PWR is the abbreviation for the Pressurized Water Reactor.

These reactors were originally designed

by Westinghouse Bettis Atomic Power Laboratory for military ship applications, then by the
Westinghouse Nuclear Power Division for commercial applications. The first commercial PWR plant
in the United States was Shippingport, which operated for Duquesne Light until 1982.

In addition to Westinghouse, Asea Brown Boveri-Combustion Engineering (ABB-CE), Framatome,

Kraftwerk Union, Siemens, and Mitsubishi have typically built this type of reactor throughout the
world. Babcock & Wilcox (B&W) built a PWR design power plant but used vertical once-through
steam generators, rather than the U-tube design used by the rest of the suppliers. Industry
consolidation has occurred so that Framatome-ANP and Westinghouse are two key remaining
manufacturers. Refuelings are done with the plant shutdown.

Reproduced by permission

The Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) has 3 separate cooling systems. Only 1 is expected to have
radioactivity - the Reactor Coolant System.

The Reactor Coolant System, shown inside the Containment, consists of 2, 3, or 4 Cooling "Loops"
connected to the Reactor, each containing a Reactor Coolant Pump, and Steam Generator. The
Reactor heats the water that passes upward past the fuel assemblies from a temperature of about 530F
to a temperature of about 590F. Boiling, other than minor bubbles called nucleate boiling, is not
allowed to occur. Pressure is maintained by a Pressurizer (not shown) connected to the Reactor
Coolant System. Pressure is maintained at approximately 2250 pounds per square inch through a
heater and spray system in the pressurizer. The water from the Reactor is pumped to the steam
generator and passes through tubes. The Reactor Cooling System is expected to be the only one with
radioactive materials in it. Typically PWRs have 2, 3, or 4 reactor cooling system loops inside the
containment.

In a Secondary Cooling System (which include the Main Steam System and the Condensate-
Feedwater Systems), cooler water is pumped from the Feedwater System and passes on the outside
of those steam generator tubes, is heated and converted to steam. The steam then passes through the a
Main Steam Line to the Turbine, which is connected to and turns the Generator. The steam from the
Turbine condenses in a Condenser. The condensed water is then pumped by Condensate Pumps
through Low Pressure Feedwater Heaters, then to the Feedwater Pumps, then to High Pressure
Feedwater Heaters, then to the Steam Generators.The diagram above simplifies the process by only
showing the condenser, a pump, and the steam generator.

The condenser is maintained at a vacuum using either vacuum pumps or air ejectors. Cooling of the
steam is provided by Condenser Cooling Water pumped through the condenser by Circulating
Water Pumps, which take a suction from water supplied from the ocean, sea, lake, river, or Cooling
Tower (shown). A discussion of cooling towers is provided in the photo section.

PWRs of varying sizes have been built since the late 60's.

PWR Cycle

The Pressurized Water Reactor designs are similar for the units provided by the various manufacturers. Differences are
illustrated by the table below:

Reactor
Coolant Steam
Manufacturer MWt MWe Loops Pressurizer Pumps Generators
per per Loop
Loop
450- 167-
Westinghouse 1-4 1 1 1
3000 1000
2700- 900-
Framatome 3-4 1 1 1
3600 1300
2400- 800-
Babcock & Wilcox 2 1 2 1
3000 1000
2400- 800-
Combustion Engineering 2 1 2 1
3600 1300
ABB 3000 1000 4 1 1 1

Mitsubishi 3000 1000 4 1 1 1

A number of simplified diagrams (courtesy Westinghouse) illustrate the design of the pressurized water reactor facilities.

The following are colored perspective and arrangement drawings of

• Reactor Coolant System

• Reactor Vessel
• Reactor Coolant Pump
 • Steam Generator
• Pressurizer

The flow paths are illustrated by a colored graphic flow diagram and a black and white line drawing. The following
describes the flow path and the linked drawings illustrate, in detail, the composition and major parts of the components.

• Reactor - this diagram shows how the reactor is constructed with its major components. Water at 530F enters the
reactor from the nozzles at about mid-height. The water flows downward on the outside of the core barrel to the
bottom of the reactor. Then the flow turns upward past the fuel assemblies, removing heat from the assemblies
and increasing in temperature to 590-600F. After leaving the core area, the water mixes in the upper plenum and
leaves the reactor through nozzles. Flow then goes to the ...

