Student Assessment:

Measuring Progress Toward Your Goals

Chapter Two
I. Summative Assessment
II. Diagnostic Assessment

Introduction

Just as a guide leading a group of hikers has a mountain to climb, the teacher leading a class of students
has standards. It is evident when the climbers have met their goal: they are standing on the summit.
How does a teacher know when students have met their goal – what is the summit of student
achievement? And how will you know your students have gotten there?

Remember the three questions we posed at the start of this course:

1. What should your students know, understand or be able to do?

2. How will your students demonstrate their mastery?
3. How will you instruct your students so they can reach that level of mastery?

As we saw in the last chapter, you must first determine what your students are expected to know,
understand, or be able to do. This means more than “learn geography” or “think critically.” We saw
standards stating that eighth graders in Texas are expected to explain Manifest Destiny. Fourth graders
in Arizona are required to distinguish fact from opinion. Those are fairly clear guidelines. But what will
be acceptable evidence of a child’s ability to do these things? How will you know what to prepare your
students to do if you do not first determine what success looks like in these tasks?

Planning lessons (question three above) before planning measures of success (question two) can quickly
become a case of the tail wagging the dog. When teachers have not taken the time to think through the
ways in which their students will need to demonstrate mastery of standards, their lessons often
undershoot the mark, featuring simplistic or unrelated explanations and activities. These teachers then
write tests based on the altered content they’ve presented. They never realize that they’ve strayed from
the standards.

As Wiggins and McTighe note in Understanding by Design,

What would we accept as evidence that students have attained the desired
understandings and proficiencies—before proceeding to plan teaching and learning
experiences? Many teachers who have adopted this design approach report that the
process of “thinking like an assessor” about evidence of learning not only helps them to
clarify their goals but also results in a more sharply defined teaching and learning target
so that students perform better knowing their goal.6

If, as those Texas social studies standards from Chapter One state, students are expected to “identify the
areas that were acquired to form the United States,” you may decide that the most reliable assessment
would be to give students a blank map of the continent and create a series of overlays representing
American expansion. Your instruction would then have to give students all of the knowledge and practice

6 Wiggins, Grant and Jay McTighe. Understanding by Design. Alexandria: ASCD, 1998, 8-9.

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Measuring Progress Toward Your Goals

on how to accomplish this independently. Simply put, once you’ve determined what you are supposed to
teach, you should determine what students will do to prove that they understand the material in the
required ways. This approach to instruction is called “backwards planning” because it requires you to
start by identifying what you want students to know at the end of instruction. By doing so, you can gear
your instruction to ensure that students perform the way you originally envisioned.

In addition to being helpful as a planning tool, assessment is the means by which we gauge progress. We
need to have a clear sense of what our students have achieved so that we can make decisions about how
we approach future instruction, where individuals need particular support and, more generally, how we
are succeeding. One standout trait of teachers who make major progress with their students is frequent
assessment. The focus becomes not “what I taught” but rather “what my students learned.” In this
sense, assessment is vital to our mission as an organization. In order to close the achievement gap, we
need to make dramatic, measurable gains with our students. We will not know if we have accomplished
our goals if we do not record where our students started – and where and by how much they have grown.
Assessment holds us accountable to our goals.

Thus, this chapter is about compiling acceptable evidence for student achievement. What does it mean to
demonstrate mastery of academic goals, and how do teachers go about collecting such evidence? This
chapter is also about using evidence. How can teachers take stock of their students and use that
information to shape further instruction and address individual needs?

I. Summative Assessment

While this section focuses on summative assessment, there are Types of Assessments
two other equally important forms of assessment that we will
discuss in this course. Diagnostics gauge student mastery of Diagnostic – Before instruction begins,
used to determine mastery of
prerequisite knowledge and skills and prior knowledge of
prerequisite knowledge and skills and
content at the beginning of learning. We will discuss this form
prior knowledge of future content (e.g.,
in section II of this chapter. Formative evaluations check reading readiness test).
student progress during the course of a lesson and unit of study
and inform the adjustment of instructional decisions. We will Formative – Throughout a unit and
discuss these in Chapter Five. lesson cycle, used to gauge progress
(e.g., student practice problems during
Summative assessments, the focus of this section, are the independent practice, weekly quizzes).
most familiar type of assessment. These are the tests, the
Summative – At the end of a unit or end
examinations, the final projects – the ways in which a teacher
of the year, used to measure growth and
formally measures students’ understanding of learning goals
achievement formally (e.g., end-of-unit
at the end of each unit or at the end of the year. These are the test).
tools that provide teachers with data on the sum of student
knowledge and serve as an important source for official progress reports and grades for children,
parents and school officials.

This section will introduce you to the following topics:

 The different incarnations of summative assessments
 The guiding questions for creating assessments
 How to use summative assessments as planning tools to set clear, high expectations
 How to design summative assessments as an accurate and fair evaluative tool to communicate
student progress

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Types of Summative Assessment
The primary goal of the summative assessment is to determine Assessment at the Pre-K Level
student understanding and growth, and teachers use a variety of Even though the methods we use to
tools to do this. Paper-and-pencil tests cannot measure every assess pre-K students at KIPP SHINE
skill, nor would an extended interview be helpful (or practical) to Prep are different from the methods we
gauge all learning. use to assess our older students, the
results are equally essential for guiding
and individualizing our instruction. I use
 Tests and quizzes are, of course, a tried and true work samples, child observations (it’s
method of assessing student progress. They are incredible how much you can learn about
relatively quick (but surprisingly challenging) to design a child’s development from watching him
and evaluate, and they provide huge flexibility in terms or her!), one-on-one assessments, and
of structure. Tests and quizzes are an excellent means standardized tests to obtain a holistic
of generating quantifiable data that can be compared picture of each of my pre-K student’s
across your classroom or, in the case of standardized progress towards meeting the state
achievement tests, across your school, district, or state. standards. I also maintain a portfolio
about each of my students so I can track
their progress throughout the year. All of
 Performance assessments require students to these methods are developmentally
demonstrate a task rather than simply answer appropriate and allow me to obtain valid
questions. For example, a student may be asked to and reliable evidence about my students’
generate scientific hypotheses, converse in a foreign growth and development.
language, or conduct research on an assigned topic.
Performance tasks are designed to be similar to the Zarabeth Parker Davis, Delta ‘02
challenges that adults face every day, requiring students Teacher, Memphis City Schools
to use higher-order thinking skills, such as judging,
innovating, and creating rather than reciting, responding, or listing. Performance assessments
are often termed “authentic” assessments because they ask students to perform tasks in a
real-world-like context – for a specific purpose and audience under realistic constraints. Since
they require students to actively apply knowledge and skills in an unprompted, novel situation,
authentic assessments can reveal the highest possible level of student mastery. Note that
performance assessments can also be challenging to administer and grade efficiently. You can
look at some examples of performance assessments in the Instructional Planning & Delivery
Toolkit (pp. 7-11: “Performance Assessments”), which can be found online at the Resource
Exchange on TFANet. 

 Portfolios, which contain a variety of student work (from writing samples to standardized tests
scores), can be used both to help students identify areas for improvement and to present a
summative picture of students’ progress. Working with the teacher, perhaps during regular
conferences, students identify appropriate work samples to include in portfolios—either to
reflect the children’s best work, or to show steady progress over time. This process
encourages students to reflect upon and assess their own accomplishments. In addition to
student work, portfolios frequently include written teacher evaluations and student self-
assessments of the portfolio contents.

 Like many of these tools, journals can be used at all phases of assessment and provide a useful
record of student work over time when communicating with students and parents about student
achievement and needed areas of growth. As a summative assessment, journals can be used for
students to write about what they have learned, apply what they have learned to a new situation,
or jot down lingering questions about the topic.

