INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF

ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Volume 4, Issue 1, 2013 pp.141-152
Journal homepage: www.IJEE.IEEFoundation.org

Flood moderation by large reservoirs in the humid tropics

of Western ghat region of Kerala, India

George Abe1, E. J. James2

1
Centre for Water Resources Development and Management, Sub Centre, Kottayam South P.O,
Kottayam-686 039, Kerala, India.
2
Water Institute & Dean (Research), Karunya University, Coimbatore-641 114, Tamil Nadu, India.

Abstract
Kerala State located in the humid tropics receives an average rainfall of 2810 mm. On an average 85% of
this rainfall is received during the two monsoons spread from June to November. Midland and lowland
regions of several of the river basins of Kerala experience severe flood events during the monsoons.
Idamalayar hydro-electric project (1987) in Periyar River basin envisages flood control apart from power
generation. This paper analyzes the flood moderation by Idamalayar reservoir considering the storage
regime (inflow and outflow) which is subjected to a strong inter annual variability. The role of
Idamalayar reservoir in controlling the monsoon floods is analyzed using daily data (1987-2010). The
results of analysis show that the flood moderation by the reservoir is 92% when water storage is less than
50%. The reduction is 87% when reservoir storage is between 50 to 90% and moderation reduces to 62
% when the reservoir storage is above 90%. Non-parametric trend analysis of fifty years of hydrologic
data shows a reducing trend in inflow and storage during south-west monsoon which reduced spill and
subsequent flood events during north-east monsoon.
Copyright © 2013 International Energy and Environment Foundation - All rights reserved.

Keywords: Flood moderation; Humid tropics; Reservoir storage; Return period; Spill.

1. Introduction
Kerala State is situated in south-west India. Rivers of the state originate from the steep high lands of the
Western Ghats on the east, flow through the mid land and lowland terrains and finally join the
Lakshadweep Sea. The physiography of this humid tropical region and intense monsoon rains cause
floods in July- August, almost every year.
Periyar river basin with an areal extent of 5398 sq. km. is the second largest river basin in Kerala. The
average annual rainfall of the basin is 2810 mm, estimated using the data from 54 rain gauge stations
distributed in and around the basin [1, 2]. Intense rainfall during the monsoon periods are very common,
causing floods in the midland and lowland regions. Reclamation of lowlands and wetlands as a result of
urbanization also adds to the magnitude of flood damages downstream [3, 4].
There are forty eight reservoirs in the state, which play a major role in flood moderation. Most of the
reservoirs are multi-objective in nature with major objectives of power generation and irrigation. The
state mainly depends on hydro-electric power to meet the power requirements. Out of the fifteen power
projects, seven are located in the Periyar River basin. The regulated releases from these reservoirs decide
the streamflow pattern.

ISSN 2076-2895 (Print), ISSN 2076-2909 (Online) ©2013 International Energy & Environment Foundation. All rights reserved.
142 International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), Volume 4, Issue 1, 2013, pp.141-152

When several of the other river basins are subjected to downstream flash floods and associated flood
damages during the intense monsoon periods, Periyar river basin with storage reservoirs is an exception.
This paper analyzes the role of Idamalayar reservoir, one of the large storage reservoirs in the region, in
controlling floods in Idamalayar sub-basin of Periyar basin.

2. Study area
Idamalayar is a tributary of Periyar River and it joins the main Periyar River 1.5 km upstream of
Bhoothathankettu barrage (Figure 1). There are seven major hydro electric projects upstream of
Bhoothathankettu. Streamflow in Periyar River depends on the operation of the reservoirs of these hydro-
electric projects including that of Idamalayar.

Figure 1. Location map of Idamalayar reservoir

Idamalayar tributary emerges from Anamala in the Devikulam taluk at an elevation of 2520 m above the
mean sea level. Anamalayar, Manaliyar and a number of small streams, join together, to form this river
(Figure 1). It then flows in a south-westerly direction and the Pooyamkutty tributary finally joins Periyar
River at an elevation of +26 m near Koottickal village. The total length of Idamalayar stream up to the
confluence with the Periyar is 74 km. Periyar River then flows through the midland and lowland regions,
where the major industrial belt of Kerala state is located [4, 9].
Idamalayar reservoir was commissioned in 1987. It is 167 m high concrete gravity dam (latitude
100:13’:15” N, longitude 760: 42’: 30” E) with a gross storage capacity of 1024 million cubic meters. The
catchment area of the project is 380.73 sq. km.

