CHAPTER 4:

POLYNOMIALS
4. 1 Polynomials

4. 2 Remainder Theorem, Factor Theorem

and Zeros of Polynomial
 LECTURE 1
4. 1 POLYNOMIALS
Learning
outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, students should be
able:
(a) To define polynomials, and state the
degree of a polynomial and the
leading coefficient.
(b) To recognize monomials, binomials
and trinomials.
(c) To perform addition, subtraction and
multiplication of polynomials.

(d) To perform division of polynomials

and write the answer in the form
P(x)=Q(x)D(x)+R(x), where the
divisor can be linear or quadratic.
 Introduction
Basic
functions:
f ( x)  b (Constant function)
f ( x)  ax  b, a  0 (Linear function)
f ( x)  ax  bx  c, a  0 (Quadratic function)
2

f ( x)  ax  bx  cx  d , a  0, (Cubic function)
3 2

All these functions are special cases of

the general class of functions called
Polynomial
Functions
Definition
A polynomial P(x) of degree n is
defined asn n 1
P( x)  an x  an1 x  ...  a1 x  a0 ; an  0
where nZ 

and a0 , a1 , a2 ,...an are

called the coefficient of the

polynomial.
 Note that:

(i) The coefficient of the highest power

of x, an , is the leading coefficient .

(ii) The constant term is a0 .

(iii)The degree of the polynomial is
determined by the highest power of
x.
Examples of polynomial
functions:
Polynomials Deg. Name
Leading Const.
coefft. term
P( x)  7 0 const. 0 −
P( x )  5 x  6 1 linear 5 7
−
P( x)  7 x  x 2 quadratic 7
2 6
0
P( x)  2 x  7 x
3 2
3 cubic 2 3
 x3
P( x )  x  5 x  5 4
4
quartic 1 5
Examples of non-polynomial
expressions:
1
5
x  4 x,
3
 3x ,
1
x  3x  3
2

x
contains
x  x 3
1 3

non-
positive
power of
x.
 Monomials, Binomials And
Trinomials
Polynomials with one, two and three
terms are called monomials,
binomials and trinomials,
respectively.
Example
Name Example
3
Monomial x
Binomial 3 x 3
 2 x
Trinomial 7 x 3
 2 x 2
 1
 Algebraic Operations

+ ÷
− ×

Laws of
Numbers

commutative associative distributive

 Addition and subtraction
The addition and subtraction of the
polynomial
P(x) an Q(x)
d
can be performed by collecting like
terms. (similar
terms)
 Example

Given P( x)  2 x  5 x  4 and
4 3

Q( x)  x  x  3x  4 x.
4 3 2

Determine
(a) P(x) + Q(x)
(b) P(x) − Q(x)
Answer
Q( x)  x  x  3x  4 x
4 3 2
Solution

(a) P( x)  Q( x)
 ( 2 x  5 x  4 )  (x  x  3x  4 x)
4 3 4 3 2

 3x  4 x  3x  4 x  4
4 3 2

( b) P ( x )  Q ( x )
 (2 x  5x  4)  ( x  x  3x  4 x)
4 3 4 3 2

 x  6 x  3x  4 x  4
4 3 2
 Multiplication

Every term in one polynomial is

multiplied by each term in the other
polynomial.
Example

Given P( x)  x  x  1
2
and
Q( x )  2 x  x  1 .
3 2

Determine
(a) 4Q(x)

(b) P(x)Q(x)
Answer
Solution

(a ) 4Q( x)  4(2 x  x  1)
3 2

 8x  4 x  4
3 2

(b) P( x)Q( x)  ( x  x  1)(2 x  x  1)

2 3 2

 2 x  3x  x  2 x  x  1
5 4 3 2
Note that:

If P(x) is a
polynomial of
degree m
and
Q(x) is a
polynomial of
degree n,
Then
product P(x)Q(x) is
a polynomial of
degree (m + n)
 Division
The division of the polynomial can be
expressed in the form
P( x)  D( x)Q( x)  R( x)
where
D(x) Divisor Q(x) Quotient
R(x) Remainde
r
Long Division
Remainder

35 1
 17  17
2 2 2 35
34
Quotient Divisor 1

Hence 35  (17)( 2)  1
,
Example

Divide 2 x 2  3x  6 by x 1

Answer
Solution 2x 1
x  1 2 x  3x  6
2

2x  2x
2

x6
x 1
7
2 x  3x  6
2
7
 2x  1 
x 1 x 1
2 x  3x  6  (2 x  1)( x  1)  7
2
Example

Determine 3x  4 x  x  7
3 2

3x  4
by using long division.