• Steam Generator where the radioactive Reactor Cooling System water enters at the bottom, flows through small
(1/2-inch) inverted U-tubes. That water loses its heat as it passes through the tube being cooled by the non-
radioactive water outside the tube. Non-radioactive feedwater enters through the nozzles at the mid-height of the
steam generator at a temperature of about 425F. The water flows downward outside a wrapper sheet to the area
just above the tubesheet where the water turns and flows upward past the U-tubes. The water increases in
temperature and turns to steam. A moist steam at about 510-547F with pressure of 720-1005 pounds per square
inch is produced. The moist steam travels upward to steam separators (chevron separators and swirl vanes) which
allow 99.75% purity steam to pass of the steam generator and the remaining water is directed back to the lower
part of the steam generator. The reactor cooling system water enters the steam generator at ~590F and leaves at ~
530F. That water then flows to the ...

• Reactor Coolant Pump which pumps the water back to the reactor.

• Pressurizer is used to control the pressure in the reactor cooling system so that boiling does not occur in the
reactor. The pressurizer also is used to act as a surge tank for the system taking up the level variations in the
system. Heaters are installed at the bottom of the pressurizer for heating the water to about 652F and 2250 pounds
per square inch. Automated pressure control valves (called power operated relief valves) and safety valves,
connected to the top of the pressurizer, can open to control and maintain pressure.

• Secondary Systems line drawings illustrate the major sub-components in the non-radioactive part of the system
where steam flows to the turbine, condenses in the condenser, then is pumped back to the steam generator first by
condensate pumps, then by feedwater pumps. The feedwater heaters improve the efficiency of the cycle by
recovering and reusing energy that would otherwise be lost. By doing so efficiency of the cycle is raised to 33%.

Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

BWR is the abbreviation for the Boiling Water Reactor. These reactors were originally designed by
Allis-Chalmers and General Electric (GE). The General Electric design has survived, whereas all
Allis-Chalmers units are now shutdown. The first GE US commercial plant was at Humboldt Bay
(near Eureka) in California. Other suppliers of the BWR design world-wide have included - ASEA-
Atom, Kraftwerk Union, Hitachi. Commercial BWR reactors may be found in Finland, Germany,
India, Japan, Mexico, Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and Taiwan. Japan and Taiwan have
the newest BWR units.

The BWR reactor typically allows bulk boiling of the water in the reactor. The operating temperature
of the reactor is approximately 570F producing steam at a pressure of about 1000 pounds per square
inch. Current BWR reactors have electrical outputs of 570 to 1300 MWe. As this the PWR designs,
the units are about 33% efficient.

Reproduced by permission

In the figure above, water is circulated through the Reactor Core picking up heat as the water moves
past the fuel assemblies. The water eventually is heated enough to convert to steam. Steam separators
in the upper part of the reactor remove water from the steam.

The steam then passes through the Main Steam Lines to the Turbine-Generators. The steam
typically goes first to a smaller High Pressure (HP) Turbine, then passes to Moisture Separators
(not shown), then to the 2 or 3 larger Low Pressure (LP) Turbines. In the sketch above there are 3
low pressure turbines, as is common for 1000 MWe plant. The turbines are connected to each other
and to the Generator by a long shaft (not one piece).
The Generator produces the electricity, typically at about 20,000 volts AC. This electrical power is
then distributed to a Generator Transformer, which steps up the voltage to either 230,000 or 345,000
volts. Then the power is distributed to a switchyard or substation where the power is then sent offsite.

The steam, after passing through the turbines, then condenses in the Condenser, which is at a vacuum
and is cooled by ocean, sea, lake, or river water. The condensed steam then is pumped to Low
Pressure Feedwater Heaters (shown but not identified). The water then passes to the Feedwater
Pumps which in turn, pump the water to the reactor and start the cycle all over again.

The BWR is unique in that the Control Rods, used to shutdown the reactor and maintain an uniform
power distribution across the reactor, are inserted from the bottom by a high pressure hydraulically
operated system. The BWR also has a Torus (shown above) or a Suppression Pool. The torus or
suppression pool is used to remove heat released if an event occurs in which large quantities of steam
are released from the reactor or the Reactor Recirculation System, used to circulate water through
the reactor.

The General Electric BWR designs are designated BWR-1 through BWR-6. Typical examples of each
of these classes of BWR are:

ABSTRACT

Some four hundred Boiling Water Reactors (BWR) and Pressurized Water Reactors (PWR) have been in
operation for several decades. The present concept, the High Pressure Boiling Water Reactor (HP-
BWR), makes use of this operating experience. The best parts of the two reactor types are used and
the troublesome components are left out. This means improved safety. The increased thermal
efficiency is beneficial to the environment as less cooling water is released per produced kWh. With
some modifications the used components can be used to make this design cost effective and possible to
achieve in the currently not too distant future.