ISSN 2076-2895 (Print), ISSN 2076-2909 (Online) ©2013 International Energy & Environment Foundation. All rights reserved.
 International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), Volume 4, Issue 1, 2013, pp.141-152 143

Idamalayar power house, with an installed capacity of 75 mega watt produces about 600 million units of
power annually. The operation of the reservoir is controlled by the Kerala State Electricity Board
(KSEB). Standard Linear Operating Policy (SLOP) is generally adopted in which the power generation is
directly proportional to the reservoir storage [5]. The salient features of the project are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Salient features of Idamalayar hydro electric project

General Data Location of dam: longitude: E 760:42’:30”, latitude: N 100:13’:15”

River Data Width of river at dam site - 40 m
Catchment area at dam site- 380.73 sq. km.
Reservoir Data General bed level of river at dam site: +81.0 m
Mean annual runoff at Idamalayar dam site: 1369.69 Million cu. m.
Peak Design flood- 3851 cu m/sec
Full reservoir level: +169.00 m
Minimum draw down level: +115 m
Maximum reservoir level: +170.30 m
Gross storage at FRL: 1090.80 million cu. m
Dead Storage below mddl (+115m): 72 million cu. m
Water Spread area at FRL: 2830 ha
Spillway section Length of spillway section: 107.50 m
Spill way crest: +161.00 m
Radial crest gates: 7 numbers (each of size 11.5 m x 8.5 m)
Maximum flood discharge capacity: 4063.5 cub m/sec

3. Methodology
The role of Idamalayar reservoir, commissioned in 1987, in flood moderation was analyzed by
comparing the daily inflow, outflow and reservoir storage during the period June 1987 to August 2010.
The information on reservoir regime was made available by KSEB. Daily inflow information, storage
details, tail race discharge and spill at Idamalayar provided by KSEB were used in the analysis and the
inflow and outflow series is compared.
The average monthly inflow, outflow and storage of Idamalayar reservoir along with monthly rainfall at
Idamalayar dam site are given in Figure 2.
The Idamalayar catchment contributes about 1406 million m3 of water to Idamalayar reservoir every
year. The peak inflows above return period of 4 years Q4 (552 m3 per second) usually occur in the month
of August, and the inflow reduces drastically to below 10 m3 per second by end of December every year.
The ratio of reservoir capacity to mean annual inflow is 0.775.

Figure 2. Idamalayar reservoir- monthly average inflow-outflow, storage and rainfall

The water storage levels in the reservoir start rising in the beginning of south-west monsoon in June
every year. The storage in the reservoir will be at its peak at the end of north –east monsoon, i.e. by

ISSN 2076-2895 (Print), ISSN 2076-2909 (Online) ©2013 International Energy & Environment Foundation. All rights reserved.
144 International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), Volume 4, Issue 1, 2013, pp.141-152

November. From December to May the storage gradually decreases and the lowest levels are reached in
May, the last month of summer season.

3.1 Flood frequency studies

Interpretation of the past hydrologic events in terms of future probabilities of occurrence is one of the
most important problems in Hydrology [6]. Hence probabilistic methods have wider application in
hydrology especially in flood related analyses. California and Weibull methods are usually used in
computation of recurrence interval of floods because of their soundness [7].
Recurrence interval (T) is the reciprocal of probability

T=1/P (1)

To determine the recurrence intervals, stream flow values at the gauging station is ranked from the
highest to lowest (i.e. highest flow with rank 1) using Weibull method recurrence interval (T) of each
flow is calculated as:

