Direct Digital Synthesis

Primer
Ken Gentile, Systems Engineer
ken.gentile@analog.com
David Brandon, Applications Engineer
David.Brandon@analog.com
Ted Harris, Applications Engineer
Ted.Harris@analog.com
May 2003
Contents

I. Introduction to DDS
II. Fundamental DDS Architecture
III. Spectral Characteristics
IV. DDS as a Building Block

DDS Primer - May 2002 2

Introduction to DDS

Definition of DDS:
„ A digital technique for generating a sine
wave from a fixed-frequency clock source.

DDS Primer - May 2002 3

Introduction to DDS

DDS “advantages”:
„ The sine wave FREQUENCY is digitally
tunable (typically with sub-Hertz resolution).
„ The sine wave PHASE is digitally adjustable,
as well, with only a slight increase in circuit
complexity.
„ Since DDS is digital and the frequency &
phase are determined numerically, there are
NO ERRORS from drift due to temperature
or aging of components.

DDS Primer - May 2002 4

Introduction to DDS

DDS “restrictions”:
„ The output FREQUENCY must be less than
or equal to 1/2 the clock source frequency.
„ The sine wave AMPLITUDE is fixed. This
can be modified by additional circuitry.
„ Since the sine wave is digitally generated by
using sampling techniques, the user must
be willing to accept a certain amount of
DISTORTION. That is, the sine wave is not
spectrally “pure”.

DDS Primer - May 2002 5

Fundamental DDS Architecture

Basic DDS building blocks:

„ Accumulator
† a digital block consisting of an adder with
feedback
„ Phase-to-Amplitude converter
† a digital block that converts digital phase values to
digital amplitude values
„ DAC (Digital-to-Analog Converter)
† a digital/analog hybrid that converts digital
“numbers” to a scaled analog quantity (voltage or
current)
† Converts the sampled sine wave generated by the
digital blocks to a continuous (analog) signal.
DDS Primer - May 2002 6
 Fundamental DDS Architecture

A Basic DDS

Accum ulator
Angle
Tuning N-bits P-bits D-bits Sam pled
to
W ord DAC Sine
Am plitude
IN W ave
Converter
N-bits

CLOCK

DDS Primer - May 2002 7

 Fundamental DDS Architecture

Sine Wave Synthesis

Accumulator
Angle
Tuning Sampled
N-bits P-bits to D-bits
Word Amplitude
DAC Sine
IN Wave
Converter
N-bits

- Amplitude +
2N 2P
Phase

Phase

0 0
Phase Truncated Phase Angle to Amplitude Quantized Amplitude Sampled Sine Wave
Transformation

DDS Primer - May 2002 8

 Fundamental DDS Architecture

The “Phase Wheel” Concept: 8

+1

„ C = 32
5

4 Instantaneous value of
the accumulator output.
•Accumulator capacity 3

2T T 2

„T = 5 7T

A M P L I T U D E
1
•Tuning word value P H A S E
0
3T 0

„N = 5
16 32 = 2N = C

6T 31
•Accumulator bits
4T
5T

For this particular case, one

revolution around the phase -1
wheel requires 6.4 clock cycles 24

(C/T=6.4).
DDS Primer - May 2002 9
Fundamental DDS Architecture

Determining the output frequency (Fo) of a DDS

„ Fo depends on 3 parameters:
† Fs -- the DDS clock frequency
† C -- the accumulator capacity
• where C = 2N
† T -- the tuning word value
• where 0 < T < C/2

„ Definition of frequency:

„ f = δΦ/δt (i.e., the derivative of phase w.r.t. time)

DDS Primer - May 2002 10

 Fundamental DDS Architecture

DDS output frequency (cont’d)

„ δt is the duration of a DDS time step, namely 1/Fs.
† δt = 1/Fs
„ δΦ is the phase angle change in time interval, δt.
† Note that the tuning word is the amount by which
the accumulator increments on each DDS time
step (δt).
† Therefore, δΦ is the ratio of the tuning word to the
capacity of the accumulator (T/C).
† Since C=2N, we have:
† δΦ = T/ 2N

DDS Primer - May 2002 11

 Fundamental DDS Architecture

DDS output frequency (cont’d)

„ Combining these results gives the frequency (Fo) of

the output sine wave as:

Fo = FsT / 2N

DDS Primer - May 2002 12

 Fundamental DDS Architecture

How Many Phase Bits?

