Learning

theory
learning is commonly defined as a process
that brings together cognitive, emotional, and
environmental influences and experiences for
acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in one's
knowledge, skills, values, and world views (Illeris,
2000; Ormorod, 1995). Learning as a process
focuses on what happens when the learning
takes place. Explanations of what happens
constitute learning theories. A learning
theory is an attempt to describe how people and animals learn, thereby
helping us understand the inherently complex process of learning. Learning
theories have two chief values according to Hill (2002). One is in providing
us with vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting the
examples of learning that we observe. The other is in suggesting where to
look for solutions to practical problems. The
theories do not give us solutions, but they do
direct our attention to those variables that
are crucial in finding solutions.

There are three main categories or

philosophical frameworks under which
learning theories fall: behaviorism,
cognitivism, and constructivism.
Behaviorism focuses only on the
objectively observable aspects of learning.
Cognitive theories look beyond behavior
to explain brain-based learning. And
constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner
actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts.

Behaviorism as a theory was primarily developed by B. F. Skinner. It

loosely encompasses the work of people like Edward Thorndike, Tolman,
Guthrie, and Hull. What characterizes these investigators are their
underlying assumptions about the process of learning. In essence, three
basic assumptions are held to be true First, learning is manifested by a
change in behavior. Second, the environment shapes behavior. And third,
the principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond
to be formed) and reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that
an event will be repeated) are central to explaining the learning process. For
behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of new behavior through
conditioning.

There are two types of possible conditioning

1) Classical conditioning where the behavior becomes a reflex response to
stimulus as in the case of Pavlov's Dogs. Pavlov was interested in studying reflexes,
when he saw that the dogs drooled without the proper stimulus. Although no food
was in sight, their saliva still dribbled. It turned out that the dogs were reacting to
lab coats. Every time the dogs were served food, the person who served the food
was wearing a lab coat. Therefore, the dogs reacted as if food was on its way
whenever they saw a lab coat.In a series of experiments, Pavlov then tried to figure
out how these phenomena were linked. For
example, he struck a bell when the dogs
were fed. If the bell was sounded in close
association with their meal, the dogs
learned to associate the sound of the bell
with food. After a while, at the mere sound
of the bell, they responded by drooling.

2) Operant conditioning where there is

reinforcement of the behavior by a reward
or a punishment. The theory of operant
conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner
and is known as Radical Behaviorism. The
word ‘operant’ refers to the way in which
behavior ‘operates on the environment’.
Briefly, a behavior may result either in
reinforcement, which increases the
likelihood of the behavior recurring, or
punishment, which decreases the
likelihood of the behavior recurring. It is
important to note that, a punishment is not considered to be applicable if it does not
result in the reduction of the behavior, and so the terms punishment and
reinforcement are determined as a result of the actions. Within this framework,
behaviorists are particularly interested in measurable changes in behavior.

Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis, curriculum based

measurement, and direct instruction have emerged from this model.

The earliest challenge to the behaviorists came in a publication

in 1929 by Bode, a gestalt psychologist. He criticized behaviorists
for being too dependent on overt behavior to explain learning.
Gestalt psychologists proposed looking at the patterns rather than
isolated events. Gestalt views of learning have been incorporated
into what have come to be labeled cognitive theories.

Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive

approach
 (1) that the memory system is an active organized
processor of information, (2) that prior knowledge plays an
important role in learning.

Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based

learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory works to
promote learning. For example, the physiological processes of
sorting and encoding information and events into short term
memory and long term memory are important to educators working
under the cognitive theory. The major difference between
gestaltists and behaviorists is the locus of control over the learning
activity: the individual learner is more key to gestaltists than the
environment that behaviorists emphasize.
Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and
Baddeley's working memory model were established as a theoretical
framework in cognitive psychology, new cognitive frameworks of
learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today,
researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load and
information processing theory. These theories of learning play a
role in influencing instructional design .Aspects of cognitivism can
be found in learning how to learn, social role acquisition,
intelligence, learning, and memory as related to age.

Constructivism views learning as a process in which

the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon
current and past knowledge or experience. In other words, "learning involves
constructing one's own knowledge from one's own experiences."
Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby
internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be
applied in a practical real-world context.
 This is also known associal constructivism social
constructivists posit that knowledge is constructed when individuals engage
socially in talk and activity about shared problems or tasks. Learning is seen
as the process by which individuals are introduced to a culture by more
skilled members"(Driver et al., 1994) Constructivism itself has many
variations, such as Active learning, discovery learning, and
knowledge building. Regardless of the variety, constructivism
promotes a student's free exploration within a given framework or structure.
The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover
principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve
realistic problems. Aspects of constructivism can be found in self-directed
learning, transformational learning, experiential learning, situated cognition,
and reflective practice and religious practice.