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Measuring Progress Toward Your Goals

 Most school districts administer standardized tests to benchmark student progress across the
district, state, or country, and you are not likely to have a choice as to whether or not to
administer them. While the interruptions caused by these tests can be frustrating for both
students and teachers, they can also provide useful information as to what students have
learned. They are often the most accessible way of measuring progress over longer periods of
time. Be aware, though, that standardized tests often set a low bar for student achievement, so
using them as your sole method of goal-setting is not always a recipe for high expectations.

Guiding Questions for Creating Assessments

When creating any assessment, you should use the same backwards planning mindset that frames all of your
instructional planning. To help you backwards plan your assessments, consider the following questions:

1. What are your learning goals or standards?

2. What evidence would you need from students to demonstrate mastery of the standards/goals?
3. What method will you use to assess?
4. What questions or prompts will you include on the assessment?
5. What are the criteria for success? What are the characteristics of a high quality response?

These questions will help organize the complicated process of creating an assessment and will
ultimately increase the overall effectiveness of your end product. Note that while this section will
primarily focus on summative assessments, these guiding questions can be used in designing any
assessment, including diagnostic and formative tests used prior to and during instruction. To aide your
assessment design, refer to the Instructional Planning & Delivery Toolkit (pp. 12-13: “Assessment
Plan – Guiding Questions”); this Toolkit can be found online at the Resource Exchange on TFANet.

1. What are your learning goals or standards?

As we discussed in Chapter One, excellent teaching begins with identifying and understanding your
course standards. Creating your assessment is no different. You must first identify what learning goals
or standards your assessment will cover in order to begin developing a quality tool to measure student
understanding. Creating your summative assessments immediately after considering what your
students are supposed to know or be able to do – both on the long-term level and as you plan a series of
lessons – is an essential practice of effective teaching. That way, your eventual instruction is much
more likely to be aligned with state expectations. If a summative assessment is used to measure
student mastery at the end of a unit (a group of learning goals), you will need to center your tool on
those learning goals identified for instruction. For example, if your students are expected to be able to
compare democracy and communism, you will need to design an assessment that asks them to
demonstrate their mastery of this goal. (Asking students to name a list of countries that fall into those
categories would be insufficient.) Knowing what you’re going to expect your students to do, you will
then gear your instruction to helping them achieve your goals. This does not mean that you will spend
your instructional time giving your students the answers to your test, but you will ensure that your
teaching is focused on helping students meet those objectives, as set by the state. As we will discuss in
Chapter Three (Long-Term Planning) and Chapter Four (Unit Planning), you will identify your standards
and more specific learning goals at the beginning of the unit planning process. When you create the
vision of your unit plan use these goals as the starting framework for creating your end-of-unit
summative assessment.

2. What evidence would you need from students to demonstrate mastery of the standards/goals?
Now that you have identified the learning goals driving your assessment, you can continue to backwards
plan by determining the evidence that would indicate that students have successfully achieved these

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goals. What would it look like for someone to know the content and perform the skills masterfully? What
would students need to do to prove that they had mastered the unit’s learning goals? It is important to
carefully consider and answer these questions to develop a clear vision for what you want your
assessment to accomplish.

Building on the work you did to understand your standards and learning goals in Chapter One, you will
now interpret them further to get a clear vision of student mastery. At this stage, your vision does not
need to be completely detailed, but you should have an overarching sense of what you will need to see
from students. Later in the process (during question five) you will refine this vision even further by
identifying how responses look differently at varying proficiency levels.

To help interpret your standards and learning goals first ask:

 What are the verbs of my standards?

 What is the content on which the verbs take action?

For example, look at the following example of a social studies standard:

5.3 Students describe the cooperation and conflict that existed among the Native Americans and
between the Native American nations and the new settlers, in terms of:

1. The competition among the English, French, Spanish, Dutch, and Native American nations for
control of North America.
2. The cooperation that existed between the colonists and Indians during the 1600s and 1700s
(e.g., in agriculture, the fur trade, military alliances, treaties, cultural interchanges).
3. The conflicts before the Revolutionary War (e.g., the Pequot and King Philip's Wars in New
England, the Powhatan Wars in Virginia, the French and Indian War).

If these were your standards, you would identify the verb as “describe” and the content as including the
“cooperation and conflict” between Indians and new settlers, the “competition” among different nations,
the “cooperation” between colonists and Indians, etc.

After deciphering the verbs and content of each individual goal, holistically analyze the learning goals as a
collective group. Think about which of the following is necessary in order to master this group of unit
goals:

 Knowledge or understanding
 Reasoning
 Skill performance
 Products

Using the standards above you may realize that students will need knowledge of the pre-Revolutionary
War conflicts, and the ways Native Americans, settlers, and colonists competed and cooperated.
Additionally, the understanding of why these relationships existed and how they developed will be
necessary for demonstrating mastery of the standards.

Further, it will be necessary for students to comprehend how these people and events are interrelated
(one part of the reasoning required by the standard) and demonstrate abilities to describe Native
American tribes and nations, the conflicts among colonists, settlers, and Native Americans, and why
these relationships existed (a few of the skills necessary for standard mastery). Ultimately, for students

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Measuring Progress Toward Your Goals

to show mastery of the overall standards, they will need to prove their factual knowledge of the relevant
events, people, and actions by producing a description (in some form, whether written, visual, etc.). This
product would serve as appropriate evidence for evaluating student understanding of the social studies
standard.

Once you have unpacked your goals applying these suggestions, stop and reconsider the original guiding
question – what will it look like for students to demonstrate mastery of the learning goals? Make sure
you can confidently answer this question before you continue to create your assessment. Without a solid
conception of what students will need to do, it will be difficult to make an assessment that provides you
with the information you need.

Before proceeding, take time to consider the prioritization of topics to be included in your assessment.
Out of all the learning goals to be assessed, which are the most important for students to master? What
learning goals are “enduring” - or serve as prerequisite foundations for subsequent units or course
standards? Answering these questions will help you to prioritize your learning goals while designing your
assessment, enhance your decision-making abilities, and maximize the value and purpose of your
measurement tool.

Understanding what evidence you will expect from students is an essential step in creating any
assessment. Next, you will determine how you will design your assessment questions and prompts to
gather this necessary evidence.

3. What methods will you use to assess?

Methods of Assessment
How do you design assessments that align with expectations and generate the evidence you need to
determine student mastery? The key is to be purposeful in the types of assessment questions you ask.

When designing an assessment it is important to understand the two main categories or types of
assessment questions: objective and non-objective. At the most basic
level “objective” assessment questions are items that are generally not Examples of Assessment
open to interpretation (e.g. multiple choice) while “non-objective” Question Types
assessment questions are more open-ended and allow greater room for
interpretation (e.g. essays). Objective questions -
multiple choice, matching,
By carefully considering what each type of assessment question or task true/false, fill in the blank,
computation.
actually demands of students, you will be much more likely to match your
assessment with your goals for your students. There are specific reasons Non-objective questions -
to use the various types of assessment questions based on what you wish essays, presentations, short-
students to demonstrate. For instance, when assessing a student’s answer responses,
knowledge of an unknown vocabulary word, providing four multiple constructed-responses,
choices of potential definitions, each much different from the next, might projects.
allow the child to be able to select the correct answer by mere process of
elimination. It would be a much more accurate and authentic measurement of a child’s understanding
to include the unknown word in a sentence and ask the student to provide a synonym, or at least make
the multiple choices reflective of some common misconception of the word. It is always important to
think about what a student has demonstrated – and not demonstrated – by providing a correct
response to your question. Note the distinctive purposes of the following four test questions, keeping
in mind that there is a time and place for each task:

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 1. True or false: Renoir’s work was painted in the Impressionist style of art.
Used because you want to confirm a student’s knowledge of a basic fact, this true-false
question tests if a student is able to make a positive association between Renoir and the term
Impressionism. (Just be aware that this does not necessarily mean that the student knows what
the term implies.)

