1.

0 Friction
Friction is a force that resists the movement or the tendency of movement of two surfaces in
contact that slide past one another. It acts tangentially to the surface at the points of contact and
is directed so as to oppose the possible or existing motion between the surfaces, (Tia Ghose, 2013).

2.0 Types of friction

Fluid friction - fluid friction occurs between layers within a fluid that are moving relative to each
other.

Lubricated friction -Lubricated friction is a case of fluid friction where a fluid separates two solid
surfaces.
Skin friction -Skin friction arises from the friction of the fluid against the "skin" of the object that is
moving through it.

Internal friction Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid
material while it undergoes deformation.

Dry friction - Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact.
Our presentation mainly focuses on dry friction .Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two
solid surfaces in contact. The two regimes of dry friction are 'static friction' between non-moving
surfaces, and kinetic friction (sometimes called sliding friction or dynamic friction) between moving
surfaces.

Frictional force is categorized in 3 way :

1. F is static frictional force if equilibrium is maintained.

2. F is limiting static frictional force Fs when it reaches a maximum value needed to maintain
equilibrium.
3. F is termed a kinetic frictional force F when sliding occurs at the contacting surface.
When a resultant force acts in the direction of contacting surface, frictional force develops to oppose
that force. The frictional force adjusts itself in magnitude to the tangential force, however there is a
limit beyond which the magnitude of friction will not develop i.e the limiting friction (Fm).

If the applied tangential force is greater than this limiting frictional force, there will be movement of
one body over the other will an acceleration as per Newton’s second law .The frictional resistance
experienced while moving is called Dynamic friction .

When the applied tangential force is less than the limiting friction , the body remains at rest in a state
of Static friction , which will have a value between zero and the limiting friction.

2.1 Causes of dry friction

This phenomenon is due to two circumstances
· Uneven surfaces of solids in contact (rough surfaces in contact)
· Molecular attraction of particles of surfaces in contact.
The second cause is to a lesser extent as compared to the first one. Hence the second one in some
instances is not taken into consideration.

3.0 Laws of Friction

1. The frictional force always acts tangent to the contacting surfaces in a direction opposed to
the motion or tendency for motion of one surface relative to the other.
2. The maximum static friction that can be developed is independent of the are of contact ,
provided the normal pressure is not very low or great enough to severely deform or crush the
contacting surfaces of the bodies.
3. The maximum static frictional force is greater than the kinetic frictional force for any two
surfaces of contact .
4. When slipping at the surface of contact is about to occur , the max static frictional force is
proportional to the normal force such that (frictional equation).
5. When slipping at the surface of contact is occurring the kinetic frictional force is proportional
to the normal force such that (frictional equation with coefficient of kinetic friction)
Considering a block of weight W subjected to a horizontal force P ,if P is small the block will not
move , Static Friction force will exist to balance P.

If P is increased , F also increases (F is the force of Friction) , until its magnitude reaches a certain
maximum value ,Fm, if P is further increased , the friction force cannot balance it , the block starts
sliding and the magnitude of F drops from Fm to a lower value Fk (where Fk is the kinetic frictional
force , FK remains approximately constant and the block slides with increasing velocity)

1. Fm is directly proportional to N , that is Fm=µsN where µs is the constant the coefficient of

Static Friction
2. Fk=µkN where µk is the constant , the coefficient of Kinetic Friction

-Fm is the limiting friction

-Fk is the kinetic/dynamic friction

4.0 Coefficient of Friction

Between two contacting surfaces, the magnitude of limiting friction has a constant ratio to the normal
reaction between the two surfaces , this ratio is the Coefficient of Friction .The coefficient of friction is
a unit-less constant which measures the degree of how a surface resists motion of objects in contact

with it .
The coefficient of friction uses the symbol µ and it depends on the following :

1. Types of surfaces in contact

2. Contact pressure . It is constant for a given surface .

The coefficient of friction is given by, µ=F/N, where N is the normal reaction.