Accumulator
Angle
Tuning Sampled
N-bits P-bits to D-bits
Word Amplitude
DAC Sine
IN Wave
Converter
N-bits

CLOCK

The AAC must generate amplitude values that are

accurate to 1/2 LSB of the DAC. To accomplish this,

P requires at least 4 more bits than the DAC

DDS Primer - May 2002 13

Fundamental DDS Architecture

Amplitude
sin(θ)

1/2 LSB = 2-(D+1)

θ

0 2π

DDS Primer - May 2002 14

 Spectral Characteristics

„ DDS is a “sampled data system”

„ Sampled nature of DAC output produces
replicated spectra (“images”) of the output
frequency.
„ Zero-order-hold characteristic of the DAC
causes the spectrum to be attenuated
according to the SIN(x)/x (or SINC) envelope.

DDS Primer - May 2002 15

Spectral Characteristics

Spectral Consequences of Sampling

M agnitude

B a seb an d
S p ectrum

C ontinuous S pectrum

f
0 F m ax

M agnitude
S am pled S pectrum (Ideal)
B a seb an d
im age im ag e im ag e
S p ectru m

f
0 Fs 2F s 3F s
F m ax
N yquist (F s /2 > F m ax )

DDS Primer - May 2002 16

 Spectral Characteristics

„ “Ideal” sampled spectrum occurs when the

sample pulses are infinitely narrow.
• That is, in the time domain the width of the sample
pulses (Ts) approaches 0.

„ If the sample pulses have finite width (Ts > 0),

then SIN(x)/x (or SINC) distortion occurs.
„ In the frequency domain, the SINC
“envelope” is characterized by lobes with
null points at frequencies that are multiples
of 1/Ts.

DDS Primer - May 2002 17

 Spectral Characteristics

SINC Envelope
sin(x)/x

Magnitude

SINC Envelope

f
0 1/Ts 2/Ts 3/Ts 4/Ts

DDS Primer - May 2002 18

Spectral Characteristics

„ In a DDS system, the DAC is clocked at the

same rate as the accumulator.
„ This is the DDS sample rate, Fs.
„ Thus, the minimum width of a sample pulse
produced by the DAC is 1/Fs, which is Ts.
„ This means that in a DDS, the nulls of the
SINC envelope are coincident with multiples
of the DDS sample rate.

DDS Primer - May 2002 19

 Spectral Characteristics

SINC Envelope

Magnitude

SINC Envelope

f
0 Fs/2 Fs 2Fs 3Fs 4Fs

DDS Primer - May 2002 20

 Spectral Characteristics

„ SUMMARY
† A DDS is a sampled system
† A sampled system produces images of the baseband
spectrum at multiples of the sample rate.
† The finite pulse width resulting from the operation of the
DAC distorts the spectrum by attenuating the baseband
signal and its images based on the SINC envelope.

DDS Primer - May 2002 21

 Spectral Characteristics

„ The output of a basic DDS is a single tone

(i.e., a sine wave at a specific frequency).
„ Since the DDS is a sampled system, the
actual output signal is the desired tone PLUS
its images.
„ The images must be filtered out in order to
provide a spectrally “pure” sine wave.

DDS Primer - May 2002 22

Spectral Characteristics

Pure vs Synthesized Sine Wave

Magnitude

Fo: desired DDS output frequency

Fs: DDS clock frequency

f
Fo Fs/2 Fs 2Fs 3Fs 4Fs

Pure Sine Wave

Magnitude

SINC Envelope

2Fo
2Fo
Fundamental Image 2Fo
2Fo

f
Fo Fs/2 Fs 2Fs 3Fs 4Fs

Sampled Sine Wave

DDS Primer - May 2002 23

Spectral Characteristics

ODD and EVEN Nyquist Zones

Magnitude

Fundamental

Image

f
Fo Fs/2 Fs 2Fs 3Fs 4Fs

Nyquist Zone 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 etc.

DDS Primer - May 2002 24

 Spectral Characteristics

ODD and EVEN Nyquist Zones:

„ A Nyquist zone spans a frequency range of Fs/2.
„ ODD zones
† A change in the frequency of the fundamental results in
an equal change in frequency of the half image
„ EVEN zones
† A change in frequency of the fundamental results in an
equal but opposite (negative) change in the frequency of
the half image

DDS Primer - May 2002 25

 Spectral Characteristics

Filtering the DDS Output

Accumulator
Angle
Tuning "Pure"
N-bits P-bits to D-bits
Word Amplitude
DAC RCF Sine
IN Wave
Converter
N-bits
Sampled
Sine
Wave