2. Fill-in: The style of art known as _______________ features nature or everyday situations, unmixed,
shimmering colors and small brushstrokes blended by the viewer’s eye.
A correct answer signals that a student is able to match the details of Impressionism with the term.

3. Multiple choice: Renoir’s style most closely resembles (a) Degas, (b) Van Gogh, (c) Seurat, (d)
Dali.
This question wants the student to compare each artist in relation to Renoir. Note that a correct
response suggests that the student sees some similarity between Renoir and Degas – but does
not necessarily signal an understanding of Impressionism.

4. Essay: Explain how Renoir’s work is emblematic of the Impressionist style of art.
This question asks students to recall details about both Renoir’s work and the elements of
Impressionism, and then synthesize the two.

The purpose of these examples is not to say that one type of question is always better than another in
every situation. Every single question format could be appropriate at some point, depending on your
intention, and most teachers often incorporate a number of different question types – both objective and
non-objective – into one single assessment. You must be aware, though, of the limitations and potential
functions of each type as you select or design an assessment to measure student learning.

The chart below lists some common ways to use the various types of assessment questions.
Assessment Question Types and Their Uses
Question Purposes Examples
Multiple choice Discriminate between options,  Where are you most likely to find freshwater trout?
(objective) comprehend concepts, make (a) the Dead Sea, (b) Lake Tahoe, (c) the Atlantic
simple judgments Ocean, (d) the neighborhood pond.
Matching, Identifying relationships,  Label the following items with an (E) for executive
sequencing classifying items, charting cause branch, (L) for legislative or (J) for judicial.
(objective) and effect  Put the following events in chronological order.
True-false, Knowledge of generalizations,  Under the first amendment, you have the right to:
yes-no relationships and examples; Assemble peaceably T F
(objective) predicting, evaluating Say anything you want T F
Factual short Recalling or classifying facts,  Define tundra.
answer, fill-ins terms or concepts, solving simple  Draw a diagram explaining the water cycle.
(objective) science and mathematical  Name the political philosophy promoted in the
problems following speech.
Higher-order Summarizing, applying,  After reading the news story below, write a
short answer concluding, evaluating, summarizing headline.
(non-objective) predicting, analyzing  Given her previous actions, what is Lady Macbeth
likely to do next?
Short or long Organizing ideas, developing a  Read the above poem (John Dunne’s “Death Be
essay logical argument, comparing Not Proud”) and describe the purpose and power
(non-objective) concepts, evaluating a position or of its major metaphor.
data, communicating thoughts or  What would Darwin say about human cloning were
feelings, demonstrating original he alive today?
thinking

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Measuring Progress Toward Your Goals

While all question types may be appropriate at different times, non-objective tasks that require in-depth
student responses generally produce more valid information about student understanding. Thus, you
should attempt to use these types of items when possible. To be sure that students know how to give a
speech, for instance, it is best to have them deliver one. Realize, though, that non-objective tasks can be
time consuming to administer and evaluate. Because of this, it will not always be appropriate to use
these types of prompts. Always balance the benefit of using more valid measurement tools with the
values of efficiency and feasibility.

Choosing the best assessment question type for a particular unit or group of students may feel
complicated and overwhelming. To aide your selection of the appropriate assessment method, consider
the following factors:

 Content of the unit – what exactly are you trying to assess and what questions would be best
suited to measure understanding of this content?
 Efficiency – what types of assessment will simplify the creation, administration, and grading of
the assessment?
 Breadth of material – how suited is the assessment to cover different quantities of material?
 Depth of knowledge – how much will your assessment reveal about student
understanding/misunderstandings?
 Distorting factors – what factors might distort scores and prevent the assessment from
accurately revealing student mastery (see question four below)?

Considerations for Assessment Question Types (p. 14)  will provide you valuable guidance in
considering how these factors affect both objective and non-objective assessment questions. Use this
chart to help you design the best assessment given your needs.

4. What questions or prompts will you include on the assessment?

Now that you know what learning goals you will assess and what type of assessment you will use, it is
important to consider how you are going to ask students to demonstrate their mastery. What questions
or prompts will you use? How will you word these items to elicit accurate evidence of student mastery?
Answering these questions is imperative for developing an effective assessment. To reiterate, summative
assessments are hugely important, not only for planning but to measure the achievement and growth of
your students. Employing rigorous, effective assessment questions is integral to painting an accurate
picture of student learning and leading your class to achieve significant academic growth. Summative
assessments serve as the official documentation of student knowledge and skills, occurring at the end of
every bundle of related lessons (called a “unit”) to gauge progress relative to the baseline of student
skills established at the beginning of the course. The results of these tests lead to formal decision-
making, both in your own classroom as you plan instruction and in your school as it determines a child’s
academic future. Thus, it is vital that your assessments are valid and reliable.

Here are a number of concrete strategies for designing assessments to ensure they are effective
measurements of progress:

(1) In order for your assessment to be valid, it must test what it is designed to test and allow students
to demonstrate true mastery.

To create an assessment that will give you valid information, you must create assessment items
(questions, tasks, prompts, etc.) that (a) align with your learning goals and (b) allow students to
demonstrate their true mastery of the learning goals.

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a. Alignment (of test items to learning goals)
If you’ve focused your instruction on learning goals involving similes and metaphors, it would be
unreasonable to have sections about personification and hyperbole on your test. This may seem
like an obvious point, but it can be tricky to ensure that your test is exactly aligned to all parts of
your learning goals, and nothing else. To make sure your questions are valid and aligned, make
sure that there are no items on your test that are not required by your learning goal. Including
“extraneous” questions that don’t match your learning goals will only confuse or frustrate your
students and prevent you from getting a clear picture of their relevant mastery levels.

Further, you also need to craft test items that match the exact action or performance that is
required by the learning goal. Return to question two above and review the verbs of your
standards. These give you clear guidance for what you should expect students to do on your
assessment. For example, if your learning goal asks students to compare the phases of matter,
then your assessment items should call for students to perform this exact action. Requiring
students to merely identify phases of matter would not sufficiently assess this learning goal.

Similarly, when there are multiple parts to a learning goal you must ensure that your assessment
has questions aligned to every related section of that goal. If a learning goal requires students to
identify, describe, and compare the three phases of matter, you should make sure that your
assessment tests students’ ability to perform all three actions. Simply asking students to list
examples of solids, liquids, and gases will not be fully aligned to your standard. This will prevent
you from completely understanding whether your students have reached the level of mastery
demanded by the grade-level goal. To ensure that your assessment is a valid test of student
mastery, always create items that accurately (and exclusively) match the actions or performances
required by your learning goals.

Also note that, as discussed in question three, some types of assessment questions are better
suited for or more aligned to different demands of your content area. Return to the table above
detailing assessment question types and their uses. This will assist you in determining what
kinds of questions are better suited for the demands of your learning goals.

b. True Mastery
In addition to being aligned to your learning goals, a valid assessment must allow students to
show their genuine understanding of the content you are testing. If “true mastery” is indeed
being measured (and revealed), then students who have mastered a goal or objective will almost
always correctly answer a question aligned to that goal, while students who have not mastered a
goal or objective will incorrectly answer the aligned question. There are a variety of factors that
may prevent assessment items from providing a valid measure of student mastery. To avoid
these potential problems, consider the following guidance:

• Be aware that your students may get tripped up on aspects of a question you had not
intended, impairing your ability to assess their mastery of the skill you meant to test. A
word problem, for example, requires students to read and understand the terms of the
scenario, determine what kind of computation is required, develop an equation for the
problem, and solve it correctly. In this instance, requiring students to show their work can
help you pinpoint where your students may have lost their way.