5.0 Angle of Friction

This is the angle between the resultant reaction and the normal to the plane on which the
motion of the body is impending.
Tanθ=F/N=µ where θ is the angle of friction.
θ=tan‫־‬¹(F/N)= tan‫־‬¹µ
As the frictional force increases , the angle θ Increases and it can reach a maximum
value α when limiting value of friction is reached .
 N is the total reaction perpendicular to the contact surface ,
R is the resultant of F and N ,
F is the frictional force ,
µ is the coefficient of fiction ,

5.1 Angle of repose

This is the maximum angle of inclination of the plane on which the body free from
external forces , can be in a state of rest. It can also be defined as the minimum angle
made by the inclined plane with the horizontal such that the object placed on the inclined
plane just begins to slide.
As the body tends to slide down , the frictional resistance which develops will be up the plane .
∑Forces normal to the plane =0
N = Wcosθ…….(1)
∑Forces parallel to the plane = 0
F=Wsinθ………(2)
(2)/(1) , Wsinθ/Wcosθ = tan θ , but µ=F/N
θ= tan‫־‬¹ µ
The angle of repose is the same as the value of limiting friction hence sometimes no distincyion
is made between them. The angle of friction is the angle made by the plane with the horizontal.

5.1.1 Importance of angle of repose

Basically angle of repose is an engineering property of granular materials. Thus it’s vital in study
and production of particulate food like salt, sugar, grain. Moreover it is vital in the powder
metallurgy industry, whereby we want to find the satisfying angle of repose to slide the powder
during production. Angle of repose is also used in constructing banked roads, and railway lines
thus vital for engineer’s especially civil engineers.

5.2 Cone of Friction

A cone of friction is defined as a right circular cone with its vertex at the point of contact of the
two bodies , with its axis in the direction of normal reaction and semi vertical angle equal to the
angle of friction.
Let R be the normal reaction at point of contact O and F , the Frictional force acting in a
direction perpendicular to the normal reaction ,R.

The resultant force at O is acting in a direction making an angle tanλ=F/R with the
normal reaction .
If the direction in which the body tends to move is varied , the force of limiing friction will
always lie in a plane through O perpendicular to the normal reaction and the direction of the total
action at O will always lie on a cone with its vertex at O and axis along the line of the normal
reaction ,R.
If friction is not limiting, the angle made by the total action at O will be less than . Hence
whether the friction be limiting or not, the direction of the total action at O must be inside or on
the cone of friction the cone of friction.

6.0 Classification and procedures for solving Frictional Forces.

6.1 Classification for solving Frictional Problems
Most problems involving friction fall into three categories.
1. All applied forces are given and the coefficient is given , determine whether the body will
remain at rest or slide .
Forces applied are N and F
i. F<Fm = µsN , there is no motion
ii. F=Fm = µsN , motion is impending
iii. F>Fm = µsN , there is motion
2. All applied forces are given , motion is impending , determine µs
Forces applied are N and F
µs = F/N (F=Fm at this time)
3. µs is given , motion is impending in a given direction , determine the magnitude and
direction one of the applied forces .

6.2 Procedures for analysis

1. Draw necessary free body diagrams and unless stated in the question that impending
motion or slipping is occurs , always show the frictional forces as unknowns i.e do not
assume friction equation .
 2. Determine the number of unknowns and compare with the number of equilibrium
equations available .
3. If there are more unknowns than equations of equilibrium , it will be necessary to apply
the frictional equation at some time , if not all , points of contact to obtain the extra
equations needed .
4. If F=µN where N is the reaction force , it will be necessary to show F in the correct
direction on the free body diagram.

7.0 Applications of friction to blocks on horizontal and inclined

planes .
Applications to blocks on horizontal planes
Applications to blocks on inclined planes
The purpose of an inclined plane as a simple machine is to move something from a lower height
to a higher height with less effort. An object simply placed on a tilted surface often slides down
the surface because of the force in the downhill (along the plane) direction. In other words, the
forces in this scenario are unbalanced (i.e. there is no upward force to counteract the downward
force and therefore, the object would slide down).The rate at which the object slides down is
dependent upon how tilted the surface is; the greater the tilt of the surface, the faster the rate at
which the object will slide down it. This is measured by the angle of inclination. Friction also
affects the movement of an object on a slope. Imagine now that you were on the downside of the
object and applying force to keep the object in the same place (not moving). To keep the object
stationary, the force you would have to apply would need to equal the downward force due to
gravity . That would be an example of balanced forces. If you wanted to push the force upwards,
you would need to exceed the force of gravity and the frictional force.

