SAW TOOTH GENERATOR:

This is a simple saw tooth generator circuit. A voltage-controlled current source is formed by
IC1 with R1 and Q1. The C1 is discharged by current Io until it’s voltage is less than 1.66V. It
will swing its output to 5V and trips the IC2A comparator. The C1 is charged by current through
the diode-connected transistor (Q2) until its voltage reaches 3.33V, so the IC2A output to swing
back to ground. The advantages of this circuit are low cost and produce an auxiliary square wave
at the same frequency. This circuit can be used to sweep the frequency of another generator.
1
The output frequency is determined by : 𝑓𝑂𝑈𝑇 = (3(5𝑉 + 𝑉𝐶 )5𝑉) (𝑅 )
1 𝐶1

We can set the fOUT as high as desired by adjusting the values of C1 and R1, subject to the
limitations of comparator IC2A’s slew settling and rate time. The frequency range over which it
can operate determined by generator’s linearity.

FUNCTION GENERATOR – IC 8038

Function generators are designed to provide the basic waveforms such as square wave, triangular
wave and sine wave. The monolithic function generator provides these basic waveforms with a
maximum number of external components reducing complexity, but increasing the reliability of
the circuit. They find application in communication, telemetry, electronic, music and testing and
calibration in labs. In function generators, VCO generates the triangular and square waves. The
triangular wave is passed through the on chip wave shaper to generate a sine wave. The sawtooth
and pulse waveforms are generated to configure the oscillator for a high asymmetric duty cycle.

The ICL8038 waveform generator is a monolithic integrated circuit capable of producing high
accuracy sine, square, triangular, sawtooth and pulse waveforms with a minimum of external
components. The frequency can be selected externally from 0.001Hz to more than 300kHz using
either resistors or capacitors. The ICL8038 is fabricated with advanced monolithic technology
and thin film resistors, the output is stable over a wide range of temperature and supply
variations. These devices may be interfaced with phase locked loop circuitry to reduce
temperature drift to less than 250 ppm/oC.

BLOCK DIAGRAM: CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

SWITCHED MODE POWER SUPPLY (SMPS):

VIDEO AMPLIFIER:
A Video amplifier has to amplify signals over a wide band of frequencies, say upto 20 MHz. For
faithful reproduction of this picture, the shape and form of the video waveform must be
preserved during amplification. The shape of the complex waveform depends not only on the
frequencies contained in the signal ut also upon the relative pulses. It is necessary that:

 all the frequencies must be amplified equally to maintain the same relative amplitude and
 the relative phases of all the frequency components in the output must be the same as the
input.

IC - MC 1550
MC1550 IC uses a cascade amplifier pair, the transistor Q1 is a common emitter amplifier and
transistor Q3 is a common base amplifier and they together from a cascade amplifier.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: SMALL SIGNAL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT:

To properly terminate the co-axial cable carrying the video signal, a 50 Ω resistance is connected
between the pins1 and 4 of MC 1550. Such a small resistance has very negligible effect on the
biasing of the transistor Q1. The load resistance R1, is directly connected in the collector of
transistor Q1.
OPTOCOUPLERS

Optocouplers or Optoisolators is a combination of light source & light detector in the same
package. They are used to couple signal from one point to other optically, by providing a
completer electric isolation between them. This kind of isolation is provided between a low
power control circuit & high power output circuit, to protect the control circuit. Depending on
the type of light source & detector used we can get a variety of optocouplers. They are as
follows, (i) LED – LDR optocoupler (ii) LED – Photodiode optocoupler (iii) LED –
Phototransistor optocoupler

Characteristics of optocoupler:

(i) Current Transfer Ratio (CTR)

(ii) Isolation Voltage

(iii) Response Time

(iv) Common Mode Rejection

(i) Current Transfer Ratio: It is defined as the ratio of output collector current (Ic) to the input
forward current (If) CTR = Ic/If * 100% Its value depends on the devices used as source &
detector.

(ii) Isolation voltage between input & output:It is the maximum voltage which can exist
differentially between the input & output without affecting the electrical isolation voltage is
specified in K Vrms with a relative humidity of 40 to 60%.