Answer
 2
x  1/ 3
Solution 3 2
3x  4 3x  4 x  x  7
3x3  4 x 2
x7
x4/ 3
 2 x  25 / 3
3x3  4 x 2  x  7 2 25 / 3  2 x
 ( x  1 / 3) 
3x  4 3x  4
3x3  4 x 2  x  7  ( x 2  1/3)(3 x  4)  (25/3  2 x)
Example

Divide 7  6 x 2  2 x 4 by x 5
2

Answer
Solution 2 x 2  16
x2  5 2x4  6x2  7
2 x 4  10 x 2
 16 x 2  7
 16 x 2  80
87

2x4  6x2  7 87
 (2 x  16)  2
2

x 5
2
x 5
2 x 4  6 x 2  7  (2 x 2  16)( x 2  5)  87
Example

Determine x  x  x  6
4 3

( x  1)( x  3)

Answer
 2
x  3x  9
Solution x 2  4 x  3 x 4  x 3  0 x 2  x  6
4 3 2
x  4 x  3x
3 2
 3x  3x  x  6
3 2
 3 x  12 x  9 x
2
9 x  10 x  6
2
-) 9 x  36 x  27
 26 x  21
x 4  x 3  x  6  ( x 2  3x  9)( x  1)( x  3)  (26 x  21)
 LECTURE 2

4.2 REMAINDER THEOREM

Learning outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, students should
be able to:

use the remainder and factor

theorems.
Definition The Remainder Theorem

When a polynomial P(x) is divided

by a linear factor x-a, then the
remainder is P(a)
 Proof
Let P(x) be a polynomial of degree n
where n ≥ 2, Then
from
P(x) = Q(x) (x - a) +R polynomial
division
When x = a,
P(a) = Q(a) (a-a) +R

Since (a-a) =0, then the remainder R =

P(a)
 Note

b
b a
a

If P(x) is divided by x+a = x-(-a),

then R = P(-a)

If P(x) is divided by ax-b = a (x -

b) ,
a
then R = P( b)
a
Example
Find the remainder when
P(x) = x4 + x3 -2x2 + 4x - 5 is divided by:

(a) x+3 (b) x-3 (c) 3x-1

 Solution

(a) R=P (-3) =(-3)4+(-3)3 -2(-3)2+4(-3)-5 =19

(b) R= P(3) = (3)4 +(3)3 -2(3)2 +4(3)-5 =97

(c) R=P
   
1
3
= 1
3
4+ 1
3
3 -2 1
3
2+4 1
3
-5 = -
311
81
 Example

When x  kx  5 x  6 x  8
4 3 2
is divided by
(x + 2) the remainder is 16. Determine k.
Solution

Let P ( x )  x  kx  5 x  6 x  8
4 3 2

Given that P ( 2)  16

( 2)  k ( 2)  5( 2)  6( 2)  8  16
4 3 2

 8k  24
k  3
Example

The polynomial ax4-5x3 +bx2-7x+1 left a

remainder of -8 when it is divided by (x-1)
and a remainder of 11/2 when divided by
(2x+1) ,determine the values of a and b.
Solution P ( x )  ax  5 x  bx  7 x  1
4 3 2

P(1)  8
a  5  b  7  1  8
ab 3 (i)
 1  11
Also, P   
 2 2
4 3 2
 1  1  1  1 11
a    5    b    7    1 
 2  2  2  2 2
a  4b  6 (ii)
(ii) –(i) : 3b  3
b 1
substitute b  1 into (i)
a 1  3
a2
 Example

Determine the remainder when P( x)  3x  5 x  x  6

4 3

is divided by
x  1.
2
Solution
Let P ( x )  3 x  5 x  x  6
4 3
and
D ( x )  x 2  1  ( x  1)( x  1)
Since the divisor is a quadratic, x 1
2