8.0 Ladder problems

A ladder resting against a wall is a typical case of friction problems in non-concurrent system of
forces. Hence we have three equations of equilibrium available. From law of friction we have the
equation F/N . Using equilibrium equations and friction law the problems can be solved as in the
procedure illustrated below
9.0 Belt Friction
Belt friction is a physical property observed from the forces acting on a belt wrapped around a
pulley, when one end is being pulled. All along the contact surface the frictional resistance
develops. Hence, the tension in the rope is more on the side it is pulled and is less on the other
side. Accordingly, the two sides of the rope may be called as tight side and slack side.
The resulting tension, which acts on both ends of the belt, can be modelled by the belt friction
equation.

Fig (a) shows a load W being pulled by a force P over a fixed drum . let the force on the slack
side be T1 and on the tight side be T2, Fig (b). T2 is greater than T1 because frictional force
develops between the drum and the rope ,Fig (c). Let θ be the angle of contact between the rope
and the drum . considering an elemental length of rope ,Fig(d) . Let T be the force on slack side
and T+dT on the tight side .There will be a normal reaction N on the rope in the radial direction
and frictional force F=µN in the tangential direction , then

Practical Application
The theoretical tension acting on the belt or rope calculated by the belt friction equation can be
compared to the maximum tension the belt can support. This helps a designer of such a rig to
know how many times the belt or rope must be wrapped around the pulley to prevent it from
slipping.

10.0 Disk Friction

Is that friction generated when circular surfaces slide under normal pressure . Examples include
cars on pivot bearings, clutch plates and disk brakes .
The frictional analysis requires looking at a differential element of the area of contact. The
normal force acting on this element is determined from the force equilibrium along the shaft ,
and the moment needed to turn the shaft at a constant rate is determined from moment
equilibrium about the shaft’s axis.
If the pressure on the surface of a collar bearing is uniform , then integration gives the result
below

Where;
M is the applied moment,
P is the axial force to which shaft is subjected,
R is the reaction force
µs it the coefficient of static friction

11.0 Axle Friction

It is the frictional force between a wheel and an axle .
When a moment is applied to a shaft in a non lubricated or partially lubricated journal bearing ,
the shaft will tend to roll up the side of the bearing until slipping occurs . This defines the radius
of the friction circle , and from it the moment needed to turn the shaft can be determined.
In dealing with axle friction we consider dry or partially lubricated bearings. In other cases friction is
dependent on the weight of the shaft or axle, clearance (which is the gap between the shaft and the
bearing that allows for rotation to occur) and viscosity of the lubricant.
From the diagram, it can be noticed that point of contact is relatively the same for a rotating axle. At
this point we expect a reactional force R from the weight of the axle W and torque M which keeps
the shaft rotating at constant speed. For equilibrium, W and R should be of equal magnitude but not
collinear. This brings us to the assumption that R is a tangent to a small circle formed between its
line of action and that of W. The circle is called the circle of friction of the axle and the axle and the
bearing. The angle between R and its normal component N is the angle of kinetic friction ᶲk.
From all that has been mentioned above we come to the following equations,
For an axle rotating at constant speed;
+ ↑ Σ Fy = 0; R –W=0, R=W … (1)
+ ↑ Σ Mb = 0; rf.W – M=0, rfW=M … (2)
Noting that:
μk = tan ᶲk and sin ᶲk (where sin ᶲk =tan ᶲk for ᶲk << 1)
rf = r sin ᶲk = r tan ᶲk
thus, rf = r μk … (3)
References
1. Mechanics of solids , S.S Bhavikatti , New Age Printers
2. Engineering Mechanics : Statics 12th Edition , R.C Hibbeler
3. Friction in Machines lecture notes , Kaustabh
4. Vector Mechanics for engineers : statics – lecture notes , J Walt Oler , Texas Tech
University