Radiation Basics April 25, 2007

Outline
Radiation Fundamentals • Review last topic
• Basic ideas of heat exchangers
Larry Caretto • Overall heat transfer coefficient
Mechanical Engineering 375 • Log-mean temperature difference
Heat Transfer method
• Effectiveness –NTU method
April 25, 2007 • Practical considerations

Electromagnetic Radiation EM Radiation Properties

• Radiation heat transfer by • Wavelength, λ, ranges from 10-9 to 1010
electromagnetic radiation μm is distance between wave peaks
– Part of much larger spectrum • EM waves travel at speed of light =
– Thermal radiation transfers 299,792,458 m/s (in a vacuum)
heat without contact
• Frequency, ν = c/λ, units of Hz = s-1
• Use of fire or electric resistance
heating are best examples • Radian frequency ω = 2πν, units s-1
• Thermal radiation lies in infrared • For ν = 60 Hz = 60 s-1, λ = (299,792,458
and visible part of spectrum (with
some in ultraviolet) m/s) / (60 s-1) ≈ 5x106 m = 5x1012 μm
Figure 12-3 from Çengel, Heat and Mass Transfer 3 4

Black-body Radiation Black-Body Radiation II

• Perfect emitter – no • Basic black body equation: Eb = σT4
surface can emit – Eb is total black-body radiation energy flux
more radiation than W/m2 or Btu/hr·ft2
a black body – σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant
• Diffuse emitter – • σ = 5.670x10-8 W/m2·K4
• σ = 0.1714x10-8 Btu/hr·ft2·R4
radiation is uniform
in all directions – Must use absolute temperature
• Perfect absorber – all radiation striking a • Radiation flux varies with wavelength
black body is absorbed – Ebλ is flux at given wavelength, λ
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Radiation Basics April 25, 2007

Ultraviolet Infrared

Stefan-Boltzmann Constant Spectral Ebλ

• Found experimentally, but later analysis • Energy (W/m2)
relates σ to other fundamental constants emitted varies
– σ = 2π5k4/(15h3c2) with wavelength
– k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38065x10-23 J/K and temperature
(molecular gas constant) = Ru/NAvagadro • Maximum point
– h = Planck’s constant = 6.62607x10-34 J·s occurs where λT
• First notion of quantum mechanics that energy = 2897.8 μm·K
associated with a wave, ε = hν = hc/λ • T increase shifts
– c = 299,792,458 m/s = speed of light in a peak shift to
vacuum lower λ
7 8
Figure 12-9 from Çengel, Heat and Mass Transfer

Spectral Black-body Energy Total Energy

• Ebλdλ = black-body emissive power in a • Total energy is
wavelength range dλ about λ integral over all
– Typical units for Ebλ are W/m2·μm or wavelengths
Btu/hr·ft2·μm
C1 ∞

λ e
Ebλ dλ =
−1 5
( C2 λ T
) dλ
∫
Eb = Ebλ dλ = σT 4
0
• C1 = 2πhc2
= 3.74177 W·μm4/m2 • Recall that σ =
• C2 = hc/k = 14387.8 μm/K 2π5k4/(15h3c2)
– h = Planck’s constant, c = speed of light in
vacuum, k = Boltzmann’s constant
9 Figure 12-11 from Çengel, Heat and Mass Transfer 10

Integral Proof Integral Proof II

• Show IEbλdλ = σT4 on this and next chart • Get single variable z and integrate
C2 / y = 0 z =0
– First get common variable C2/λT = C2/y Eb C1 C25 C z5 1
λ =∞ λ =∞ λT =∞ 4
= ∫ 5
( C2 y
−1) C25
dy = ∫ (e z1− 1) C25 dy
d (λT )
C1 C1
∫ Ebλ dλ = ∫ λ5 (eC ) dλ = T ∫
Eb = T y e
(λT )5 (eC2 λT − 1)
4
C2 / y = ∞ z =∞
λT
2 −1 z =0 z =∞
λ =0 λ =0 λT = 0 C1z 5 1 C2 C1 z3 C π4
Eb
y =∞
C1 C25
C2 / y = 0
C1 C25
= − ∫ (ez −1 ) C25 z 2
dz = ∫ (e z − 1) dz = C214 15
C24 z =0
T4
= ∫ (
y 5 e C2 y
−1 ) C25
dy = ∫ (
y 5 e C2 y
)
−1 C25
dy z =∞

y =0 C2 / y = ∞ – Standard integral found from Matlab

• Define z = C2/y and get dy in terms of dz command int(‘z^3/(exp(z)-1)’,0,inf)
C2 C2 C2 C2 C1 π 4 4 2πhc 2 π 4 4 2π5 k 4 4
z= ⇒ dz = − dy = − dy ⇒ dy = − dz Eb = T = T = T = σT 4
y y 2
(C2 z ) 2
z 2 C24 15 (hc k )4 15 15h3c 2
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Radiation Basics April 25, 2007