T=(n+1)/m (2)

where n is the number of stream flow values ranked and m is the rank number of each stream flow value.
Stream flow values and recurrence intervals are plotted with recurrence interval on a logarithmic scale
and stream flow values on a linear scale.
The values of annual maximum flood for Idamalayar catchment for 23 successive years, after
commissioning of the dam in 1987, were analyzed (Figure 3).
Three types of daily flood flows were identified based on the analysis of daily data. The classification
was based on return period of floods (i) 1-2 years return period (ii) 2-4 years return period and (iii) above
4 years return period
(i) Small very frequent floods, with daily discharge above Q1 (231 m3/sec) but below Q2 (391 m3/sec),
in which case the threshold was exceeded on an average of 6 days per year.
(ii) Medium flood flows, with daily discharge between Q2 (391 m3/sec) and Q4 (552 m3/sec), in which
case the threshold exceeded on an average of 2 days per year.
(iii) Large exceptional flood flows, with daily discharges above Q4 (552 m3/sec), in which the threshold
was exceeded on an average of one day per year.
Daily flood flows were used to classify all inflows and outflows. The number of flood days was
calculated for both inflow and outflow discharges to understand the seasonal effect [8].
Inflow-outflow hydrographs of Idamalayar reservoir (1987-2010) were compared with hydrographs used
for design (1943-1968). Weighted average rainfall information (Thiessen Polygon Method) from fifteen
rain gauge stations in and around Idamalayar catchment was the major input in arriving at the inflow
hydrograph for the period 1943-1968. Inglis’ rainfall runoff straight line relationship for Western Ghat
region was used to compute monthly inflow hydrograph for Idamalayar reservoir. The results were
validated by comparing rainfall-runoff relationship of contiguous and similar Pooyamkutty catchment
and the gauged data for a period of six years [9]. Pooyamkutty is a major tributary of Idamalayar joining
Idamalayar downstream of Idamalayar Dam.

3.2 Non-parametric trend analysis

MAKESENS(Mann-Kendall test for trend and Sen’s slope estimates) excel template [10] was used to
identify the south-west and north-east inflow and storage trends for 1943-68, 1987-2010 and 1943-2010
periods. The Mann-Kendall test is applicable in cases where the data values xi is assumed to obey the
model

xi=f(ti)+εi (3)

where f(t) is a continuous monotonic increasing or decreasing function of time and the residuals εi can be
assumed to be from the same distribution with zero mean. For the time series with less than 10 data
points the S test is used and for time series with 10 or more points the normal approximation (Z statistics)
is used. A positive value of Z indicates a downward trend. Four significance levels (α) are tested in
MAKESENS. They are 0.001, 0.01, 0.05 and 0.1. In all other cases, the significance level is greater than
0.1.

ISSN 2076-2895 (Print), ISSN 2076-2909 (Online) ©2013 International Energy & Environment Foundation. All rights reserved.
 International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), Volume 4, Issue 1, 2013, pp.141-152 145

Figure 3. Annual peak flows-return period at Idamalayar

4. Results and discussion

4.1 Seasonal regime
Average monthly inflow-outflow curve of Idamalayar reservoir (Figure 2) very clearly shows that peak
monsoon discharge during June - August is absorbed by the reservoir. The water storage level will be the
lowest in May and will starts rising in June and reaches the peak in November. After this period there, is
considerable reduction in inflow and a rise in power generation due to increased summer demand. This
leads to lowering of water levels which reaches the lowest level by May end. The cycle repeats every
year. During lean flow period, inflow to reservoir is usually less than outflow. This is because the inflow
during summer season (December-May) goes below the minimum release for power generation. A
relatively stable outflow of about 30-58 m3/sec can be noticed in the outflow curve, which is the usual
release range to Idamalayar power house to meet the power demands (Figure 2).

4.2 Moderation of floods with varying intensity and frequency

Frequency- intensity curve showing the ranked inflow to Idamalayar reservoir and ranked outflow after
power generation/spill is given in Figure 4. Return period for flood inflow and flood outflow as well as
corresponding reduction (%) is shown in Figure 5. Based on the return period analysis of peak flood
inflows, utilizing the daily data of 1987-2010, flood reduction (%) was estimated based on corresponding
outflows (Figure 5). Outflow corresponding to peak flood inflow shows no correlation and more than
80% flood reduction is achieved for all the flood events considered in the analysis. This higher value of
flood moderation was because of the fact that most of the flood events considered for the analysis,
occurred during July-August when the reservoir storage was less than 70%.

