,  to  some  lateral  
( > 0) forces):  
Mp
  ⎧⎪ M p = M z sin(α )
ααzq   ( > 0) ⎨
Mq ⎪⎩ M q = M z cos(α )
M z (> 0)    
32  
Normal  Stress  due  to  Unsymmetrical  
Bending:  General  Procedure  (3/4)  
•  Once  Mp  and  Mq  are  known,  
My the  normal  stress  σx  (+ve  in  
tension)  can  be  computed  
G with  the  expression:  
y ααyp  
p
Mp q Mq p
Eq.  (3)   σx = −
z
q I pp Iqq
p
G
q p  and  q  here  are  the  
p
distances  from  the  
principal  axes  of  the  point  
x where  the  stress  σx  is  
sought  
σx q
33  
Normal  Stress  due  to  Unsymmetrical  
Bending:  General  Procedure  (4/4)  
•  As  an  alterna@ve,  the  following  
binomial  formula  can  be  used  

Eq.  (4)   σx = β y +γ z
My
–  where  the  coefficients  beta  
(β)  and  gamma  (γ)  are  given  
G
y by:  
⎧ M z I yy + M y I yz
⎪β = − I I − I 2
x ⎪ yy zz yz
⎨
⎪γ = M y I zz + M z I yz
z Mz
⎪⎩ I yy I zz − I yz2

34  
 Neutral  Axis  (1/2)  
•  Along  the  neutral  axis  the  normal  stress  
σx  is  zero,  that  is:  
ela

 σ = β y + γ z = 0
stic

  x
neu

yN
tral

–  The  centroid  G≡{0,0}  belongs  to  the  

ax

neutral  axis,  and  indeed  yG=0  and  zG=0  

is

sa@sfies  the  above  equa@ons  

G
y –  We  need  a  second  point  N≡{yN,zN}  to  
zN draw  the  straight  line  GN  represen@ng  
the  neutral  axis:  we  can  choose  a  
x N convenient  value  for  the  coordinate  zN,  
e.g.  the  boiom  edge  of  the  cross  sec@on,  
and  the  associated  value  of  yN  is  given  by:  
z Mz
γ zN
β yN + γ zN = 0 ⇒ yN = −
   
β
35  
 Neutral  Axis  (2/2)  

ela
stic
neu
yN

tral
isax
he  bending  
G
•  A ltho u g h   t
e  verBcal   y
acBon  is  about  th zN
l  axis  is  
axis  z,  the  neutra compression  
not  verBcal  
re  parBally   x N
•  The  two  flanges  a
lly  in  
in  tension,  parBa tension  
compression    
z Mz
36  
 Normal  Stress  Calcula@ons:  
Worked  Example  (1/3)  
⎧⎪My = 106 A≡{-­‐8.75,-­‐33.75}  
⎨
⎪⎩Mz = 0
⎧ Mz Iyy + My Iyz
⎪β = − I I − I 2 = 0.623
My   ⎪ yy zz yz
G ⎨
y αyp   ⎪γ = My I zz + Mz Iyz = 1.610
⎪⎩ 2
Iyy I zz − Iyz

B≡{21.25,    
26.25}   z
 
σ x (A) = β y A + γ z A
Iyy = 686,250 I pp = 771,254 = −0.623 × 8.75 −1.610 × 33.75
I zz = 436,250 Iqq = 351,246 = −59.80

Iyz = −168,750 α yp = 26.7° σ x (B) = β yB + γ zB = +55.51

37  
 Normal  Stress  Calcula@ons:  
Worked  Example  (2/3)  
⎧⎪Mp = My cos(α yp ) = 893,092
⎨
⎪⎩Mz = −My sin(α yp ) = −449,874

My  
G
y αyp   Mp qA Mq pA
σ x (A) = −
I pp Iqq
894,092 × (−23.00)
=
z 771,254
(−449,874) × (−26.21)
−
351,246
Iyy = 686,250 I pp = 771,254 = −59.80
I zz = 436,250 Iqq = 351,246
Mp qB Mq pB
Iyz = −168,750 α yp = 26.7° σ x (B) = − = +55.51
I pp Iqq
38  
 Normal  Stress  Calcula@ons:  
Worked  Example  (2/3)  

elas0 com
pres point  of  max  
c  neut sion
  compressive  
ral  a
x is   N   stress  
My  
G
y
tensi
o n   Assume:   yN = dn = 21.25
point  of  max    
tensile  stress   z Calculate:  
σ x (N) = β yN + γ zN
= 0.623 × 21.25 +1.610 × zN = 0
Iyy = 686,250 I pp = 771,254
13.24
I zz = 436,250 Iqq = 351,246 ⇒ zN = − = −8.22
1.610
Iyz = −168,750 α yp = 26.7°
(which  gives  the  neutral  axis  GN)    
39  
 Key  Learning  Points  (1/2)  
1.  The  simple  formula  of  bending  stress,  σx=Myz/Iyy,  is  valid  if  
and  only  if  y  is  a  principal  axis  for  the  cross  sec@on  
–  That  is,  if  and  only  if  the  product  moment  of  iner@a  is  Iyz=0  
–  This  is  the  case,  for  instance,  when  y  and/or  z  are  axis  of  symmetry  

2.  To  calculate  Iyz  one  can  split  the  cross  sec@on  in  elementary  
blocks,  sum  the  contribu@on  from  each  block  and  use  the  
parallel  axis  theorem  
–  Important:  Iyz  can  be  nega@ve,  posi@ve  or  null  

40  
 Key  Learning  Points  (2/2)  
3.  Knowing  Iyy,  Izz  and  Iyz  ,  one  can  draw  the  Mohr’s  circle  for  the  
second  moment  of  area,  which  allows  determining  the  
extreme  values  (Imin  and  Imax)  and  their  direc@ons  

4.  In  the  general  case  of  unsymmetrical  bending,  the  normal  

stress  is  given  by  the  formula  
–  σx=  β y  +  γ z  
•  where  β  and  γ  depend  on  the  components  of  the  bending  moments  (My  and  Mz)  
as  well  as  on  Iyy,  Izz  and  Iyz  

5.  The  above  formula  allows  determining  the  inclina@on  of  the  
neutral  axis  
 

41