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Measuring Progress Toward Your Goals

Here are some strategies for crafting test items that reveal true mastery, many of which were
adapted from Anthony Nitko’s Educational Assessment of Students7:

- Ensure that items don’t give away answers. Make sure your questions do not “give away” their
own answers with irrelevant clues, or help students answer other questions on the test.
Remember that the goal of your assessment is to learn if students have truly mastered
objectives.

Not so good: Someone who studies architecture is called an __________.

Better: Someone who studies building design is called a(n) __________.

Not so good: 1. Someone who studies building design is called a(n) __________.
5. If you wanted to design a building, what type of professional would
you need? _______________________

Better: Only use one of the above questions on the same assessment.

- Focus the item. Watch your wording and be explicit if you’re looking for a specific answer.
Otherwise, your question could yield unintended answers or allow for a range of unwanted
responses.

Not so good: The author of Huckleberry Finn was _____________. (The student
could conceivably put “a man,” “criticizing slavery,” etc.)

Better: What is the pen name of the author of Huckleberry Finn?

_________________

Not so good: Where is New Orleans located? ________________________

Better: New Orleans is located at the mouth of the ________________ River.

- Test one idea at a time. Some teachers try to trick their students by placing more than one true
and false fact in the same question. Yet this strategy does not allow teachers to know what
piece of the question students are deeming true or false.

Not so good: Tobacco was the chief crop of Virginia, the first British colony in
America. T F

Better: Tobacco was the chief crop of colonial Virginia. T F

Virginia was Britain’s first colony in America. T F

- In a multiple-choice question, ensure that the incorrect answer choices are at least plausible
to someone who lacks knowledge. Make sure that some of your incorrect answer choices are
rigorous “distracters,” plausible answers based on common student errors or misconceptions.
(You know you’re in trouble when your tests resemble the $100 questions on “Who Wants to Be
a Millionaire?”) Remember the goal is for students to demonstrate their understanding of the
material.

7 Nitko, Anthony. Educational Assessment of Students. New York: Prentice Hall, 2003.

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 Not so good: The country directly west of Spain is (a) Rome, (b) Antarctica, (c) Brazil,
(d) Portugal.

Better: The country directly west of Spain is (a) Italy, (b) France, (c)
Switzerland, (d) Portugal.

Crafting these quality distracters will greatly enhance the validity of your multiple choice
questions. They increase the likelihood that you will accurately learn whether students truly
understand the objective - and did not simply guess or eliminate obviously incorrect choices.
Additionally, the process of creating plausible answer alternatives will stimulate your thinking
about the misunderstandings students may experience during instruction and the background
knowledge and skills they will need for standards mastery. You can then proactively plan to
address prerequisite skills and prevent misunderstandings as you create your units and
lessons.

- Avoid posing questions in the negative. Negative questions greatly enhance the chances that a
student will misunderstand the question. Use short, exact and positive statements. If you must
write a question in the negative, that fact should be highlighted.

Not so good: What mistakes should you not make if you don’t want your reader to
become confused by your writing? ___________________

Better: What should you avoid doing to make your writing clear for your
reader? ____________________

- Be conscious of potential bias. Are you unintentionally promoting gender or racial stereotypes
by making generalizations in your test questions? Since context familiarity is a key ingredient
for comprehension, your reading passages should reflect the cultural experiences of your
students. What values or perspectives do your questions assume? Consider this question,
where the examples may seem foreign:

Mr. Jones ate a ______ breakfast of oatmeal, sausage links and a croissant with marmalade. (a)
bizarre (b.) nourishing (c) feeble (d) skimpy

Think critically about the cultural perspective from which you operate. Students are likely to
feel detached or alienated from school when their experiences are ignored. Recognizing
personal bias is discussed in greater detail in the Diversity, Community, & Achievement
textbook.

- Ensure answers are definitely true or definitely false. A statement should not be so general
that a knowledgeable student can think of exceptions that reverse the answer’s intended truth
or falsity. Beware of generalizations, for example.

Not so good: In Galileo’s time, everyone believed that Earth was the center of the
universe except him. T F

Better: Galileo disputed the common belief that the Earth was the center of the
universe. T F

21
Measuring Progress Toward Your Goals

Note that well-constructed test items require students to truly know the material in order to supply the
correct answer, whereas poorly constructed tasks will give clues that allow less knowledgeable
students to appear proficient, compromising the validity of the results. Questions that don’t reveal true
mastery may confuse students and lead to potentially misleading data. It is crucial to avoid these
problems because when you incorporate assessment results into your ongoing planning, inadequate or
inaccurate data will lead to flawed conclusions about student mastery. This will prevent you from
making appropriate instructional decisions that lead your students to their ultimate goal – dramatic
academic achievement. For further examples and information about crafting valid questions see the
Instructional Planning & Delivery Toolkit (p. 15: “Guidance for Creating Valid Assessment Items”); this
Toolkit can be found online at the Resource Exchange on TFANet. 

A Note on Scaffolding
We will discuss the creation of diagnostic and formative assessments later in this chapter. In general,
the same guidelines provided in this section apply to the creation of all assessment types. Additionally,
to increase the validity of these assessments – or any summative assessment used to inform your
instruction - you will also need to “scaffold” questions. That is, you should include multiple items that
progress from simpler to increasingly more complex cognitive levels (we discuss scaffolding in greater
detail in Chapter Four). This allows you to pinpoint the specific skills and knowledge your students
know and exactly where they struggle with a particular concept. This provides you with more detailed
information about student mastery, which in turn allows you to make more informed and effective
instructional decisions.

Remember that certain summative assessments (such as end of the year course assessments and
some unit assessments) are designed to tell you the sum of student knowledge at the completion of a
series of learning goals. The results of these tests are not used to influence your subsequent
instruction. For those purposes, it would not be appropriate to include scaffolded questions on each
objective or learning goal. Doing so could lead your test to be extremely long, making it burdensome to
administer and grade, and generally inefficient. Further, scaffolding questions on certain topics might
unintentionally assist or prompt students in demonstrating mastery of a given learning goal. This may
ultimately prevent the assessment from revealing what students are genuinely able to do without
additional support or “cognitive clues”.

(2) In order for your assessment to be reliable, you must ensure that it will yield consistently
accurate results and provide every student with the opportunity to accurately demonstrate his or her
knowledge.

a. Include multiple items and varied ways to assess each learning goal. If a test has one question
for a particular learning target, it becomes unclear whether students really know the material
or just happened to guess the correct answer in that instance. Provide each student with
multiple opportunities to demonstrate competence on each learning goal. You should also
create a variety of ways for students to show what they know through a combination of test
questions, papers, models, dramatizations and journal entries. If a student is consistently
having trouble with pen-and-paper tests, and you are not assessing a child’s ability to write, try
testing his or her understanding orally. You may discover that you need to teach the child test-
taking skills. Remember that the goal of any assessment is to gather evidence of a student’s
mastery; the format should not be an impediment to that process. Including multiple
opportunities and a variety of ways to elicit understanding increases the validity of assessments
by enabling students to demonstrate their true mastery of your learning goals.