Then the remainder is a linear, R ( x )  ax  b

P (1)  3(1)  5(1)  (1)  6  a (1)  b

4 3

a  b  15 (i)
And
P ( 1)  3( 1)  5( 1)  ( 1)  6  a ( 1)  b
4 3

ab 3 (ii)
(i) –(ii) : 2a  12
a  6
substitute a  6 into (i)
6  b  15
b  9
Hence, the remainder is R ( x )  6 x  9
 Example

When the polynomial P(x) is divided by (x2-1)

its remainder is (ax+b), where a and b are
constants. Given that (x+1) is a factor of P(x)
and that the remainder is 4 where P(x) is
divided by (x-1), find the value of a and b.
Solution

P(-1) =0 and P(1) = 4

Since the divisor is x2 -1
Then, the remainder is R(x) = ax+b from the
remainder theorem
R(-1) = P(-1) and R(1) = P(1)
R(-1) = a(-1) +b
-a + b = 0 (i)
 R(1) = a(1) +b
a+b=4 (ii)
Solving equation (i) and (ii) we get
2b = 4
b=2
substitute b = 2 into (ii)
a=4-2
a=2
Hence, the remainder is R(x) = 2x + 2
= 2(x + 1)
Example

Given that P ( x )  2 x  ax  6 x  1
3 2
. When
P(x) is divided by x  2, the remainder is
twice of the remainder when P(x) is divided
by x  1 . Find a.
Solution
Example

When x  4 x  px  qx  5
4 3 2
is divided by x 1
2

the remainder is 2x  3 .Find the values of

p and q.
Solution
P(x) = Q(x)D(x) + R(x)
x  4 x  px  qx  5  Q ( x )( x  1)  2 x  3
4 3 2 2

Substituting x = 1;
(1)  4 (1)  p (1)  q (1)  5  2 (1)  3
4 3 2

p + q = -5 (i)
Substituting x = -1;
( 1)  4 ( 1)  p ( 1)  q ( 1)  5  2  3
4 3 2

p – q = -1 (ii)
(i) + (ii) :
2p = − 6
 p  3
Substituting p = − 3 into (1)
-3 + q = −5
 q  2
 LECTURE 3

4.3 THE FACTOR THEOREM

 Learning outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, students

should be able to:

state and use the factor theorem

identify the value of a such that (x - a) is

a factor of P(x) and factorize P(x)
completely.
 DEFINITION

If the remainder obtained from dividing

the polynomial P(x) by (x-a) is zero,
then the linear term (x-a) is called a
factor of the polynomial P(x).

If P(a) = 0 then (x – a) is a factor of

P(x)
1.Conversely, if (x – a) is a
factor of P(x) then P(a) = 0

2. In general, if (ax + b) is a
b
factor of P(x), then (- ) = 0
a
Example

Determine whether the following linear

functions are factors of the given
polynomials:

(a) P(x) = 3 – 7x + 5x2- x3 ; (x – 3)

(b) P(x) = 2x3+ 3x2- 8x + 3 ; (2x – 1)
(c) P(x) = x4- 2x3+ 3x – 6 ;(x + 1)
Solution

(a) Let P(x) = 3 – 7x + 5x2 - x3

P(3) = 3 – 7(3) + 5(3)2 - (3)3

= 540  0

Since P(3)  0, then (x – 3) is not a factor

of P(x).
Solution

(b) Let P(x) = 2x3+ 3x2- 8x + 3

1 1 1 1
P( 2 ) = 2( 2 ) + 3( 2 ) - 8( ) + 3
3 2
2
=0

1
Since P( ) = 0, then (2x - 1) is a factor of
2
P(x).
Solution

(c) Let P(x) = x4- 2x3+ 3x – 6

P(-1) = (-1)4- 2(-1)3+ 3(-1) – 6
= -6 0
Since P(-1)  0, then (x + 1) is not a factor
of P(x).
Example

If (2x + 1) is a factor of polynomial

P(x) =2x3 + px2- 5, find the value of p.
Solution

Let P(x) = 2x3 + px2 - 5

Since (2x + 1) is a factor of P(x),
1
1 1
Then P(- 2 ) = 2(- )3 + p(- )2 - 5 = 0
2 2

1 1
- + p–5 =0
4 4

p = 21
 Example

Given that (x – 2) and (x + 1) are both factors

of the polynomial P(x) = 2x3 + ax2+ bx – 5.
Find the values of the constant a and b.
Solution

Since (x – 2) and (x + 1) are factors of

P(x), we have P(2) = 0 and P(-1) = 0.