4.3 Role of water storage levels

Flood moderation capacity of Idamalayar reservoir, with a live storage capacity up to Full Reservoir
Level (FRL) of 1017.80 million m3, was analyzed at three storage ranges (below 50%, 50-90% and
above 90%). The analysis was done for flood events greater than 231 m3/sec (Q1) for the period 1994-
2010.
During the second half of summer period (March – May), the reservoir water levels are the lowest,
making the reservoir capable of absorbing the south–west monsoon discharge during June - August.
Figure 6 (a) shows that the inflow and outflow curves separate very rapidly, as the probability of
excedence increase. It is also noted that the outflow is almost constant, which in many years is ruled by
the power requirement. The floods below 50% reservoir levels are completely absorbed by the reservoir.
Reduction in outflow was 73 -96%.
For storage level range of 50-90%, the reduction pattern was almost similar to that of below 50%,
showing complete absorption of flood discharge. The reduction in outflow in this case was 68-97%
(Figure 6 (b)). For floods events above 90% storage levels, buffering of flood intensity downstream, on
several occasions, didn’t materialize causing spills. Flood reduction in this case varied widely between 0-
96% depending on the storage condition (Figure 6(c)).
Graphs of ratios of inflow and outflow for different storage levels show that, flood moderation is less
when reservoir storage levels are higher. For different flood magnitudes, the slope varies as detailed in

ISSN 2076-2895 (Print), ISSN 2076-2909 (Online) ©2013 International Energy & Environment Foundation. All rights reserved.
146 International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), Volume 4, Issue 1, 2013, pp.141-152

Figures 7a to 7c. The coefficient of determination is higher for large floods compared to medium and
small floods, showing that for large floods, the flood moderation is more related to reservoir storage.

4.4 Monthly frequency of peak flows

Figure 8 shows monthly frequency of peak flows, taking into consideration daily flow data for 19 years
(1993-2010). Daily inflow and outflow peaks with three flood intensity levels (Q1-Q2 (231-391 m3/sec),
Q2-Q4 (391-552 m3/sec), and above Q4 (>552 m3/sec)) were considered for the analysis. Most of the
floods occur during south-west monsoon period (July-August) (Figure 8(a)). The flood events
downstream of the reservoir (intensity between Q1-Q2) were noticed only during August and September
when the reservoir storage was at its peak. Spills occurred only during five out of twenty four years;
during all other times, floods were very well managed downstream. The releases from the reservoir were
mainly dependant on the power requirements.

4.5 Comparison of reservoir design (1943-1968) & actual hydrographs (1987-2010)

Reservoir inflow and outflow hydrographs (monthly) used during design of reservoir (1943-1968) was
compared with actual inflow outflow hydrograph (Figure 9 (a) & (b)). The inflow hydrograph (1987-
2011) shows a reduced inflow during south-west monsoon and increase in inflow during north-east
monsoon compared to design inflow hydrograph. The outflow hydrograph shows increase during
September-March.

Figure 4. Inflow – outflow- frequency-intensity curve

Figure 5. Recurrence intervals of flood inflow and corresponding outflow

ISSN 2076-2895 (Print), ISSN 2076-2909 (Online) ©2013 International Energy & Environment Foundation. All rights reserved.
 International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), Volume 4, Issue 1, 2013, pp.141-152 147

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure 6. (a) Reservoir storage less than 50-90%; (b) Reservoir storage less than 50-90%; (c) Reservoir
storage above 90%

ISSN 2076-2895 (Print), ISSN 2076-2909 (Online) ©2013 International Energy & Environment Foundation. All rights reserved.
148 International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), Volume 4, Issue 1, 2013, pp.141-152

(a) Floods between Q1 and Q2

(b) Floods between Q2 and Q4

(c) Floods above Q4

Figure 7. Ratio of inflow peaks and corresponding outflows in relation to reservoir storage

ISSN 2076-2895 (Print), ISSN 2076-2909 (Online) ©2013 International Energy & Environment Foundation. All rights reserved.
 International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), Volume 4, Issue 1, 2013, pp.141-152 149

(a)

(b)
Figure 8. (a) Inflow Peaks-percentage time exceeded; (b) Outflow Peaks-percentage time exceeded

(a)

(b)
Figure 9. Average monthly inflow and outflow

ISSN 2076-2895 (Print), ISSN 2076-2909 (Online) ©2013 International Energy & Environment Foundation. All rights reserved.
150 International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), Volume 4, Issue 1, 2013, pp.141-152

Box-Wisker plots comparing south-west monsoon and north-east monsoon inflow during the design
period and after commissioning of dam are shown in Figure 10 (a) and (b). Average south-west monsoon
and north-east monsoon storage during 1943-68 and 1994-2010 are detailed in Table 2.

