CC9066 Semester 1, 2015

Faculties of Arts, Economics, Education,

Engineering and Science

MATH2069/2969: Discrete Mathematics and Graph Theory

Lecturer: Alexander Molev

Time allowed: 2 hours, plus 10 minutes reading time

This booklet contains 11 pages.

This paper comprises 6 questions of equal value. Each question is di-

vided into several parts.
Questions 1, 2, 4, 5 are the same for MATH2069 and MATH2969. For
questions 3, 6 this paper contains both the normal-level MATH2069
question and the (completely different) advanced-level MATH2969
question. You may ONLY answer the questions for the unit you are
enrolled in.
If you can’t solve one part of a question, you can still assume the result
in doing later parts.
No notes or books are allowed. Approved calculators are permitted.

SOLUTIONS
CC9066 Semester 1, 2015 page 2 of 11

1. Give explicit numerical values for your answers in parts (a) and (b).
A department in a company consists of 15 employees.
(a) What is the number of ways to select 3 people to represent the department
at a conference?
Solution: Thisis the
 number of 3-element subsets of a set of cardinality
15 15 · 14 · 13
15 and so equals = = 455.
3 3!
(b) The employees voted to elect the head of the department and his/her deputy.
What is the number of possible outcomes of the election?
Solution: The number is 15(2) = 15 · 14 = 210. There are 15 ways to elect
the head and 14 ways to elect the deputy.
(c) The department needs to have committees on resources, development and
strategy, each consisting of 5 employees. What is the number of ways to form
these committees, assuming that everyone in the department is involved?
Solution: This is the number of ways to select three subsets, each of
cardinality 
5, fromthe set of cardinality 15, and so equals the multinomial
15 15!
coefficient = = 756756. Alternatively, this can also be
 5, 5, 5  5! 5! 5!
15 10
found as .
5 5
(d) What is the number of ways to form 3 teams of 5 players each, to play
volleyball during a department retreat?
Solution: The number of ways to select three ordered  groups of people is
15
found in the solution of the previous part and equals . There are
5, 5, 5
3! = 6 ways to order these groups.
 Hence, the number of ways to form the
1 15
volleyball teams is = 126126.
6 5, 5, 5
(e) The department received 20 identical presents from a sponsor company.
What is the number of ways to distribute the presents so that no one misses
out?
Solution: First give a present to everyone. There remains 5 presents
to distribute between 15 people. This is the number of unordered selec-
tions
 of 5 things
  from 15 possibilities with repetition allowed and so equals
15 + 5 − 1 19
= = 11628.
5 5

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2. (a) Find the general solution of the recurrence relation

bn = 4 bn−1 − 3 bn−2 where n > 2.
Solution: The characteristic polynomial is x2 − 4x + 3 = (x − 1)(x − 3).
Hence the general solution of the recurrence relation is bn = A + B 3n , where
A and B are arbitrary constants.
(b) Find a particular solution of the non-homogeneous recurrence relation
an = 4 an−1 − 3 an−2 + 2n where n > 2.
Solution: We will look for a particular solution in the form pn = C 2n .
Substitute into the relation,

C 2n = 4 C 2n−1 − 3 C 2n−2 + 2n .

Dividing both parts by 2n−2 we get 4C = 8C − 3C + 4. Hence, C = −4 and

pn = −2n+2 .
(c) Find the solution of the recurrence relation in part (b) satisfying the initial
conditions a0 = 0 and a1 = −2.
Solution: By a result from lectures, the general solution is
an = A + B 3n − 2n+2 . Taking n = 0 and n = 1 we get A + B = 4 and
A + 3B = 6. Hence A = 3 and B = 1 and the solution is an = 3 + 3n − 2n+2 .
(d) Suppose that a sequence cn is a solution of the recurrence relation
cn = 4 cn−1 − 3 cn−2 + n. Write down a non-homogeneous linear recurrence
relation satisfied by the sequence xn = 5 an − cn , where an is the solution to
the recurrence in (b). Justify your answer by showing that the sequence is
indeed a solution.
Solution: The equation is xn = 4 xn−1 − 3 xn−2 + 5 · 2n − n. We need to
verify that

5 an − cn = 4(5 an−1 − cn−1 ) − 3(5 an−2 − cn−2 ) + 5 · 2n − n.