P(2) = 2(2)3 + a(2)2+ b(2) – 5 = 0

16 + 4a +2b - 5 = 0
4a +2b = 0……….(1)
P(-1) = 2(-1)3 + a(-1)2+ b(-1) – 5 = 0
-2 + a – b – 5 = 0
a – b = 7……(2)

Solve equations (1) and (2), we obtain:

1 13
a= , b=-
2 2
 Example

Given that (x + 2) is a factor of

2x3 + x2+ kx – 4. Find the constant k. Hence
factorize the expression completely.
Solution
Let P(x) = 2x3 + x2 + kx – 4
Since (x+2) is a factor of P(x), then P(-2)
=0.
P(-2) = 2(-2)3 + (-2)2+ k(-2) – 4 = 0
-16 + 4 – 2k – 4 = 0
2k = -16
k = -8

Therefore P(x) = 2x3 + x2 - 8x – 4.

 3 2
Since (x + 2) is a factor of P(x), 2x + x - 8x - 4
by long division, determine x2
2 x 2 - 3x - 2
x  2 2x  x - 8x - 4
3 2

2 x3  4 x2
 3x 2  8x
 ( 3 x 2  6 x )
 2x  4
 ( 2 x  4)
...

P(x) = Q(x) D(x) + R(x)
= (2x2 - 3x – 2)(x + 2)
= (2x + 1)(x - 2)(x + 2)

Alternative method:
P(x) = 2x3 + x2 - 8x – 4
= (x + 2)(ax2 + bx + c)
 Comparing the coefficient:
x3 : a = 2
x2 : 2a + b = 1
2(2) + b = 1
b = -3

constant : 2c = -4
c = -2

 P(x) = (x + 2)(2x - 3x – 2)
2

= (x + 2)(2x + 1)(x – 2)
 Example

Given that the expression 3x3 + ax2 + bx -12

is exactly divisible by x2 + 2x -3.

(a) Determine the values of a and b.

(b) Factorize the expression completely.
Solution
P( x)  3x  ax  bx  12
3 2

and D( x)  x  2 x  3  ( x  1)( x  3)
(a) Let 2

So P(1) = 0 and P(-3) = 0

P(1) = 3(1)3 + a(1)2 + b(1) –12 = 0

a + b = 9………(1)
P(3) = 3(3)3 + a(3)2 + b(3) –12 = 0
3a – b = 31………(2)
Solve equations (1) and (2), we obtain

a = 10, b = 1
(b) P( x)  3x  10 x  x  12
3 2

 ( x  2 x  3) ( Ax  B)
2

By inspection,
A3
B4
Hence, P( x)  ( x  2 x  3) (3 x  4)
2

 ( x  3)( x 1)(3 x  4)
Example

The polynomial 2x3 + ax2 + bx + 8 has a

factor (x-1) and gives a remainder of 50
when divided by (x-3). Determine a and b.
Solution
P( x)  2 x  ax  bx  8
3 2

Let
P(1)  0 and P(3) = 50

P(1) = 2(1)3 + a(1)2 + b(1) + 8 = 0

a + b = 10 …………..(1)
P(3) = 2(3)3 + a(3)2 + b(3) + 8 = 50
9a + 3b = 12 …………...(2)
Solve equations (1) and (2), we obtain
a = 3, b = 13
Example

The expression px3 + x2+ qx + 12 has a

factor (x + 3), and leaves a remainder of 4
when divided by (x – 1). Find the values of
the constants p and q.
 Solution

Let P(x) = px3 + x2 + qx + 12

P(-3) = 0 and P(1) = 4

P(-3) = p(-3)3 + (-3)2+ q(-3) + 12 = 0

-27p +9 -3q + 12 = 0
-27p - 3q = -21
9p + q = 7……….(1)
P(1) = p(1)3 + (1)2+ q(1) + 12 = 4
p + 1 + q + 12 = 4
p+q=-
9…………(2)