(a) (b)

Figure 10. Statistics on south-west and north-east monsoon inflows

Table 2. Statistics on average reservoir storage during south-west and north-east monsoons

Statistics Average S-W Average S-W Average N-E Average N-E

Monsoon Storage Monsoon Storage Monsoon Storage Monsoon Storage
1943-68 1994-2010 1943-1968 1994-2010
Quartile 1 805.94 723.62 287.89 306.23
Minimum 556.54 436.44 160.19 201.87
Median 877.40 811.69 340.71 427.71
Maximum 1589.29 1157.51 518.05 693.07
Quartile 3 955.42 947.26 468.01 508.31

4.6 Analysis of spill

Comparison of spill data based on reservoir working table prepared using data of 1943-1968 show that
spill frequency and magnitude after commissioning of reservoir has come down considerably (Figure
11). Average monthly storage levels (1987-2010) in second half of summer (March-May) and during
north-east monsoon (September-November) are found to be less than the storage values worked out
using 1943-1968 data.

Figure 11. Annual spill from Idamalayar reservoir

ISSN 2076-2895 (Print), ISSN 2076-2909 (Online) ©2013 International Energy & Environment Foundation. All rights reserved.
 International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), Volume 4, Issue 1, 2013, pp.141-152 151

4.7 Mann-Kendall trend statistics

Trend statistics computed for inflow and storage for the design period (1943-68) and for the period after
commissioning of the reservoir (1987-2010) are given in Table 3.
The analysis predicts a decreasing trend for south-west monsoon inflow. North-east monsoon inflow for
the period 1943-68 shows a decreasing trend and the trend changes to positive during 1987-2010 periods.
Reservoir storage for all the periods of analysis show negative trends.

Table 3. Mann-Kendall trend statistics of inflow & reservoir storage

Time Series First Year Last year n Test Z

Inflow
South-West Monsoon 1943 1968 26 -0.22
South-West Monsoon 1987 2010 24 -0.17
South-West Monsoon 1943 2010 50 -1.17
North-East Monsoon 1943 1968 26 -0.53
North-East Monsoon 1987 2010 24 +1.17
North-East Monsoon 1943 2010 50 +1.29
Reservoir Storage
South-West Monsoon 1943 1968 26 -0.35
South-West Monsoon 1994 2010 17 -0.62
South-West Monsoon 1943 2010 43 -0.44
North-East Monsoon 1943 1968 26 -0.22
North-East Monsoon 1994 2010 17 -0.54
North-East Monsoon 1943 2010 43 -1.36

5. Conclusions
The role of Idamalayar reservoir in flood moderation and the seasonality of floods in the humid tropical
region of Kerala were studied. The analysis show that floods are moderated efficently by the reservoir.
1. Flood moderation by Idamlayar reservoir in depends on (1) time of occurance of flood event (2)
storage level of reservoir (3) intensity of flood
a) Since the reservoir situated in humid tropics is refilled during south-west monsoon period, there is
a clear reduction in the number of floods downstream during that period.
b) The chances of flood events downstream are more during north-east monsoon period (September-
November) when the reservoir storage level is at its peak.
c) The role of reservoir in moderating floods is more related to water storage levels for large flood
when compared to medium and small floods. Floods are very well controlled when the reservoir
capacity is less than 50%. Between 50% and 90% and above 90% capacity, flood control depends
on storage levels of the reservoir.
2. Over a period of 50 years changes are noticed in inflow, out flow and storage
a) Trend analysis of inflow to reservoir shows a decreasing trend during S-W monsoon and an
increasing trend during N-E monsoon period. Such a decresing trend in inflow imporved the
efficeny of flood moderation.
b) Outflow from the reservoir during September –March shows an increase, due to increased power
requirement and water demands downstream.
c) Storage during both the monsoon periods show decreasing trend.
3. Comparison of spill calculated for the period 1943-1968 and the actual spill data (1987-2010) show
that magnitude and frequency of spill from the reservoir was less after commissioning of the
reservoir.
4. Changes in the inflow and storage pattern during the S-W and N-E monsoon periods and the higher
outflow during September –March is the contributing factor for reduced spill more efficient flood
moderation by the reservoir.

Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Executive Director, CWRDM and Vice Chancellor, Karunya University for their
support. The support given by the Chief Engineers (IPD & Reservoir Operations) Kerala State Electricity
Board is gratefully acknowledged.

ISSN 2076-2895 (Print), ISSN 2076-2909 (Online) ©2013 International Energy & Environment Foundation. All rights reserved.
152 International Journal of Energy and Environment (IJEE), Volume 4, Issue 1, 2013, pp.141-152

References
[1] CWRDM Report, 2006, Compilation of rainfall runoff data for river basins of Kerala, Project P -
19, CWRDM, Kozhikode, Kerala, India.
[2] Water Atlas of Kerala, 1991, Government of India and Centre for Water Resources Development
and Management, Kozhikode.
[3] James, E J, Anitha, A B et.al Vembanad Kole- wetland system and river basin management,
Anonymous, 1997, Wetlands and integrated river basin management: experiences in Asia and the
Pacific. UNDE/Wetlands International-Asia Pacific, Kuala Lumpur, pp 183-241.
[4] Abdul Rahiman, K.U, Dwarkish G.S, ISH M. and Babita M. Kawal, Changes in hydrology and
coastal sedimentation by dams- a case study, 2009, ISH Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Vol 15,
No.3.
[5] KSEB (Kerala State Electricity Board) System Operation Hand Books- 1993-94 to 2007-08),
Kerala State Electricity Board, Idamalayar Multi Purpose Project, Power Scheme, Project report,
1972, Vol 1, Report and Estimates, December 1972.
[6] Chow V.T, Maidment D. R., Mays L. W., 1988, Applied Hydrology, Mc Graw hill Publishing Co:
New York, NY.
[7] Thimothy R.L, 1979, Urban Hydrology- A multi disciplinary Perspective, Ann Arbor Science
Publishers Inc: Ann Arbor, MI.
[8] López-Moreno, J. I, Beguería, S. and García-Ruiz, J. M. 2002, Influence of the Yesa reservoir on
floods of the Aragón River, Central Spanish Pyrenees, Hydrology and Earth System Sciences,
6(4), 753–762.
[9] Report on Periyar River Basin, Irrigation Division, Ernakulam, 2003, Government of Kerala,
Water Resources Department, Kerala, India.
[10] Timo S, Anu M, Pia A, Tuija R A, Toni A, 2002, Publication on Air quality No.31. Detecting
trends of annual values of atmospheric pollutants by the Mann-Kendall test and Sens slope
estimates-the Excel template application MAKESENS, Report Code FMI-AQ-31, Finnish
Meteorological Institute: Vuorikatu, Helsinki, Finland.

George Abe has an M Tech in Civil Engineering (Remote Sensing) from IIT Powai, Bombay (1986)
and is currently Scientist in Centre for Water Resources Development and Management, Kerala, India.
He has more than twenty years of experience in water resources related studies.
He was awarded the Hema Prabha-S N Gupta medal for the best Technical paper in environmental
studies in the year 1997 by the Institution of Engineers (India). His research interests are in the
sustainability assessment of H E schemes, river basin management and environmental flows. He has
published more than twenty research papers
E-mail address: gb@cwrdm.org

E. J. James has a Ph D from Calcutta University and is presently working as Director, Water Institute
and Dean (Research), Karunya University, Coimbatore, India. His Post Doctoral work was in estimation
of hydrologic variables (Institute of Hydrology Wallingford, U K).
His research interests are in Hydrology, Water Resources Engineering, Estuarine Dynamics, Wetland
Management and Coastal Engineering. He has published more than130 research papers.
Dr. James is a Fellow, Institution of Engineers (India); Life Member, Indian Water Resources Society;
Member, International Association of Hydrologic Sciences; Member, Indian Association of Hydraulic
Research; Member & International Water History Association and is a member of several international
and national committees
E-mail address: ejjames@karunya.edu

ISSN 2076-2895 (Print), ISSN 2076-2909 (Online) ©2013 International Energy & Environment Foundation. All rights reserved.