(iii)Response Time: Response time indicates how fast an optocoupler can change its output state.
Response time largely depends on the detector transistor, input current & load resistance.

(iv)Common mode Rejection: Eventhough the optocouplers are electrically isolated for dc &
low frequency signals, an impulsive input signal (the signal which changes suddenly) can give
rise to a displacement current Ic= Cf*dv/dt. This current can flow between input & output due to
the capacitance Cf existing between input & output. This allow the noise to appear in the output.
Types of optocoupler:

(i) LED – Photodiode optocoupler:

LED photodiode shown in figure, here the infrared LED acts as a light source & photodiode is
used as a detector.
The advantage of using the photodiode is its high linearity. When the pulse at the input goes
high, the LED turns ON. It emits light. This light is focused on the photodiode.
In response to this light the photocurrent will start flowing though the photodiode. As soon as the
input pulse reduces to zero, the LED turns OFF & the photocurrent through the photodiode
reduces to zero. Thus the pulse at the input is coupled to the output side.
(ii) LED – Phototransistor Optocoupler:
The LED phototransistor optocoupler shown in figure. An infrared LED acts as a light source
and the phototransistor acts as a photo detector.
This is the most popularly used optocoupler, because it does not need any additional
amplification.
When the pulse at the input goes high, the LED turns ON. The light emitted by the LED is
focused on the CB junction of the phototransistor.
In response to this light photocurrent starts flowing which acts as a base current for the
phototransistor.
The collector current of phototransistor starts flowing. As soon as the input pulse reduces to zero,
the LED turns OFF & the collector current of phototransistor reduces to zero. Thus the pulse at
the input is optically coupled to the output side.

Advantages of Optocoupler:
Control circuits are well protected due to electrical isolation.
Wideband signal transmission is possible.
Due to unidirectional signal transfer, noise from the output side does not get coupled to the input
side.
Interfacing with logic circuits is easily possible.
It is small size & light weight device.

Disadvantages:
Slow speed.
Possibility of signal coupling for high power signals.
Applications:
Optocouplers are used basically to isolate low power circuits from high
power circuits.
At the same time the control signals are coupled from the control circuits to the high power
circuits.
Some of such applications are,
(i) AC to DC converters used for DC motor speed control
(ii) High power choppers
(iii) High power inverters

Optocoupler IC:

The optocouplers are available in the IC form MCT2E is the standard optocoupler IC which is
used popularly in many electronic application.
This input is applied between pin 1& pin 2. An infrared light emitting diode is connected
between these pins.
The infrared radiation from the LED gets focused on the internal phototransistor.
The base of the phototransistor is generally left open. But sometimes a high value pull down
resistance is connected from the Base to ground to improve the sensitivity.
The block diagram shows the opto-electronic-integrated ciruit (OEIC) and the major components
of a fiber-optic communication facility.

POWER AUDIO AMPLIFIER IC LM380:

Features of LM380:
1. Internally fixed gain of 50 (34dB)
2. Output is automatically self centring to one half of the supply voltage.
3. Output is short circuit proof with internal thermal limiting.
4. Input stage allows the input to be ground referenced or ac coupled.
5. Wide supply voltage range (5 to 22V).
6. High peak current capability.
7. High impedence.
8. Low total harmonic distortion
9. Bandwidth of 100KHz at Pout = 2W & RL = 8Ω

Introduction:

Small signal amplifier are essentially voltage amplifier that supply their loads with larger amplifier
signal voltage.
On the other hand , large signal or power amplifier supply a large signal current to current operated
loads such as speakers & motors.
In audio applications, however, the amplifier called upon to deliver much higher current than that
suppkied by general purpose op-amps. This means that loads such as speakers & motors requiring
substantial currents cannot be driven directly by the output of general purpose opo-amps.
However there are two possible solutions,
To use discrete or monolithic power transistors called power boosters at the output of the op-amp
To use specialized ICs designed as power amplifiers.
LM380 circuit description:
It is connected of 4 stages,
(i) PNP emitter follower
(ii) Different amplifier
(iii) Common emitter
(iv) Emitter follower

(i) PNP Emitter follower:

The input stage is emitter follower composed of PNP transistors Q1 & Q2 which drives the PNP Q3-
Q4 differential pair.