22
 b. Be clear about the directions on the day of the assessment. portfolio, or performance
assessment, and give an example of how to follow those instructions correctly. On a quiz you
might have a sample multiple-choice question with the answer filled in. For a performance
assessment you might give a sample final product against which other students can compare
their work.

c. Develop a standard grading system. To ensure that a student’s score does not rest on your own
particular feelings about that child, or on your mood or inclination that day, use a systematic
procedure to assign quality ratings or marks for every student. Many assessments, including
short-answer questions and essays, will evoke a number of different responses, and you will
need to develop criteria to judge the merits of each answer. Make sure your grading system
reveals how students progress on individual objectives or learning goals. This will enhance the
detail and reliability of your grading system and provide you with more valuable information to
inform instruction. Further, be sure to assign a proportionate number of points to items of a
different nature. A prompt that has two distinct parts, for instance, should not be assigned the
same number of points as a simple multiple choice question. (We will discuss creating a
grading system in greater detail under question five that follows.)

d. Be fair in the administration of your assessment. Most students should be given the same
amount of time and take the assessment under similar conditions. At the same time, however,
be mindful of your students’ special needs. As you will read later in this course, students with
special needs may require extra time, fewer answer choices, larger print, or an oral
assessment, to name just a few potential modifications and accommodations. The fact that a
student has special needs does not mean that you do not assess them. Rather, you refer to the
student’s Individualized Education Program (IEP) to determine the appropriate adjustments in
the assessment process.

(3) In order for your assessment to be efficient, you must design your questions to maximize space
and time, while remaining purposeful.
Estimates for Student Completion of Tasks
a. Take time to prioritize those test items that
True-false items 20-30 seconds
truly represent content of great value to a
Multiple-choice (factual) 40-60 seconds
student’s learning; otherwise, you could write One-word fill-in 40-60 seconds
questions for every single fact and concept. Multiple-choice (complex) 70-90 seconds
Matching (6 choices) 2-4 minutes
b. Order items from easier to harder so students Short-answer 2-4 minutes
do not spend all of their time on questions with Word problems 5-10 minutes
which they may struggle. (You should, of course, Short essays 15-20 minutes
also teach your students test-taking strategies, Data analysis/graphing 15-25 minutes
Drawing models / labeling 20-30 minutes
such as skipping and later returning to
Extended essays 35-50 minutes
challenging problems.)
Source: Nitko, Anthony. Educational
c. Consider how long the test will take to Assessment of Students. New York: Prentice
administer. Of course, certain test items take Hall, 2003, p. 117.
longer to complete than others (see chart). Take
the test beforehand, and assume that you can
complete it three to four times faster than the average student. Taking the test ahead of time
also helps you catch mistakes and confusing questions.

23
Measuring Progress Toward Your Goals

d. Consider how often your students are being tested. There are simply too many skills to teach
to spend all of your time testing. Plus, students lose concentration, focus, and motivation when
they are tested too long or too often. If you teach middle or high school, work with your
students’ other teachers to see if you can establish a set day of the week for testing in your
subject area.

e. Consider how long the test will take to grade. Checking 150 short answers takes much longer
than it takes the eye to scan a row of multiple-choice answers along a margin. It is, of course,
your professional responsibility to create tests that can accurately reflect student
understanding, which could rarely occur through multiple-choice questions alone. Yet when
two different types of test questions could serve the same purpose, it is acceptable to use
efficiency as a deciding factor.

In drafting assessment items, it is important to remember that there are no “perfect” assessments. Often
you must make tradeoffs between one characteristic of an effective assessment and another. For
instance, an extremely valid assessment may be inefficient to administer and less reliable to grade. It is
your job to select or design an assessment that strikes the best balance between these values given your
instructional goals and student needs. Remember to return to the resource “Considerations for
Assessment Question Types” in the Instructional Planning & Delivery Toolkit (p. 14)  to help determine
what types of questions are best suited for different purposes. By ensuring that your assessments are as
valid, reliable, and efficient as possible, you will help identify the gaps in student learning that you need
to go back and address. Well-designed summative assessments also will help generate accurate and
useful data for students, parents, and school officials about a student’s achievement and progress.

5. What are the criteria for success? What are the characteristics of a high quality response?
To create assessment prompts that provide accurate information about student performance, you need
to determine what it means to be successful on these questions. How do you know if you are
maintaining the high expectations that are so important to achieving dramatic academic gains? What
will an excellent response look like, and how will it differ from an average or incorrect response? While
these points are addressed under the heading of the ‘final’ guiding question, they are actually vital
throughout the assessment creation process. This is the stage where you will be able to double check
your assessment prompts to ensure that they elicit the quality of evidence necessary for student
mastery (as determined earlier this chapter). Further, by undergoing this process you will be able to
clearly articulate the elements and features of successful responses to your test items.

As noted earlier, you can use standards, district curriculum guides, resources on the Internet,
professional organizations, textbooks and standardized tests to determine what it means for a child in
your grade level to achieve at high levels. Here are some more in-depth suggestions about using some
of these resources to establish the proper standard for student performance.

(1) Depend on the other teachers that you work with. While you will likely spend many hours looking at
student work and assessment results on your own, looking at student work with colleagues is a growing
practice among effective teachers. Group consideration of student work enables you to check your
expectations for students and tap into the professional experience and unique perspective of other
teachers about what might hold students back from fulfilling their true potential. See “Protocols for
Evaluating Student Work” in the Instructional Planning & Delivery Toolkit (p. 18), which can be found
online at the Resource Exchange on TFANet. 

24
(2) Compare and contrast your students’ work with
exemplary work of students of a similar age. New teachers To ensure that we are providing our
and veterans alike find it very useful to look at their students’ students with an education equal to the
education received by students in wealthier
work alongside examples of student work that have met high
communities, we need to measure our
standards. The simplest and most cost-effective means of
students’ achievement and compare it with
obtaining exemplary work is from veteran teachers in your that of their counterparts in those wealthier
school, district, or region. Veteran teachers will have communities. Without this measurement
developed a keen eye for strong work and will probably have and comparison, we run the risk of
samples available to show you. perpetuating the educational inequity that
has plagued so many children in our nation
Your regional office also has sets of computer CDs produced for so long.
by Exemplars © that contain examples of student work at four
Jason Botel, Baltimore ‘97
different levels (novice, apprentice, practitioner, and expert)
Executive Director, KIPP Schools
for a variety of performance tasks in math, science, writing,
and reading. You can assign these performance tasks to your
own students (“students will publish a propaganda newspaper, taking a pro-patriot or pro-loyalist point of
view on the Boston Massacre”) and then compare their work to the examples. The annotated examples of
student work can be used to help you answer two questions: “Is what I consider quality student work also
considered quality by others?” and “What does ‘excellent’ achievement look like?”

Once you have an idea of the quality of work you should expect from your students, you will need to
develop a standard grading system to evaluate their work. Grading systems allow you to define and
articulate what specific degrees of mastery on different prompts or tasks will look like. They set the bar
for success on your assessment and guide you in classifying and interpreting student responses. In doing
so, they help paint a reliable picture of student performance on the learning goals covered in your
assessment. There are many different grading tools that teachers commonly use when evaluating
student performance. In this section we will discuss two of the most effective tools – anchor papers and
rubrics.

Anchor Papers
For many assessment types it will be essential to undergo the process of creating “anchor papers” – the
writing and classifying of different student responses to open-ended prompts. After designing these
prompts, teachers often create an anchor paper for each level of student mastery on their grading scale
to help differentiate qualities of various responses. These papers will greatly help clarify your vision of
student mastery across the spectrum of proficiency levels. Anchor papers enable you to visualize
potential gaps between how your students might respond versus how you would like them to respond, so
that you can prepare them to accomplish the latter. Thus, these tools will aide your instruction in
addition to providing you with a clear, rigorous, and standardized grading system for accurately
evaluating your students’ completed work.

Rubrics
Another effective way to develop a standard method for assigning grades is developing sliding scales, or
rubrics. There are two types of rubrics that you can develop – one for your own use, when planning and
evaluating substantive responses to questions, and one for your students, when outlining the
expectations of a performance task. Both types go beyond typical checklists by stating explicit outcomes
for a specific performance and delineating different levels of quality for that performance. Both are
created before a lesson begins to help students meet grade-level expectations.