The right hand side equals

5(4 an−1 − 3 an−2 + 2n ) − (4 cn−1 − 3 cn−2 + n) = 5 an − cn .

as required.

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3. This question is for MATH2069 students only.

3
(a) The generating function of the sequence an is given by A(z) = .
1 − z − 2z 2
Find an explicit formula for an .
Solution: Use partial fraction decomposition,
3 3 A B
2
= = + .
1 − z − 2z (1 + z)(1 − 2z) 1 + z 1 − 2z

The constants A and B are found from the relation A(1 − 2z) + B(1 + z) = 3.
It gives A + B = 3 and −2A + B = 0 so that A = 1 and B = 2. Therefore,
∞ ∞
3 1 2 X
n n
X
= + = (−1) z + 2 2n z n
1 − z − 2z 2 1 + z 1 − 2z n=0 n=0

and the coefficient of z n is an = (−1)n + 2n+1.

(b) Write down a degree 2 homogeneous linear recurrence relation satisfied by
the sequence an in part (a).
Solution: The sequence an is a linear combination of the sequences (−1)n
and 2n . Both of them are solutions of the recurrence relation with the char-
acteristic polynomial (x + 1)(x − 2) = x2 − x − 2. Hence, an satisfies the
recurrence relation an = an−1 + 2an−2 with n > 2.
(c) We may represent the formal power series A(z) from part (a) in the form
∞
X
A(z) = 3 (z + 2z 2 )m .
m=0

(i) Use the Binomial Theorem to write (z + 2z 2 )m as a polynomial in z.

Solution: We have
m   m  
2 m
X m m−k 2 k X k m m+k
(z + 2z ) = z (2z ) = 2 z .
k=0
k k=0
k

(ii) Hence or otherwise prove the identity

n
(−1)n + 2n+1
 
X
k n−k
2 = ,
k=0
k 3

where n > 0.
Solution: By the previous part, the coefficient of z n in the expansion
of A(z) equals  
k m
X
3 2 ,
k+m=n
k

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summed over k, m > 0. On the other hand, by part (a), this coefficient
is (−1)n + 2n+1 . Equating the coefficients we get the identity

(−1)n + 2n+1
 
k m
X
2 =
k+m=n
k 3

which gives the required one by replacing m with n − k.

3. This question is for MATH2969 students only.

9
(a) The generating function of the sequence an is given by A(z) = .
1 − 3 z 2 + 2z 3
Find an explicit formula for an .
Solution: Use partial fraction decomposition,
9 9 A B C
2 3
= 2
= + 2
+ .
1 − 3 z + 2z (1 − z) (1 + 2z) 1 − z (1 − z) 1 + 2z

The constants A, B and C are found from the relation

A(1 − z)(1 + 2z) + B(1 + 2z) + C(1 − z)2 = 9.

It gives A + B + C = 9, A + 2B − 2C = 0 and −2A + C = 0. This gives

A = 2, B = 3 and C = 4. Therefore,
9 2 3 4
= + +
1 − 3 z 2 + 2z 3 1 − z (1 − z)2 1 + 2z

which equals
∞
X ∞
X ∞
X
n n
2 z +3 (n + 1)z + 4 (−2)n z n .
n=0 n=0 n=0

Taking the coefficient of z n we get an = 3n + 5 + (−2)n+2 .

(b) Write down a homogeneous linear recurrence relation satisfied by the se-
quence an in part (a).
Solution: The sequence an is a linear combination of the sequences 1n ,
n1n and (−2)n . They are solutions of the recurrence relation with the char-
acteristic polynomial (x − 1)2 (x + 2) = x3 − 3x + 2. Hence, an satisfies the
recurrence relation an = 3an−2 − 2an−3 with n > 3.
(c) We may represent the formal power series A(z) from part (a) in the form
∞
X
A(z) = 9 (3z 2 − 2z 3 )m .
m=0

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(i) Apply the Binomial Theorem to write (3z 2 − 2z 3 )m as a polynomial

in z.
Solution: We have
m   m   
2 3 m
X m 2 m−k 3 k m
X 2 k m 2m+k
(3z −2z ) = (3z ) (−2z ) = 3 − z .
k=0
k k=0
3 k

(ii) Hence or otherwise prove the identity

⌊n/2⌋
3n + 5 + (−2)n+2
 
X
m
 2 n−2m m
3 − = ,
m=0
3 n − 2m 9

where n > 0.
Solution: By the previous part, the coefficient of z n in the expansion
of A(z) equals
X  2 k m
m
9 3 − .
2m+k=n
3 k

On the other hand, by part (a), this coefficient is 3n + 5 + (−2)n+2 .