Magnitude
Reconstruction Low Pass Filter

Reconstruction filter removes the unwanted images

f
Fo Fs/2 Fs 2Fs 3Fs 4Fs

DDS Primer - May 2002 26

 Spectral Characteristics

Additional artifacts in the DDS output spectrum:

„ Phase truncation spurs
„ DAC nonlinearity
„ DAC switching noise

DDS Primer - May 2002 27

Spectral Characteristics
Phase Truncation Spurs
Phase Truncation Error
(8-bit accumulator truncated to 5 bits with a tuning word of 6)
64
8

E3

E2

E1
128 16 0 0

24
192

DDS Primer - May 2002 28

Spectral Characteristics
Phase Truncation Spurs

phase truncation spurs

• Rigorous analysis is beyond the scope of this presentation.

• However, a practical explanation follows.

DDS Primer - May 2002 29

Spectral Characteristics
Phase Truncation Spurs

• The spectral characteristics of phase error are rooted in the

time domain behavior of the truncated phase bits.

• The behavior of the truncated phase bits can be thought of as

a mini-accumulator of width B with an initial tuning word
that is composed of only those bit locations that are
truncated.

DDS Primer - May 2002 30

Spectral Characteristics
Phase Truncation Spurs
B

T= 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0

Accumulator Angle
20 8 to
T
Amplitude
DAC
20 Converter

Ideal Synthesizer
Accumulator Angle
20 20 to
T
Amplitude
DAC
20
Converter

Noise Source
Accumulator Angle
12 12 to
B
Amplitude
Scaler DAC
12
Converter

DDS Primer - May 2002 31

Spectral Characteristics
Phase Truncation Spurs

• The “noise” source is what generates the phase truncation

spurs.
• The behavior of the “noise” accumulator is analogous to that
of the ideal accumulator, but with its own tuning word.
• The phase error accumulates up to the CAPACITY of the
noise accumulator. At which point it “rolls over” and the
accumulating process resumes.

DDS Primer - May 2002 32

Spectral Characteristics
Phase Truncation Spurs

Phase Error “Sawtooth” for an Arbitrary Tuning Word

"Noise"
Accumulator Period of
Value Sawtooth

2B

Repetition begins here

0 Clock "Tics"
0

Grand Repitition Rate (GRR)

DDS Primer - May 2002 33

Spectral Characteristics
Phase Truncation Spurs

• Not to worry...
• A properly designed DDS forces the magnitude of the
largest truncation error spur to be less than the 1/2 LSB
error of the DAC.
• Truncation spur energy is comparable to the energy
contained in the integrated DAC noise floor.

DDS Primer - May 2002 34

 Spectral Characteristics
DAC Nonlinearity

• An “ideal” DAC translates the digital codes at the input to

output levels along a straight line.
Normalized
Output
Level

0.5

0 Input Code
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32

DDS Primer - May 2002 35

Spectral Characteristics
DAC Nonlinearity

• A “typical” DAC tends to deviate from a straight line.

• This nonlinearity leads to harmonic distortion.
Normalized Output Level

0.5

Output levels deviate from straight line

0 Input Code
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32

DDS Primer - May 2002 36

Spectral Characteristics
DAC Nonlinearity

• The nonlinear transfer function produces harmonics of the

fundamental which are aliased into the first Nyquist zone.
• First, consider the UNSAMPLED spectrum, below.

Magnitude

Fundamental

2nd harmonic
3rd harmonic
etc...

f
Fo Fs/2 Fs 2Fs 3Fs
Harmonic Distortion (unsampled system)
DDS Primer - May 2002 37
 Spectral Characteristics
DAC Nonlinearity

• Since the DAC is a sampled system, the harmonics must be

mapped into the Nyquist region.
Magnitude
-Nyquist Nyquist

Negative Fundamental
image
of fund. 2nd harmonic is in-band and NOT aliased in this example
and 2nd
harmonic mapped harmonics (aliases)

unmapped harmonics

f
Fs 2Fs 3Fs
0 Sampling Maps Harmonics Into the Nyquist Region

DDS Primer - May 2002 38

Spectral Characteristics
DAC Nonlinearity

• Sampling causes images of the Nyquist region to appear at

multiples of Fs.
(Attenuation due to the SINC envelope is not shown)

Magnitude
-Nyquist Nyquist

f
0 Fs 2Fs 3Fs

Nyquist Region is Imaged at Multiples of Fs

DDS Primer - May 2002 39
 Spectral Characteristics
DAC Switching Noise

• High slew rate of digital signals internal to the DAC leads to

noise transients being coupled to the DAC output pin(s).
• Other high speed signals in close proximity to the DAC from
digital circuits on the same silicon die can also couple into
the DAC.
• This results in high speed switching transients appearing at
the DAC output as a source of noise and further degrades
overall performance.