25
Measuring Progress Toward Your Goals

Rubrics to anticipate student responses

The first kind of rubric is an internal document that helps a teacher anticipate how students might
interpret and relate to a particular test question. The rubric below, adopted from the state of Maine’s
Department of Education8, shows a grading system that provides a fair, balanced framework for
consistently evaluating responses to open-ended math prompts. Notice how this rubric breaks down the
elements of a student’s response and categorizes them under different proficiencies.

Maine Holistic Rubric for Mathematics Open-Ended Items

Source: Maine Department of Education
Subjects: Mathematics
Grade(s) Not specified

4 A correct solution and an appropriate strategy are shown or explained and the solution is shown with correct
label or description if necessary.

• A complete, appropriate strategy is shown or explained but:

- an incorrect solution is given due to a simple computational or other error
or
3 - no solution is given.
• A correct solution is given with no solution strategy or explanation shown.
• A correct solution and appropriate strategy is shown or explained, but not labeled correctly when
necessary

• Some parts of an appropriate strategy are shown or explained, but some key elements are missing.
2 • Some parts of an appropriate strategy are shown or explained, along with some inappropriate parts.
• Appropriate strategy shown or explained, but implemented incorrectly.

1
• Some work or explanation shown beyond re-copying data, but work would not lead to a correct solution.
• One or more incorrect approaches attempted or explained.

• No work or solution shown or explained.

0 • Incorrect solution and no work shown or explained.
• Some data from the problem copied over, but no evidence of any strategy is shown or explained.

While it serves as a reliable and relatively efficient grading tool, the rubric above does not feature anchor
examples of student work to illustrate what the different proficiencies look like. Many valuable rubrics
also include these samples of student work to help delineate between different levels of potential
responses. See how the rubric that follows accomplishes this:

8Math Rubrics, http://intranet.cps.k12.il.us/Assessments/Ideas_and_Rubrics/Rubric_Bank/MathRubrics.pdf,

accessed 12/20/07

26
Question: Why did the colonists in Massachusetts rise up against the British in the 1770s?
“To be free.” 1—These responses are not relevant because they do not
“To protect their families.” address the particular historical issues at play, focusing
“To prove their strength.” instead on generalities.

“They were angry about the tea tax.” 2—These responses are of higher quality than the first set
“They felt mistreated by King George.” because they apply a relevant fact to their answer.
“Because they were taunted by the British army.”

“They were being taxed on tea without getting 3—These responses are even better because they consider
representation in Parliament.” two facts and make a logical connection between them.
“They felt threatened when the British shut down
the Boston harbor and installed a royal governor.”

“The British made a number of political gestures 4—This response is of a higher quality than the previous
that compromised the growing autonomy of the ones because the student refers to a number of relevant
American colonies, including the imposition of facts and synthesizes them into a complete explanation.
taxes, the regulation of trade, the installation of
troops, and the appointment of a royal governor.”

“This question presumes that all colonists rose up 5—This response is more abstract and complex than all of
against the British, which is not the case. Colonists the others. It challenges the generalization implied by the
in America were divided into loyalists and rebels, question by referring to a case in which the generalization
the former group finding security and/or economic may not be true. The student goes on to answer the question
benefit in their association with King George. The as intended with a lengthy, extended response.
rebels, on the other hand, found the crown’s
tightening financial and military grip on the
independent colonies a great burden, resenting the
taxes on stamps and tea…”

By anticipating these various tiers of responses and distinguishing between them, effective teachers are
able to envision an ideal answer, the ways in which their students may typically respond, and what it
would take to move students from one level to another. Of course, since this kind of rubric supplies
desired responses, you would not distribute it before the test. You would, however, ensure that
classroom instruction prepared your class to accomplish the highest level of the rubric. You could also
show your students examples of the kind of sophistication expected in their work, perhaps by reviewing a
different question and a sample set of answers.

Rubrics to make expectations transparent

The second type of rubric is a public document; teachers utilizing authentic assessments – projects,
demonstrations, speeches, etc. – should give students rubrics along with the actual assignment. These
rubrics often take the form of a table, with criteria on one axis and degrees of accomplishment on the
other axis.

Consider, for example, the rubric for a performance task in which sixth-grade students create a 10-page
punctuation handbook, with each page focusing on one punctuation mark. Each page must have a title,
illustration, explanation of the punctuation mark’s function, and a grade-level appropriate example
sentence using the punctuation mark.

27
Measuring Progress Toward Your Goals

Rubric for Grading “Punctuation Handbook”

1 (Beginning) 2 (Developing) 3 (Accomplished) 4 (Exemplary)
Complete Pages Three or more pages 1-2 pages are There are 10 There are more
are missing one of missing one of the complete pages than 10 complete
the following (title, following (title, (each page has a pages (each with a
explanation, explanation, title, explanation, title, explanation,
illustration, or illustration, or illustration, and illustration and
example sentence). example sentence). example sentence). example sentence).
Correct Three or more 1-2 explanations of All 10 explanations If more than 10
Explanation of explanations of the the functions are of the functions are punctuation marks
Punctuation Mark functions are explained explained correctly. were included, all
Function explained incorrectly. of their functions
incorrectly. were explained
correctly.
Sentence Quality of The example The example The examples are The examples are
Example sentences are sentences are solid sixth-grade interesting and
Sentences simple sentences. simple sixth-grade sentences. (The cat’s creative six-grade
(The cat’s tail is sentences. (The cat’s long tail quickly sentences. (The
long.) long tail moved back swished back and cat’s long tail
and forth.) forth.) quickly swished
back and forth, a
sure sign she was
preparing to
pounce on her
dinner.)
Overall Quality of The book is messy The book is The book is neat and The book is
Book and/or difficult to somewhat neat and easy to read. creative, colorful,
read. easy to read. neat, and easy to
read.

Teachers find rubrics appealing both as scoring tools and student motivators. As scoring tools, rubrics
save the teacher’s time by making it easier to process an otherwise unwieldy student project, paper or
presentation. A rubric provides illustrations of various degrees of proficiency and gives the teacher clear,
fair criteria for evaluating student work. Additionally, a well-developed rubric lays out clearly for the
students what the expectations for a particular performance task will be. Students are more motivated to
achieve if they fully understand the requirements for success and are able to evaluate their progress
towards that success before the final product is due.

For more information on rubrics, refer to the Instructional Planning & Delivery Toolkit (pp. 19-21:
“Rubrics”), which can be found online at the Resource Exchange on TFANet.  You can also consult with
veteran teachers and use the resources in your region (e.g., the Student Achievement Toolkit, PDs) to
view quality rubrics that you can use in your classroom.

II. Diagnostic Assessment

Once you develop summative assessments to help you plan where you’re going, diagnostic assessments
can tell you where to begin so you know how far you’ll need to travel. Diagnostic assessments, which in
general should be administered prior to the introduction of any new material, are most often conducted
once at the beginning of the year and then again at the beginning of each unit. There are two general
reasons to use diagnostic assessments.

28
(1) We need a baseline against which to compare future academic gains. If you set a goal for your
students to improve at least 1.5 grade-levels in their reading abilities over the course of the year, you
need to determine their starting grade-level. If you set a goal for your students to be able to measure
distance, mass, and temperature in standard and metric units by the end of a six-week unit, you need to
determine their measuring ability before the unit begins. Identifying where students currently perform
allows you to compare that baseline data with the results from the end-of-unit or end-of-year
assessment. Tools used for this purpose often need to be quantitative in nature so that comparisons
can be made across spans of time.

(2) We must evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of our students so that we can shape our
teaching accordingly. If your students lack the prerequisite knowledge necessary for achieving the
units’ or year’s learning goals, your teaching will not be effective without filling in those gaps.
Alternatively, your students may have already mastered sections of the curriculum that you expect to
cover, and you should not spend time teaching what they already know. You need to reach all students
by beginning instruction at their current academic level. Otherwise, you risk frustrating, discouraging,
or boring them.