The choice of PNP input transistors Q1 & Q2 allows the input to be referenced to ground i.e., the
input can be direct coupled to either the inverting & non-inverting terminals of the amplifier.
(ii) Differential Amplifier:
The current in the PNP differential pair Q3-Q4 is established by Q7, R3 & +V.
The current mirror formed by transistor Q7, Q8 & associated resistors then establishes the collector
current of Q9.
Transistor Q5 & Q6 constitute of collector loads for the PNP differential pair.
The output of the differential amplifier is taken at the junction of Q4 & Q6 transistors & is applied as
an input to the common emitter voltage gain.

(iii) Common Emitter:

Common Emitter amplifier stage is formed by transistor Q9 with D1, D2 & Q8 as a current source
load.
The capacitor C between the base & collector of Q9 provides internal compensation & helps to
establish the upper cutoff frequency of 100 KHz.
Since Q7 & Q8 form a current mirror, the current through D1 & D2 is approximately the same as the
current through R3.
D1 & D2 are temperature compensating diodes for transistors Q10 & Q11 in that D1 & D2 have the
same characteristics as the base-emitter junctions of Q11. Therefore the current through Q10 &
(Q11-Q12) is approximately equal to the current through diodes D1 & D2.

(iv) (Output stage) - Emitter follower:

Emitter follower formed by NPN transistor Q10 & Q11. The combination of PNP transistor Q11 &
NPN transistor Q12 has the power capability of an NPN transistors but the characteristics of a PNP
transistor.

The negative dc feedback applied through R5 balances the differential amplifier so that the dc output
voltage is stabilized at +V/2;
To decouple the input stage from the supply voltage +V, by pass capacitor in order of micro farad
should be connected between the by pass terminal (pin 1) & ground (pin 7).
The overall internal gain of the amplifier is fixed at 50. However gain can be increased by using
positive feedback.

APPLICATIONS:
(i) Audio Power Amplifier:
Amplifier requires very few external components because of the internal biasing, compensation &
fixed gain.
When the power amplifier is used in the non inverting configuration, the inverting terminal may be
either shorted to ground, connected to ground through resistors & capacitors.
Similarly when the power amplifier is used in the inverting mode, the non inverting terminal may be
either shorted to ground or returned to ground through resistor or capacitor.
Usually a capacitor is connected between the inverting terminal & ground if the input has a high
internal impedance.
As a precautionary measure, an RC combination should be used at the output terminal (pin 8) to
eliminate 5-to-10 MHz oscillation.

C1 is coupling capacitor which couples the output of the amplifier to the 8 ohms loud speaker which
act as a load. The amplifier will amplify the Vin applied at the non-inverting terminal.

(ii) LM 380 as a High gain:

The gain of LM380 is internally fixed at 50. But it can be increased by using the external
components.
The increase in gain is possible due to the use of positive feedback, this setup to obtain a gain 200.
(iii) LM 380 as a variable Gain:

Instead of getting a fixed gain of 50, it is possible to obtain a variable gain up to 50 by connecting a
potentiometer between the input terminals.

(iv) LM 380 as a Bridge Audio Power Amplifier:

If a certain application requires more power than what is provided by a single LM380 amplifier, then
2 LM380 chips can be used in the bridge configuration.
With this arrangement we get an output voltage swing which is twice that of a single LM380
amplifier.
As the voltage is doubled, power output will increase by four times that of a single LM380 amplifier.
The pot R4 is used to balance the output offset voltages of the two chips.
(v) Intercom system using LM 380:

When the switch is in Talk mode position, the master speaker acts as a microphone.

When the switch is in Listen position, the remote speaker acts as a microphone.
In either phone the overall gain of the circuit is the same depends on the turns of transformer T.
Talk mode

Listen Mode