Solve equations (1) and (2), we obtain

p = 2 , q = -11
 LECTURE 4

4.4 ROOTS AND ZEROS OF

POLYNOMIAL
Learning outcomes:
At the end of the lesson, students
should be able to :

find the roots and the zeros of a

polynomial

determine the complex zeros of a

polynomial up to three degree
DEFINITION

A zero of a polynomial P(x) is a

number a such that P(a) = 0

x = a is called a root of the polynomial

equation P(x) = 0
In general, if x  a is a root of a
polynomial equation P ( x)  0 then ( x  a )
is a factor of P ( x).

Every polynomial equation of degree n

has exactly n roots. Some of these roots
may be repeated.
Example

Show that - 4 is a zero of 6x3 + 23x2 – 5x - 4

Solution

Let P(x) = 6x3 + 23x2 – 5x – 4

P(-4) = 6(-4)3 + 23(-4)2 -5(-4) - 4

=0

Since P(-4) = 0 then - 4 is a zero of

P(x)
Example

Factorize P(x) = 2x3 – 9x2 +3x + 4 and

write all the zeros.
 Solution

Substitute the factors of the constant term

Such as  1, 2, ....... to get first factor.

P (1)  2(1)  9(1)  3(1)  4

3 2

0

 ( x  1)is one of the factor

By Using long division,
2x2  7 x  4
x  1 2 x3  9 x 2  3 x  4
2 x3  2 x 2
 7 x 2  3x
( )  7 x 2  7 x
 4x  4
( )  4 x  4
...
2 x  9 x  3x  4  ( x  1)( 2 x  7 x  4)
3 2 2

 ( x  1)( 2 x  1)( x  4)

1
The zeros are 1, 
2
and
4
 Example

Factorize P(x) = 6x3 + 13x2 – 4 and write

its zeros.
 Solution

Substitute the factors of the constant term

Such as  1,  2,  3….. until P ( x )  0.
P(1)  6(1)  13(1)  4  15  0
3 2

We have P(1)  6(1)  13(1)  4  3  0

3 2

P(2)  6(2)  13(2)  4  96  0

3 2

P(2)  6(2)  13(2)  4  0

3 2
Therefore (x+2) is a factor of P(x) .
Hence P(x) can be rewritten as :

P( x)  6 x  13x  4  ( x  2)Q( x)
3 2

The quotient Q(x) is a quadratic expression

in the form Ax2 + Bx + C which can be
determined by long division, comparing
coefficients or inspection.
By comparing coefficients :

x 3
: A6
x 2
: B  2 A  13  B  1
constant :
The result is
2C   4  C  2

P ( x)  ( x  2)(6 x 2  x  2)
= ( x  2)(2 x  1)(3 x  2)
2 1
 the zeroes are  2, and
3 2
Example

Find the roots for the equation

x3 + 3x2 + x – 1 = 0
 Solution
P( x)  x  3x  x  1
3 2

Let P(1)  (1)  3(1)  (1)  1

3 2

0
P(1)  (1)  3(1)  (1)  1
3 2

0
 ( x  1) is one of the factor.
 x 2  2 x 1
x  1 x3  3 x 2  x  1
By using long division,
x3  x 2
2x2  x
( ) 2 x 2  2 x
 x 1
( )  x  1
...
 P( x)  0 cannot be
factorised
( x  1)( x  2 x  1)  0
2

( x  1)  0
or x  2x  1  0
2

x  1  2  4  4(1)( 1)
x
2
2 8

2
 1 2
 The roots are
x  1, x  1  2
Example

Determine all the roots of

x  x  7x  x  6  0
4 3 2
 Solution
P( x)  x  x  7 x  x  6  0.
4 3 2

By inspection

P(1)  (1)  (1)  7(1)  (1)  6  0

4 3 2

P(1)  (1) 4  (1) 3  7(1) 2  (1)  6  0

 ( x  1) and ( x  1) are factors of P(x)
So P( x)  ( x  1)( x  1)( Ax  Bx  C )
2

 ( x  1)( Ax  Bx  C )
2 2
x  x  7 x  x  6  Ax  Bx  (C  A) x  Bx  C
4 3 2 4 3 2

By comparing the coefficient :