Equating the coefficients we get the identity
X  2 k m 3n + 5 + (−2)n+2
m
3 − =
3 k 9
2m+k=n

which gives the required one by replacing k with n − 2m and noting

that the values of m are bounded by the inequality 2m 6 n.

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4. (a) Explain why two of the following three sequences (1, 2, 2, 2, 3), (2, 2, 2, 2, 3)
and (1, 2, 2, 2, 5) are not graphic.
Solution: The sequence (2, 2, 2, 2, 3) is not graphic because the sum of all
degrees is an odd number. The sequence (1, 2, 2, 2, 5) is not graphic since a
graph would have a vertex of degree 5 whereas the total number of vertices
should be 5.
(b) For the graphic sequence in part (a) draw two non-isomorphic graphs with
this degree sequence. Explain why your graphs are not isomorphic.
Solution: The two graphs are

They are not isomorphic because the first graph contains a 3-cycle while the
second does not.
(c) Either write down an Eulerian trail in the following graph, or explain why
none exists.
a b c d e

f g h i j

Solution: By a theorem from lectures, a connected graph has an Eulerian

trail if and only if it has exactly two vertices of odd degree. The number of
vertices of odd degree in the given graph is 4 hence an Eulerian trail does
not exist.
(d) Determine and explain whether or not the following graph is Hamiltonian.

9 10 11

4 5 6 7 8

1 2 3

Solution: The graph is Hamiltonian because it contains the spanning cycle

1, 4, 9, 5, 10, 7, 2, 3, 8, 11, 6, 1.

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5. (a) Find a walk which solves the Chinese Postman Problem for the following
weighted graph. Justify your answer.
b 1 c
1 2 1
a 2 2 d
1 2 1
e 1 f

Solution: All vertices are of even degree. Hence the graph is Eulerian
and so an Eulerian circuit is a solution of the Chinese Postman Problem:
b, c, d, f, e, a, b, f, c, e, b.
(b) What is the maximum weight of the spanning trees for the weighted graph
in part (a)? Justify your answer.
Solution: The maximum weight is 8. A spanning tree is found by applying
Prim’s algorithm where maximum weight edges are chosen at each step.
Equivalently, this is Prim’s algorithm with the opposite ordering of positive
integers and it gives such a tree:
b c
1 1
a 2 2 d
2
e f
(c) Consider the trees with 5 vertices {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
(i) Write down all possible degree sequences of these trees.
Solution: As we know from the course, there are 3 isomorphism
classes of such trees:

Hence possible degree sequences of the trees are (1, 1, 1, 1, 4),

(1, 1, 1, 2, 3) and (1, 1, 2, 2, 2).
(ii) Hence show that any permutation of the Prüfer sequence (a, b, c) of a
tree T gives the Prüfer sequence of a tree isomorphic to T .
Solution: By the previous part, the isomorphism class of any tree is
uniquely determined by the degree sequence. On the other hand, by
a theorem from lectures, each vertex v of a tree occurs in the Prüfer
sequence deg(v)−1 times. Therefore, the Prüfer sequences of the trees
in the first isomorphism class have the form (a, a, a) for some a, the
Prüfer sequences of the trees in the second isomorphism class have
the form (a, a, b), (a, b, a) or (b, a, a) for some a 6= b, and the Prüfer
sequences of the trees in the third isomorphism class have the form
(a, b, c) for distinct a, b, c. Hence, the claim follows.