With these two aims in mind, administer diagnostic assessments to your students at the beginning of
the year. You should also diagnose your students’
knowledge and skills at the beginning of each unit
Be Aware of Adopting Others’ Assumptions About
Your Students so that you can more efficiently target their
In every case, your determination of a particular child’s strengths and weaknesses and thus push their
or group of children’s needs should come from a learning and thinking as far as possible.
legitimate diagnostic assessment, whether that takes
the form of informal questioning or a commercially The next section, “Designing Diagnostics,” addresses
scored standardized test. Unfortunately, it is all too the use of diagnostics to determine these strengths
easy to accept impressions of a child’s ability –whether and weaknesses, as well as individual students’
positive or negative – that come to you from other
learning characteristics, styles, and preferences.
sources. As a newcomer to your school community,
you can communicate to students that they have a fresh
Designing Diagnostics
opportunity to put their best feet forward, despite their
past performance or supposed reputation. Diagnostic assessments come in many shapes and
sizes. They can be as simple as a journal entry that
asks students to answer a particular question that
would reveal their general knowledge of a given topic. By providing the prompt, “Why do the seasons
change?” before a series of lessons on planetary rotation, you could uncover information about student
readiness and misconceptions; for example, you’ll see if students attribute seasons to some cyclical
pattern of the weather, if they believe the earth’s distance to the sun is a factor, or if they recognize that
planetary axis affects where the sun’s rays hit. Many diagnostics, however, will be necessarily more
complicated than a single question. In this section we discuss the different types of questions used on
diagnostic assessments, as well as how to design these questions so they reveal the necessary
information.

Types of Diagnostic Questions

In general, there are two types of diagnostic questions. One set assess “readiness” – students’
proficiency on the knowledge and skills prerequisite to learning grade-level material. A second set –
“pre-test” questions - assesses student mastery of the grade-level learning goals you plan to teach, as
well as student beliefs, interests, and prior exposure to this content.

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Measuring Progress Toward Your Goals

Student readiness
How do you design a diagnostic to determine if your students are ready to take on grade-level content?
Begin by studying the learning goals from your long-term plan. Think about the foundational knowledge and
skills your students need in order to engage with the goals in your plans. What knowledge or
understandings must come before your grade-level content? What should students have learned during the
last two years in order to be prepared for your class? If you
were teaching genetics, for instance, you could assess
At the beginning of the year, I was required to
student understanding of fractions and proportions to
administer a series of diagnostic tests to my
determine their readiness for understanding Punnett kindergarten students. At first I did not
squares. Similarly, before beginning a unit on analyzing understand why I was testing such young
poetry you would probably need to assess students’ students, nor did I understand what the results
knowledge of metaphors, allusions, and other literary of the tests meant. Well, I did some detective
devices. work and soon came to find out that a large
majority of my 18 kindergarten students were
These underlying prerequisites are not explicitly included in testing on a pre-K level or lower. They were
your standards, so you should look at the standards, already so far behind. That was my wake up
call and what charged me to work with more
assessments, or textbooks from one or more grade-levels
urgency than ever to ensure that they would
below your class. You may also look at some pre-existing leave performing at or above grade level.
diagnostics from your subject area as they can tell you what
other assessment writers think students should know before Mark Williams, New Jersey ’00
entering your class. Once you identify these foundational Vice President, Country Relations - USA
skills, use them as the centerpiece of your diagnostic. This Teach For All
will allow you to target your instruction on the prerequisites
your students need, a crucial component of effective teaching. Not only do foundational knowledge and skills
prepare students for achievement in your class, they also set up students for future success, both in school
and life.

Pre-test questions
Educational measurement expert Anthony Nitko recommends that teachers assess their students’
attitudes towards, knowledge of, beliefs about, and experience with a topic in order to make good
instructional choices. Teachers can add or subtract objectives from their curriculum based on these
diagnostics, as well as incorporate student interests and attitudes into specific lessons.

Below are some different categories of “pre-test” questions you can use to gauge students’ conceptual
knowledge of your subject, as well as their more visceral responses to the material. Incorporating
assessments that assess both categories can help the teacher shape instruction to serve students’ needs.

 Gauge students’ academic experience with the topic: “Have you ever studied genetics? When?
What stands out?” You may learn that some students reconstructed the double helix for last
year’s science fair, and you can use their model for your lesson on Watson, Crick and Franklin.

 Test students’ knowledge of the technical terms associated with the topic: “Describe each of
these in your own words—DNA, chromosomes, Punnett Square.” This type of question allows
you to gauge how much vocabulary work your students will need before beginning the more
substantive, conceptual learning.

30
  Determine students’ knowledge of an explanatory model: “Explain how genes determine what
we look like. Make a series of pictures if you wish.” By examining the way a student conceives of a
problem conceptually, you can begin to see which pieces of the puzzle you will need to fill in, if
any. The earlier example about seasons may reveal misconceptions that you will then know to
address.

 Distill students’ awareness of common knowledge associated with the topic: “Imagine you are a
doctor, and a couple asks you what you think their child would look like if they had a baby. What
sorts of questions would you ask them?” Students may not know the technical or conceptual
terms associated with a particular subject, but they may be familiar with the practical
applications of your lesson. Tapping into that awareness will allow you to later frame your
instruction with students’ prior knowledge in mind.

 Assess students’ attitude about a topic: “What do you like about studying science? What don’t
you like?” Every teacher wants to be prepared for their students’ initial reactions so they will
know how hard they will have to work to invest students in the subject.

Comprehensive diagnostics that assess students’ prior mastery of a whole grade level’s worth of
knowledge and skills may be the most difficult to design. For an example of a fourth grade math
diagnostic that one corps member created, see the Instructional Planning & Delivery Toolkit (p. 22:
“Math Diagnostic”), which can be found online at the Resource Exchange on TFANet. When creating
your diagnostic, think carefully about the information you need to gather from students. At minimum, you
should always administer a diagnostic that assesses student readiness at the beginning of the year.
During the year you may also find it useful to create diagnostics with some “pre-test” questions, while
continuing to diagnose students on prerequisite skills. Constantly reflect on what else you need to know
about students in order to better reach their current levels and meet their needs.

Crafting Valid Questions

In the previous section, “Summative Assessment,” we discussed in detail how to write effective
assessment items that are both valid and reliable. You should use the same guidelines in creating your
diagnostic. However, for your diagnostic to provide even greater detail about a student’s academic
readiness for specific skills, you should design your assessment to determine the particular aspects of
the task your students have already mastered as well as the elements of the task with which they still
struggle. To do this, you need to scaffold your questions to progress from more basic concepts to more
complex. Scaffolding your questions (as discussed earlier in this chapter) increases the validity of your
assessment and provides you with more nuanced information about your students’ readiness to learn
grade-level goals. Examine the sample kindergarten math assignment and math diagnostic that follows.
Notice how they scaffold questions from various tiers on the hierarchy of skills.

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Measuring Progress Toward Your Goals

Scaffolded Math Assessment- Kindergarten

Standard: Sort objects into groups by an attribute and begin to explain how the grouping was done.

Teacher Directions Student Results Student is able to…

Materials: 20-25 sort-able manipulatives, Three
bowls/cups
Show the student two identical manipulatives. Ask Student says match objects that are alike
the student, “Are these the same, or are they manipulatives are the
different?” SAME

Give the student six manipulatives, three each of two Student groups two sort two colors/shapes of
different shapes/colors. Provide two bowls/cups. Ask types of manipulatives objects into two groups
the student to put the things that are the same
together.

Give the student nine manipulatives, three each of Student groups three sort three colors/shapes of
three different shapes/colors. Provide three types of manipulatives objects into three groups
bowls/cups. Ask the student to put the things that are
the same color, shape, or size together.

