Post Harvest Handling of Fresh Fruits and Vegetables

Why post harvest handling is important?

 Food processing is seasonal in nature, both in terms of demand for products and availability
of raw materials.
 Most crops have well established harvest times – for example the mango season lasts for
only a few months of the year in Bangladesh, so mango juice production is confined to
the summer, yet demand for juice is continuous throughout the year.
 Even in the case of raw materials which are available throughout the year, such as milk,
there are established peaks and troughs in volume of production, as well as variation in
chemical composition.
 Availability may also be determined by less predictable factors, such as weather
conditions, which may affect yields, or limit harvesting.
 In an ideal world, food processors would like a continuous supply of raw materials, whose
composition and quality are constant, and whose prices are predictable.
 Of course this is usually impossible to achieve. In practice, processors contract ahead with
growers to synchronize their needs with raw material production.
 The aim of this study is to consider the properties of raw materials in relation to food
processing, and to summarize important aspects of handling, transport, storage and
preparation of raw materials prior to the range of processing operations.

Properties of Raw Food Materials and Their Susceptibility to Deterioration and Damage
 The selection of raw materials is a vital consideration to the quality of processed products as the
quality of raw materials can rarely be improved during processing.
 Quality is a wide-ranging concept and is determined by many factors. It is a composite of those
physical and chemical properties of the material which govern its acceptability to the ‘user’. The
latter may be the final consumer, or more likely in this case, the food processor.
 Geometric properties, colour, flavour, texture, nutritive value and freedom from defects are the
major properties likely to determine quality.
 Growth properties are also important as selection of the most suitable cultivars in the case of
plant foods (or breeds in the case of animal products) is an initial consideration.
 Other preharvest factors (such as soil conditions, climate and agricultural practices), harvesting
methods and postharvest conditions, maturity, storage and postharvest handling also determine
quality.
 These considerations, including seed supply and many aspects of crop production, are frequently
controlled by the processor or even the retailer.
 The timing and method of harvesting are determinants of product quality. Uniform maturity is
desirable as the presence of over-mature units is associated with high waste, product damage,
and high microbial loads, while under-maturity is associated with poor yield, hard texture and a
lack of flavour and colour.
  For economic reasons, harvesting is almost always a ‘once over’ exercise, hence it is important
that all units reach maturity at the same time.
 It can be achieved primarily from knowledge of the growth properties of the crop combined with
records and experience of local climatic conditions.
 An important consideration for processed foods is that it is the quality of the processed product,
rather than the raw material.
 For minimally processed foods, such as those subjected to modified atmospheres, low dose
irradiation, mild heat treatment or some chemical preservatives, the characteristics of the raw
material are good guide to the quality of the product.
 For more severe processing, including heat preservation, drying or freezing, the quality
characteristics may change markedly during processing. Hence, those raw materials which are
preferred for fresh consumption may not be most appropriate for processing.
 Similarly, ripe, healthy, well colored fruit may be perfect for fresh sale, but may not be suitable
for freezing due to excessive drip loss while thawing.

Raw Material Specifications

 In practice, processors define their requirements in terms of raw material specifications for any
process on arrival at the factory gate.
 Acceptance of, or price paid for, the raw material depends on the results of specific tests, e.g. a
random core sample is taken from all sugar beet deliveries and payment is dependent on the
sugar content.
 For fruits, vegetables, and cereals, processors may issue specifications and tolerances to cover the
size of units, the presence of extraneous vegetable matter, foreign bodies, levels of specific
defects (e.g., surface blemishes, insect damage), and so on, as well as specific functional tests.
Guidelines
 Increasingly, food processors and retailers may impose demands on raw material production
which go beyond the properties described above. These may include ‘‘environmentally friendly’’
crop management schemes in which only specified fertilizers and insecticides are permitted, or
humanitarian concerns, especially for food produced in developing countries.