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(d) Does the property of part (c)(ii) extend to Prüfer sequences (a, b, c, d) of
trees with 6 vertices? Justify your answer.
Solution: No. The respective Prüfer sequences of the trees

6 3 2 1 4 6 2 3 1 4

5 5

are (1, 2, 3, 3) and (1, 3, 3, 2). Even though the second sequence is obtained
from the first by a permutation, the trees are not isomorphic. The minimal
length of paths between two leaves in the first tree is 2, whereas in the second
tree this minimal length is 3.

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6. This question is for MATH2069 students only.

Consider the following graph G:

(a) What is the chromatic number of G? Justify your answer.

Solution: Since the graph contains a complete graph K4 , the chromatic
number is at least 4. On the other hand, there is a colouring with 4 colours:
w
r r

g b
r
Hence the chromatic number is 4.
(b) Calculate the chromatic polynomial of G.
Solution: Each vertex of degree 2 is adjacent to two vertices adjacent to
each other. Therefore, by theorems from lectures, PG (t) = (t − 2)2 PK4 (t) =
t(t − 1)(t − 2)3 (t − 3).
(c) Hence or otherwise, count the number of different colourings of the graph G
with 5 colours.
Solution: This is the value of PG (t) for t = 5 so that the number is 1080.
(d) What is the edge chromatic number of G? Justify your answer.
Solution: By Vizing’s theorem, the edge-chromatic number is either 5 or
6. We will show that the number is 5 by producing an edge colouring with
5 colours. 1
6 2

5 3
4
Choose colour w1 for the edges {1, 6} and {2, 3}, colour w2 for the edges
{1, 5} and {3, 4}, colour w3 for the edges {1, 4} and {3, 5}, colour w4 for the
edges {1, 3} and {5, 6}, and colour w5 for the edges {1, 2} and {4, 5}.

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6. This question is for MATH2969 students only.

For any n > 2 the graph Hn can be drawn as a regular polygon with 3n ver-
tices 1, 2, . . . , 3n numbered clockwise, where, in addition, any two of the vertices
3, 6, . . . , 3n are connected by an edge.
(a) Find the chromatic number of Hn .
Solution: We will show that χ(Hn ) = n. The graph Hn contains a
subgraph isomorphic to Kn : its vertices are 3, 6, . . . , 3n. Choose n colours
for the vertices of this subgraph. For each vertex 3k + 1 use the same colour
as for 3k + 3 and for each vertex 3k + 2 use the same colour as for 3k, where
k = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1 and the vertex 0 is understood as 3n (assuming the vertex
labels are considered modulo 3n).
(b) Find the chromatic polynomial of the graph Hn .
Solution: Fix k ∈ {0, 1, . . . , n − 1} and let e = {3k + 1, 3k + 2}. By
a theorem from lectures, PHn (t) = PHn −e (t) − PHn [3k+1,3k+2] . By another
theorem, PHn −e (t) = (t − 1)2 PG (t) and PHn [3k+1,3k+2] = (t − 2) PG (t), where
the graph G is obtained from Hn by deleting the vertices 3k + 1 and 3k + 2.
Hence, PHn (t) = (t2 − 3t + 3) PG (t). Repeating this argument for each k we
find PHn (t) = (t2 − 3t + 3)n PKn (t) = (t2 − 3t + 3)n t(n) .
(c) Find the edge chromatic number of Hn .
Solution: Since ∆(Hn ) = n + 1, the Vizing theorem implies that χ′ (Hn )
is n + 1 or n + 2. We will show that χ′ (Hn ) = n + 1 by producing an edge
colouring with n + 1 colours. Suppose first that n is odd. Consider the
subgraph of Hn isomorphic to Kn with the vertices 3, 6, . . . , 3n. For each
vertex 3k choose a colour ck and use it for the opposite side of the polygon,
all the diagonals parallel to that side and for the edge {3k, 3k+1} (identifying
3n + 1 with 1). We have thus used n colours. Now use the (n + 1)-th colour
for the remaining n edges {3k − 1, 3k}.
Now let n be even. We know that χ′ (Kn ) = n − 1. So we can use n − 1
colours for the edges of the subgraph of Hn isomorphic to Kn . For each edge
{3p + 1, 3p + 2} use the same colour as for the edge {3p, 3p + 3}. Then use
two extra colours: one for the edges {3k, 3k + 1} and the other for the edges
{3k − 1, 3k}.

SOLUTIONS This is the end of the examination paper