Partial Black-body Power Radiation Tables

Black body radiation between λ = • Can show that fλ is function of λT
0 and λ = λ1 is Eb,0-λ1 λ λ λ λT
1
∫ (λT )5 (eC1 λT − 1) d (λT )
1 1 C1 1 C
Eb,0−λ1 = Ebλ dλ ∫
fλ =
σT 4 ∫ Ebλ dλ = σT 4 ∫ λ5 (eC 2 λT
)
−1
dλ =
σ 2
0 0 0
0
Fraction of total radiation • Radiation tables
(σT4) between λ = 0 and give fλ versus λT
any given λ is fλ – See table 12-2,
page 672 in text
λ
1
∫ Ebλ dλ'
– Extract from this
fλ =
σT 4 0
table shown at right
13 14
Figure 12-13 from Çengel, Heat and Mass Transfer

Δλ Sample Problem
• Radiation in finite • A conventional light bulb has a filament
band, Δλ temperature of 4000oF. Find the fraction
λ2 of visible radiation from this filament, if it
1
f λ1 −λ 2 =
σT 4 ∫ Ebλ dλ = is a black body.
λ1
λ2 λ1 • Given: T = 4000oF and visible region
1 1
σT 4 ∫ Ebλ dλ −
σT 4
Ebλ dλ ∫ • Find: Fraction of total radiation in region
0 0 • Missing information: Visible region is
= f (λ 2T ) − f (λ1T )
between 0.4 μm and 0.76 μm
• Conversion: 4000oF = 4460 R = 2478 K
15 16
Figure 12-14 from Çengel, Heat and Mass Transfer

Sample Problem Solution Radiation Exchange

• Compute λT at λ1 and λ2 and find • In general, radiation leaving a surface
corresponding fλ values in Table 12.2 can vary in direction
– λ1T = (0.4 μm)(2478 K) = 991 μm·K – Ideal of diffuse radiation is uniform in all
– λ1T = (0.79 μm)(2478 K) = 1883 μm·K directions
– f(λ1T) = 0.000289 (interpolation in table) – Need coordinate system for radiation
– f(λ2T) = 0.04980 (interpolation in table) leaving a surface
– Look at hemisphere on top of surface and
• Fraction in visible range = 0.04980 – use spherical coordinate system
0.000289 = 0.0495 or about 5% in
– I(θ,φ) is radiation intensity in direction (θ,φ)
visible range for conventional lighting • See chart after next for diagram
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Radiation Basics April 25, 2007

Review Spherical Coordinates Radiation Intensity

• Use angular • Radiation intensity, I,
coordinates φ is radiation in a
and θ particular direction,
• φ is polar angle (θ,φ)
in x-y plane • Intensity depends on
• θ is azithmuthal area at outer surface
Figure 2-3
from angle with z axis of cone
Çengel,
Heat and • Measure of this
Mass
Transfer surface is solid angle
19 Figure 12-16 from Çengel, Heat and Mass Transfer 20

Solid Angle dω = sinθ dθdφ

Solid Angle II
• Similar to radian angular measure in 2D • Just as there are 2π radians in a circle,
• Arc length, l = rθ so θ = l/r there are 4π steradians in a sphere
θ
• Differential arc length dl = • Differential area, dS = dω/r2
rdθ so dθ = dl/r
• Partial surface area, S
= r2ω so ω = S/r2
(Total area = 4πr2)
• Units for ω are called
steradians (sr) Figure 12-18 from Çengel,
Heat and Mass Transfer
21 22
Figure 12-17 from Çengel, Heat and Mass Transfer

Radiation Intensity II Radiation Intensity III

• Radiation intensity, I, • Emitted intensity, Ie, is
is radiation energy in a radiation energy, dQe, in
particular direction, a particular direction,
dSnormal = (θ,φ) per unit area dSnormal = (θ,φ) per unit area
dAcosθ normal to the direction, dAcosθ normal to the direction,
Solid per unit solid angle, ω Solid per unit solid angle, ω
angle ω angle ω
dQ& e
• Normal area is projec- I e (θ, φ) =
tion of dA normal to dA cos θdω
direction = dAcosθ Figure 12-16 from Çengel, dQ& e
Heat and Mass Transfer =
Figure 12-16 from Çengel, Heat and Mass Transfer 23 dA cos θ sin θ dθdφ 24