Deterioration of Raw Materials

All raw materials deteriorate following harvest, by some of the following mechanisms:
1. Endogenous enzymes: Postharvest senescence and spoilage of fruit and vegetables occurs
through a number of enzymic mechanisms, including oxidation of phenolic substances in plant
tissues by phenolase (leading to browning); sugar–starch conversion by amylases; postharvest
demethylation of pectic substances in fruits and vegetables leading to softening tissues during
ripening and firming of plant tissues during processing.
2. Chemical changes: These include deterioration in sensory quality by lipid oxidation; non-enzymic
browning; and breakdown of pigments such as chlorophyll, anthocyanins, and carotenoids.
3. Nutritional changes: Breakdown of ascorbic acid is an important example. Physical changes:
These include dehydration and moisture absorption.
4. Biological changes: Examples are the germination of seeds and sprouting.
 5. Microbiological contamination: Both the organisms themselves and their toxic products lead to
deterioration of quality, as well as posing safety problems.

Damage to Raw Materials

Damage may occur at any point from growing through to the final point of sale. It may arise through
external or internal forces.
1. External Forces:
o External forces result in mechanical injury to fruits and vegetables, cereal grains, eggs,
and even bones in poultry.
o They occur due to rough handling as a result of careless manipulation, poor equipment
design, incorrect containerization, and unsuitable mechanical handling equipment.
o The damage typically results from impact and abrasion between food units, or between
food units and machinery surfaces and projections, excessive vibration or pressure from
overlying material.
o Increased mechanization in food handling must be carefully designed to minimize this.
2. Internal Forces:
o Internal forces arise from physical changes such as variation in temperature and moisture
content, and may result in skin cracks in fruits and vegetables, or stress cracks in cereals.
o Either form of damage leaves the material open to further biological or chemical damage
including enzymic browning of bruised tissue, or infestation of punctured surfaces by
molds and rots.

Improving Processing Characteristics through Selective Breeding and Genetic Engineering

Target of Selective Breeding and Genetic Engineering:
 increased yield
 resistance to pests and diseases
 suitability for harvesting
 development of climate-tolerant varieties (e.g., cold-tolerant maize or drought-resistant plants)
 improve the nutritional quality of foods

Raw material quality, especially in relation to processing, has become increasingly important. There are
many examples of successful improvements in processing quality of raw materials through selective plant
breeding including:

 improved oil percentage and fatty acid composition in oilseed rape;

 improved milling and malting quality of cereals;
 high sugar content and juice quality in sugar beets;
 development of specific varieties of potatoes for the processing industry, based on levels of
enzymes and sugars, producing appropriate flavor, texture and color in products, or storage
characteristics;
 Brussels sprouts which can be successfully frozen.
There is enormous potential in genetically engineered raw materials for processing. The following are
some examples which have been demonstrated:
 Tomatoes which do not produce pectinase and hence remain firm while color and flavor develop,
producing improved soup, paste, or ketchup.
 Potatoes with higher starch content, which take up less oil and require less energy during frying.
 Canola (rape seed) oil tailored to contain high levels of lauric acid to improve emulsification
properties for use in confectionery, coatings, or low-fat dairy products; high levels of stearate as
an alternative to hydrogenation in manufacture of margarine; and high levels of polyunsaturated
fatty acids for health benefits.
 Wheat with increased levels of high molecular weight glutenins for improved breadmaking
performance.
 Fruits and vegetables containing peptide sweeteners such as thaumatin or monellin.
 Naturally decaffeinated coffee. There is, however, considerable opposition to the development
of genetically modified foods in the United Kingdom and elsewhere, due to fears of human health
risks and ecological damage, discussion of which is beyond the scope of this book. It therefore
remains to be seen if, and to what extent, genetically modified raw materials will be used in food
processing.