A = 1 , B = 1 , C = -6

Thus P( x)  ( x  1)( x  1)( x  x  6)

2

 ( x  1)( x  1)( x  3)( x  2)

If P ( x)  0,
then ( x  1)( x  1)( x  3)( x  2)  0
 the roots are x  3, x  1 and x  2
 Note:
When attempting to factorize
a polynomial of degree 4, it
is necessary to find two
linear factors using the
factor theorem.
 Complex Zeros of a Polynomial

If a  bi is a zero of P ( x) , then its

conjugate a  bi is also a zero of P ( x)
Thus complex zeros of a polynomial with
real coefficients occur in conjugate pairs.
Example

Given one of the zeros of 2 x 3  5 x 2  2 x  15

is 2  i , find the other zeros

 Solution

Let P ( x)  2 x  5 x  2 x  15 2i
3 2
.Given
is a zero;
Hence 2i is also a zero for P(x)

A quadratic expression can be made from
complex roots given
x 
2
(sum of roots)+(product of roots)

x  [( 2  i )  (2  i )] x  [( 2  i )( 2  i )]
2

x 2
 [ 4] x  ( 4  i ) 2

x 2
 4 x  ( 4  1)
x 2
 4x  5
 By using long division ,

2x  3
x 2  4 x  5 2 x3  5 x 2  2 x  15
2 x3  8 x 2  10 x
 3x 2  12 x  15
() 3x 2 12 x  15
...
 2 x  5 x  2 x  15  (2 x  3)( x  4 x  5)
3 2 2

 The zeros are 2  i,2  i, 3

2
Example

Given one of the zeros of x x 2

3 2

is 1  i , find the other zeros

 Solution

P( x)  x  x  2
3 2
Let .Given 1 i is a
zero;
Hence 1  i is also a zero for P(x)

A quadratic expression can be made from

complex roots given
x 
2
(sum of roots)+(product of roots)

x  [(1  i )  (1  i )] x  [(1  i )(1  i )]

2

x  [ 2] x  (1  i )
2 2

x  2 x  (1  1)
2

x  2x  2
2
 By using long division ,

x 1
x 2  2 x  2 x3  x 2  0 x  2
x3  2 x 2  2 x


x2  2x  2
( ) x 2  2 x  2
...

 x  x  2  ( x  1)( x  2 x  2)
3 2 2

 The zeros are 1  i,1  i,1

Example

Solve
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 9 ________ 1
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧=5 ________ 2
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 16 ________ 3
Solution
1 − 2 From eq 4
2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4 ________ 4 2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4
𝑦 = 4−2 1
3× 2 𝑦=2
3𝑥 + 3𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 15 ________ 5
2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 3𝑧 = 16 ________ 3 From eq 2
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 = 5
5 − 3 1 + 2 +𝑧=5
𝑥 − 𝑦 = −1 ________ 6 𝑧=2
2𝑥 + 𝑦 = 4 ________ 4

6 + 4
3𝑥 = 3
𝑥=1
Example
Solve ________ 1
3𝑎 + 𝑏 + 2𝑐 + 𝑑 = 18 ________ 2
𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑 = 13
𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 + 𝑑 = 10 ________ 3
2𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 4𝑐 + 𝑑 = 30 ________ 4
Solution
1 − 2
From eq 10
2𝑎 − 𝑏 + 𝑐 = 5 ________ 5 9 + 10
5𝑎 = 10 8 2 + 4𝑐 = 32
𝑎=2 𝑐=4
1 − 3
2𝑎 + 𝑐 = 8 ________ 6

1 − 4 From eq 7
𝑎 − 2𝑏 − 2𝑐 = −12 ________ 7 2 − 2𝑏 − 2 4 = −12
𝑏=3
2× 5
4𝑎 − 2𝑏 + 2𝑐 = 10 ________ 8 From eq 3
2 + 3 + 4 + 𝑑 = 10
7 − 8 𝑑=1
3𝑎 − 4𝑐 = −22 ________ 9
4× 6
8𝑎 + 4𝑐 = 32 ________ 10