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Radiation Basics April 25, 2007

For integration over

hemisphere: 0 ≤ φ ≤ 2π Emissive Power
and 0 ≤ θ ≤ π/2
• Radiation flux for emitted radiation
(energy per unit area of surface)
dQ& e
dE = = I e (θ, φ) cos θ sin θdφ
dA cos θdω
2π π / 2
E= ∫ dE = ∫ ∫ I e (θ, φ)cos θ sin θdθdφ
hemi − φ = 0 θ =0
sphere

Figure 12-18 from Çengel,

For constant Ie, E = πIe
25
Heat and Mass Transfer 26

Radiosity, J, total intensity leaving surface

Irradiation G (sum of directly emitted plusRadiosity
reflected)
• Ii = incident intensity J=
– function of direction Iemitted +
Figure
12-20
• G = total radiation Ireflected
from
Çengel,
Heat and
impinging on surface
Mass

G= ∫ dG =
Transfer

hemi −
sphere Figure 12-21 from
2π π / 2 Çengel, Heat and

∫ ∫ Ii (θ, φ)cos θ sin θdθdφ

Mass Transfer

27 28
φ=0 θ=0

Spectral Quantities Emissivity

• Previous discussions of I, E, G, and J • Emissivity, ε, is ratio of actual emissive
have not considered wavelength power to black body emissive power
– May be defined on a directional and
• Can define Ie,λ, Ii,λ, and Ie+r,λ wavelength basis, ελ,θ(λ,θ,φ,T) =
– Called “spectral” quantities Iλ,e(λ,θ,φ,T)/Ibλ(λ,T), called spectral,
• Previous quantities are then integrals directional emissivity
– Total directional emissivity, average over
over all wavelengths all wavelengths, εθ(θ,φ,T) = Ie(θ,φ,T)/Ib(T)
∞ ∞ ∞ – Spectral hemispherical emissivity average
∫
I e = I e,λ dλ ∫
I i = I i,λ dλ ∫
I e + r = I e + r ,λ dλ over directions, ελ(λ,T) = Iλ(λ,T)/Ibλ(λ,T)
– Total hemispheric emissivity = E(T)/Eb(T)
0 0 0
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Emissivity Assumptions εθ
• Diffuse surface – emissivity does not • In general,
depend on direction total
• Gray surface – emissivity does not directional
depend on wavelength emissivity is
constant
• Gray, diffuse surface – emissivity is the
over most of
does not depend on direction or
surface
wavelength
– Simplest surface to handle and often used
in radiation calculations
31 32
Figure 12-26 from Çengel, Heat and Mass Transfer

33 34

Properties Properties II
• When radiation, • Fractions on
G, hits a surface previous chart
a fraction ρG is are properties
reflected; another – Reflectivity, ρ
fraction, αG is – Absorptivity, α
absorbed, a third – Transmissivity, τ
fraction τG is • Energy balance:
Figure 12-31 from
transmitted Figure 12-31 from ρ+α+τ=1
Çengel, Heat and Çengel, Heat and
Mass Transfer • Energy balance: Mass Transfer

ρ + α + τ = 1 35 36

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Radiation Basics April 25, 2007

Properties III α Data

• As with emissivity, α, ρ, and τ may be • Solar
defined on a spectral and directional radiation has
basis effective
– Can also take averages over wavelength, source
direction or both as with emissivity temperature
– Simplest case is no dependence on either of about
wavelength or direction 5800 K
– Reflectivity may be diffuse or have angle of
reflection equal angle of incidence
Figure 12-33 from
Çengel, Heat and
37 Mass Transfer 38

Kirchoff’s Law Effect of Temperature

• Absorptivity equals emissivity (at the • Emissivity, ε, depends on surface
same temperature) temperature
• True only for values in a given direction • Absorptivity, α, depends on source
and wavelength temperature (e.g. Tsun ≈ 5800 K)
• Assuming total hemispherical values of • For surfaces exposed to solar radiation
α and ε are the same simplifies – high α and low ε will keep surface warm
radiation heat transfer calculations, but – low α and high ε will keep surface cool
is not always a good assumption – Does not violate Kirchoff’s law since
source and surface temperatures differ
39 40

41
From Çengel, Heat and Mass Transfer

ME 375 – Heat Transfer 7