DDS Primer - May 2002 40

 DDS as a Building Block

„ The fact that a DDS internally generates a digital

sinusoidal wave can be used to great advantage.
„ Combining the digital DDS core with additional signal
processing blocks makes possible:
† Frequency “agile” clock generators
† Frequency and/or Phase “agile” modulators
• FSK, PSK, QPSK, n-QAM, OFDM
† Frequency swept (chirp) modulators

DDS Primer - May 2002 41

 DDS as a Building Block
Clock Generator

A DDS-based Clock Generator

Frequency Clock IN (f) PLL SINEWAVE:

Reference (M) - High frequency resolution
- Programmable
Mxf
CLOCK:
- Precise frequency
COMPARATOR - Low jitter
COS Reconst
DDS Core DAC Clock OUT
Filter
Tuning Word
SIN
(digital) DC Reference

DDS Primer - May 2002 42

 DDS as a Building Block
Digital Modulator

A DDS-based modulator requires some additional digital

signal processing blocks:
• Digital multipliers
• Digital adders
• Input logic to accept digital modulation data
• Data rate translator (optional)

DDS Primer - May 2002 43

DDS as a Building Block
Digital Modulator

FSK Modulator

Frequency Clock IN (f) PLL

Reference (M)

Mxf

COS
Tuning Word #1 0 DDS Core DAC FSK Out
(f1)
MUX
SIN
Tuning Word #2 1 (digital)
(f2)

FSK Data
(0,1)
f2

f1

DDS Primer - May 2002 44

DDS as a Building Block
Digital Modulator

PSK Modulator

Frequency Clock IN (f) PLL

Reference (M)

0 0 Mxf
Phase Offset
MUX
Phase Word 1
COS
DAC PSK Out
Accum AAC
SIN
PSK Data
(0,1)
Shifted Phase
DDS Core
Normal Phase
Tuning Word

DDS Primer - May 2002 45

DDS as a Building Block
Digital Modulator

Quadrature Modulator
Frequency Clock IN PLL
Reference (f) (M)

Mxf

DDS Core
Tuning Word
(carrier=ωc)
(digital)

SIN(ωc) COS(ωc)

"I" Signal
Modulated
DAC Output
"Q" Signal

Sampler
Digital Modulator

DDS Primer - May 2002 46

 DDS as a Building Block
Quadrature Modulation Rule

The modulation signal (I/Q) must be sampled at the

same rate as the DDS clock.
• If the modulation signal is sampled at a rate lower than the
DDS clock, then rate up-conversion (interpolation) is
required to synchronize the sampled modulation data with
the sampled carrier (the DDS output).
• Furthermore, the DDS and modulation data sample rates
should have, at the very least, a rational ratio (i.e., P/Q
where P and Q are integers).
• An integer ratio offers better hardware efficiency than a
rational ratio.
• A power-of-2 ratio is the most hardware efficient of all.

DDS Primer - May 2002 47

 DDS as a Building Block
Digital Modulator

Quadrature Up-Converter
Frequency Clock IN PLL
Reference (f) (M)

Mxf

DDS Core
P/Q Tuning Word
(carrier=ωc) (digital)

Input Output
SIN(ωc) COS(ωc)
Clock Clock

Digitized "I" Data

Modulated
DAC Output
Digitized "Q" Data

Interpolator Digital Modulator

DDS Primer - May 2002 48

 DDS as a Building Block
Chirp Modulator

Chirp Modulator:
• A form of FM (frequency modulation)
• Requires the output signal to start at one frequency and
gradually “sweep” to another.
• For a DDS, this means repeatedly changing the tuning word
value from a value of T1 to T2 with a step size (∆T) such that
the “sweep” time requirement is met.
• A dual-accumulator DDS effectively accomplishes the
“frequency sweep” function.

DDS Primer - May 2002 49

DDS as a Building Block
Chirp Modulator

Frequency Clock IN (Fs) PLL

Reference (M)

STOP
STOP
Frequency M x Fs
Tuning Word Logic

∆f COS CHIRP
DELTA
Tuning DAC Out
Accum Word Accum
Frequency AAC
Tuning Word #2 #1 SIN

DDS Core
START
STEP RATE Frequency
Clock Tuning Word

DDS Primer - May 2002 50