Give the student a pile of manipulatives, in various Student groups three sort a mixed up quantity of
shapes/colors. Provide three bowls/cups. Ask the types of manipulatives objects into at least three
student to make three groups of things that are the independently groups of their own choice
same, however they want.

Using the groups the student just created, ask, “What Student tells how sort objects into groups by an
makes these the same- why are these together?” groups of manipulatives attribute (shape, color, size) of
are alike with their own choice, and tell the
description (blues, reds, teacher some reason why the
greens) objects in each group are alike

Using the groups the student just created, ask, “How Student tells how use the words “shape,”
did you sort these?” groups of manipulatives “color,” or “size” to identify
are alike with category how they sorted objects
(color, size)

Dump out the manipulatives that the student just Student re-groups sort a group of objects in at
sorted onto the table. Say, “Now mix up your objects three types of least two different ways upon
and sort them in a different way.” manipulatives, sorting prompting
by a different attribute.

By scaffolding questions these examples are able to pinpoint which objectives students have already
mastered and precisely where their understanding of the learning goal breaks down. In doing so, the
results can tell a teacher where exactly to begin instruction for a particular class. You should include
scaffolding in any assessment where the results will be used to adjust subsequent instruction. As
mentioned in the “Summative Assessment” section, this means that scaffolding should be used in
diagnostic and formative assessments, but not typically in summative assessments (where results may
not be used to re-teach content).

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 Sample Diagnostic
(a) 17 (b) 15 (c) 433 (d) 337 (e) 654 (f) 43 (g) 63 (h) 562 (i) 667
-12 - 13 -132 - 226 - 423 - 25 - 57 - 453 - 374
5 2 301 111 231 12 14 111 313

a. Analysis: Hierarchy of skills

Objectives Score
(1) Subtract two two-digit numbers. [Items (a) and (b).] 2 out of 2
(2) Subtract two three-digit numbers when borrowing is not needed. [Items (c), (d), and 3 out of 3
(e).]
(3) Subtract 2-digit numbers with borrowing from tens’ place. [Items (f) and (g).] 0 out of 2
(4) Subtract 3-digit numbers requiring borrowing from either tens’ or hundreds’ place. 0 out of 2
[Items (h) and (i).]

Evaluation and conclusion

By examining the results of the assessment, it is clear that the student has not mastered objectives 3 and 4.
This information would lead the teacher to review the concept of borrowing. It will not be necessary to go over
objectives 1 and 2.

In preparing to enter the classroom, many beginning teachers search for tools that they can use quickly
and immediately. However, by adopting a pre-made diagnostic without thinking about whether it “fits”
their students, new teachers fail to gather the information they need to effectively begin instruction.
The process of selecting appropriate diagnostic questions varies dramatically depending on your grade
level, content area, or school district. Different classes will require different types and levels of
evidence to serve your different students.

Selecting Diagnostics
To help you find the right tool, use the Student Achievement Toolkit, textbooks, school and district
requirements, and experienced teachers. You may find and use professionally prepared diagnostics,
but don’t fall into the trap of automatically using any tool without understanding its strengths and
weaknesses. As you choose or design a diagnostic, it is essential that you critically evaluate the
appropriateness of the tool for your class. To do so, consider the following: What information is my tool
providing (or not providing) and why is it important? How will I use the results to drive my instruction?
What supplements will I need to gather more detailed information about all of my students? The best
diagnostic assessments will provide increasingly detailed information about the prior knowledge and
skills of most, if not all, students. Reflect on your diagnostic tool to determine if it provides all the
essential information. You may find you need to alter, add, or remove questions to match your unit or
course goals. Or you may consider administering different diagnostics to students who are significantly
beyond (or behind) the academic level of the majority of the class. Strategically choose those questions
that provide the best information possible about your students’ prior knowledge and skills. Only by
tailoring the assessment to your particular circumstances will you be able to start instruction at the
right point for all your students.

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Measuring Progress Toward Your Goals

Since a diagnostic generally tests skills that students

Assessing your students is the most important may not have yet mastered, your students may feel
thing that you will do in the beginning of the understandably frustrated if they struggle with its
year. You need a baseline of what skills they
questions. Emphasize the purpose of the diagnostic to
have and what skills you need to teach. Use
your students in order to avoid making your students feel
your diagnostic to start your tracking RIGHT
AWAY. This way you can see concretely what inadequate while taking the test.
each student needs to succeed.
While not necessarily comprehensive, a diagnostic can
Abigail Rossetti, Las Vegas ‘04 provide a snapshot of what students do and do not know,
Senior Managing Director, Chicago Institute allowing teachers to schedule instruction accordingly. In
Teach For America Chapter Six, you will learn about the ways in which you
can effectively group students by ability level or interest,
a technique enabled by diagnosis. Further, in Chapter Four and in the “Recording Results Effectively”
section at the end of this course, you will see how some classrooms make charts or graphs of individual
students’ current performance levels on particular skills, regularly updating these records based on
incremental progress. This data-driven focus helps teachers stay accountable to the needs in their
classroom, and it helps students recognize their own growth.

Throughout this course, you will hear much more about assessment as it is such an integral part of the
learning process. But now that you know how to set the destination of student achievement (summative
assessment) and determine starting points (diagnosis), you are ready to chart the path in between those
two poles. As we discuss lesson planning in Chapter Five, keep an eye out for the third type of
assessment: formative assessments used during lessons and units, which allow us to ensure that our
entire team of climbers keeps up at all points along the journey.

Conclusion and Key Concepts

We began this chapter by noting that before we begin lesson planning, we must know where we are
headed by creating assessments.

 In order to close the achievement gap for our students, we must assess our students’ academic
progress. We need a baseline against which to compare future academic gains. We also must
evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of our students so that we can shape our teaching
accordingly. Most importantly, we must hold ourselves accountable to real, measurable
academic gains by our students.

 Diagnostic assessment tools reveal what your students know coming into a lesson, unit, or
course. Formative assessment tools monitor students’ understanding of the material during
your lessons and throughout the course of a unit. Summative assessment tools measure
students’ understanding of concepts that you have already taught, and occur at the end of a unit
or the end of the year. Summative assessments can be tests and quizzes, performance tasks,
portfolios or journals.

 When writing summative assessments as planning tools, be sure to determine the evidence you
need to see from students to judge their mastery and which methods or assessment types are
best for your content area and learning goals.

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 Your summative assessments must be valid, reliable, and efficient in order to serve as valuable
tools for determining whether you have met your instructional goals. This means testing exactly
(and only) what you say you will to test; crafting questions that test multiple ideas at once, while
not unintentionally revealing answers or allowing for unintended responses; grading and
administering tests fairly and consistently; being conscious of potential biases; and considering
the length of your test.

 When writing diagnostics, you should scaffold questions, starting from the most basic parts of a
learning goal to the most complex, to gather detailed information about the extent of your
students’ understanding. Include questions that assess student readiness for grade-level content
and pre-test items that reveal your students’ prior mastery of, experience with, and interest
towards a particular set of learning goals – information that is vital for creating your unit, long-
term, and lesson plans. Think critically about what information you need and what your
diagnostic will actually reveal, and adjust it accordingly.

You should now grasp that the true function of assessment is not only to provide an objective measure of
student achievement but also to set high, targeted expectations for students based on standards, to
identify concepts and skills in need of reinforcement, and to motivate students to perform at higher and
higher levels. The periodic and quantitative measurement of student progress allows you to measure,
pace, and motivate yourself and your students in the steady march from “point A” to “point B.”

Once you determine what your students already know through diagnostics, as well as how students are
going to demonstrate their new knowledge and skills, you need to develop a pathway for moving them
forward. That’s what long-term, unit, and lesson planning are for.

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