Storage of Raw Materials

Why storage?
 Storage of food is necessary at all points of the food chain from raw materials, through
manufacture, distribution, retailers, and final purchasers.
 Today’s consumers expect a much greater variety of products, including non-local materials, to
be available throughout the year.
 Effective transportation and storage systems for raw materials are essential to meet this need.
 Storage of materials whose supply or demand fluctuates in a predictable manner, especially
seasonal produce, is necessary to increase availability.
 It is essential that processors maintain stocks of raw materials; therefore storage is necessary to
buffer demand.
 However, storage of raw materials is expensive for two reasons:
1. Firstly, stored goods have been paid for and may therefore tie up quantities of company
money, and
2. Secondly, warehousing and storage space are expensive.
 All raw materials will deteriorate during storage. The quantities of raw materials held in store and
the times of storage vary widely for different cases, depending on the above considerations. The
‘‘just in time’’ approaches used in other industries are less common in food processing.

Primary objective of Storage:

 To maintain the best possible quality during storage, and hence avoid spoilage during the storage
period.
Mechanism of Spoilage:
1. Living organisms such as vermin, insects, fungi, and bacteria – these may feed on the food and
contaminate it.
2. Biochemical activity within the food leading to quality reduction, such as respiration in fruits and
vegetables; staling of baked products; enzymic browning reactions; rancidity development in fatty
food.
3. Physical processes, including damage due to pressure or poor handling; physical changes such as
dehydration or crystallization.

Some examples of conditions and storage periods of fruits and vegetables are given in Table 1.

Table 1: Storage periods of some fruits and vegetables under typical storage conditions

Climacteric Fruits:
 Many fruits (including bananas, apples, tomatoes, and mangoes) display a sharp increase in
respiration rate during ripening, just before the point of optimum ripening, known as the
‘‘climacteric.’’
 The onset of the climacteric is associated with the production of high levels of ethylene, which is
believed to stimulate the ripening process.
 Climacteric fruit can be harvested unripe and ripened artificially at a later time.
 It is vital to maintain careful temperature control during storage or the fruit will rapidly over-ripen.

Non-climacteric Fruits:
 Non-climacteric fruits (e.g., citrus fruit, pineapples, strawberries) and vegetables do not display
this behavior, and generally do not ripen after harvest.
 Quality is therefore optimal at harvest, and the task is to preserve quality during storage.
 Hence, very different storage conditions may be employed for different raw materials.

The main methods employed in raw material storage are the control of temperature, humidity, and
composition of atmosphere.

1. Temperature
  The rate of biochemical reactions is related to temperature, such that lower storage
temperatures lead to slower degradation of foods by biochemical spoilage, as well as reduced
growth of bacteria and fungi.
 There may also be limited bacteriocidal effects at very low temperatures. Typical Q10 values
for spoilage reactions are approximately 2, implying that spoilage rates would double for each
10◦C rise, or conversely that shelf life would double for each 10◦C reduction.
 Most insect activity is inhibited below 4◦C, although insects and their eggs can survive long
exposure to these temperatures. In fact grain and flour mites can remain active and even
breed at 0◦C.
 The use of refrigerated storage is limited by the sensitivity of materials to low temperatures.
The freezing point is a limiting factor for many raw materials, as the tissues will become
disrupted on thawing.
 Fruits and vegetables may display physiological problems that limit their storage
temperatures, probably as a result of metabolic imbalance leading to a build-up of
undesirable chemical species in the tissues.
 Some types of apples are subject to internal browning below 3◦C, while bananas become
brown when stored below 13◦C, and many other tropical fruits display chill sensitivity.
 Less obvious biochemical problems may occur even where no visible damage occurs. For
example, storage temperature affects starch/sugar balance in potatoes; in particular, below
10◦C a buildup of sugar occurs, which is most undesirable for fried products.
 Temperature of storage is also limited by cost. Refrigerated storage is expensive, especially in
hot countries.
 In practice, a balance must be struck incorporating cost, shelf life, and risk of cold injury.
 Precooling to remove the ‘‘field heat’’ is an effective strategy to reduce the period of high
initial respiration rate in rapidly respiring produce prior to transportation and storage.
 Other produce, such as leafy vegetables (lettuce, celery, cabbage) or sweetcorn, may be
cooled using water sprays or drench streams. Hydrocooling obviously reduces water loss.
2. Humidity
 If the humidity of the storage environment exceeds the equilibrium relative humidity (ERH)
of the food, the food will gain moisture during storage, and vice versa.
 Uptake of water during storage is associated with susceptibility to growth of microorganisms,
while water loss results in economic loss, as well as more specific problems such as cracking
of seed coats of cereals, or skins of fruits and vegetables.
 Ideally the humidity of the store would equal the ERH of the food so that moisture is neither
gained nor lost, but in practice a compromise may be necessary. The water activity (aw) of
most fresh foods (e.g., fruit, vegetables, meat, fish, milk) is in the range 0.98–1.00, but they
are frequently stored at a lower humidity.
 Some wilting of fruits or vegetable may be acceptable in preference to mold growth, while
some surface drying of meat is preferable to bacterial slime.
 Packaging may be used to protect against water loss of raw materials during storage and
transport.
 3. Composition of Atmosphere
 Controlling the atmospheric composition during storage of many raw materials is beneficial.
 With some materials the major aim is to maintain an oxygen-free atmosphere to prevent
oxidation (e.g., coffee, baked goods), while in other cases adequate ventilation may be
necessary to prevent anaerobic fermentation leading to off-flavors.
 In living produce, atmosphere control allows the possibility of slowing down metabolic
processes, hence retarding respiration, ripening, and senescence as well as the development
of disorders. The aim is to introduce N2 and remove O2, allowing a buildup of CO2.
 Controlled-atmosphere storage of many commodities is the technique which allows year-
round distribution of apples and pears, where controlled atmospheres in combination with
refrigeration can give shelf lives up to 10 months, much greater than by chilling alone.
 Controlled atmospheres are also used during storage and transport of chill-sensitive crops,
such as for transport of bananas, where an atmosphere of 3% O2 and 5% CO2 is effective in
preventing premature ripening and the development of crown rot disease.
 Ethene (ethylene) removal is also vital during storage of climacteric fruit.
4. Other Considerations
 Odors and taints can cause problems, especially in fatty foods such as meat and dairy
products, as well as less obvious commodities such as citrus fruits, which have oil in the skins.
 Odors and taints may be derived from fuels or adhesives and printing materials, as well as
other foods (e.g., spiced or smoked products).
 Packaging and other systems during storage and transport must protect against
contamination.
 Light can lead to oxidation of fats in some raw materials (e.g., dairy products).
 In addition, light gives rise to solanine production and the development of green pigmentation
in potatoes. Hence, storage and transport under dark conditions is essential.

Transportation
 Food transportation is an essential link in the food chain.
 Raw materials, food ingredients, fresh produce, and processed products are all transported on a
local and global level, by land, sea, and air.
 In the modern world, where consumers expect year-round supplies and non-local products, long-
distance transport of many foods has become common place, and air transport may be necessary
for perishable materials.
 Transportation of food is really an extension of storage; a refrigerated lorry is basically a cold store
on wheels.
 However, transport also subjects the material to physical and mechanical stresses, and possibly
rapid changes in temperature and humidity, which are not encountered during static storage.
 It is necessary to consider both the stresses imposed during the transport and those encountered
during loading and unloading.
 In many situations transport is multimodal. Air or sea transport would commonly involve at least
one road trip before and one road trip after the main journey.
 There would also be time spent on the ground at the port or airport where the material could be
exposed to wide-ranging temperatures and humidities, or bright sunlight, and unscheduled delays
are always a possibility.
 During loading and unloading, the cargo may be broken into smaller units where more rapid heat
penetration may occur.
 The major challenges during transportation are to maintain the quality of the food during
transport, and to apply good logistics – in other words, to move the goods to the right place at
the right time and in good condition.