1. Introduction

Since the 1950s several hundred Boiling Water and Pressurized Water Reactors (BWRs and PWRs) in
use. There is a wealth of operating experience. During this have been time many difficulties occurred
with a number of important components. This concept, the High Pressure – Boiling Water Reactor (HP-
BWR) offers a solution to use the best parts from each type (BWR and PWR) and leave out the
troublesome components. This means an important increase of safety. As an extra benefit, also
increased efficiency attained beneficial for the environment as less cooling water is released per
produced kWh. The HP-BWR is using –with some modifications- currently manufactured parts making
this a cost effective, realistic concept.

2. The High Pressure – Boiling Water Reactor HP-BWR

The High Pressure Boiling Water Reactor (HP-BWR) offers improved nuclear safety and less damage to
the environment. The HP-BWR is an environmentally friendly, effective alternative.

The High Pressure- BWR

The HP-BWR uses a modified PWR reactor vessel and BWR type fuel and control rods. However, here
the cruciform control rods are gravity operated with ample space between the crosses and the fuel
boxes. The control roads are manoeuvred electromagnetically, which means that they will drop into the
core when there is a loss of electrical power as in the PWRs. The traditional PWR control rods are finger
shaped and are surrounded by a tube with a minimum of clearance. The traditional BWR control rods
are operated from below with hydraulic pressure. Therefore, at the bottom of the traditional BWR
reactor vessel there are a great number of penetration points for the control rods. Directly below the
reactor vessel there is an elaborate system of numerous high pressure hydraulic pipes to actuate the
control rods. Taking the best fro and leaving out the drawbacks of both the traditional BWR and PWR
systems is a substantial safety improvement.

All the pipe connections to the reactor vessel are well above the reactor core. This allows the omission
of core spray. The moisture separators and steam dryers are outside the reactor vessel, leaving free
space for the control rods.

Internal circulation pumps. These allow the use of orifices at the inlet of the fuel boxes so that the one-
phase pressure drop will predominate over the two-phase pressure drop. This reduces the risk of
hydrodynamic oscillations. However, if suitable methods are found to facilitate natural circulation even
the circulation pumps can be left out.

The use of the HP-BWR means improved Carnot cycle thermal efficiency up to about ~40% instead of
about ~30%. The reason is that the HP-BWR steam temperature corresponds to 15MPa while the
traditional BWR’s steam temperature corresponds to 7MPa and the traditional PWR’s steam
temperature corresponds to 6MPa. The HP-BWR is lenient to the environment as less damaging cooling
water is released per produced kWh to the recipient, sea or river or to the air via a cooling tower.

Using direct cycle the system is simplified. Still, the usual PWR steam lines can be used through the
containment wall to the turbine. A great advantage is that the complicated and costly steam generators
are left out.

The moisture separators and the steam dryers are outside the reactor vessel in the containment
instead of the huge troublesome steam generators.

Simple dry containment is used instead of the complicated, inert, pressure suppression wet
containment which requires a great deal of surveillance.
3. The Traditional Boiling Water Reactor, BWR

The basic principles of the traditional Boiling Water reactor are well known

Traditional BWR

As there are pipe connections to the reactor vessel below the reactor core, a pipe break can empty the
vessel leaving the core uncovered, without the cooling water. Therefore, a core spray is required. This
is a common feature for the BWRs with external circulation pumps or jet pumps. However, this draw
back is eliminated at a later design stage with the Advanced Boiling Water Reactor, ABWR. All BWR
control rods are inserted to the core using hydraulic power; some with electric motors too. This makes
the lower part of the rector both inside and outside the bottom of the reactor vessel extremely
elaborate. To make things worse, in the past, cracks, corrosion and leakage occurred at the
penetrations at the lower part of the reactor vessel.

Structural sketch of reactor pressure vessel

 Traditional Advanced Boiling Water Reactor (Hitachi–ABWR)

The huge reactor vessel would require an enormous dry containment building. Therefore, a pressure
suppression containment system is used instead. The containment is separated into two parts, the
upper dry well and the lower wet well with the suppression pool. If the separation is not perfectly leak-
tight the wet well cannot fulfil its function to suppress the pressure in the dry well in case of a pipe
break. Further complication is that the traditional BWR containment operates inertly, making difficult
the entrance into it.

The nice thing about the BWR is that it operates in direct cycle mode without the troublesome steam
generators.

4. The Traditional Pressurized Water Reactor, PWR

Most of the world’s operating reactors are traditional PWRs.

Traditional BWR
The control rods are operated from above. Undoubtedly some leakages were observed at the
penetrations which in a few cases led to the need to replace the reactor pressure vessel head.

Reactor Concept Manual - Pressurized Water Reactor Systems

The simple electromagnetic devices which manoeuvre the rods worked reliably. This assures a high
degree of safety. A basically continuous, uninterrupted bottom of the reactor vessel avoids any
suspicions of its integrity.

Cutaway View of Reactor Vessel

A four-loop Westighouse plant has four steam generators, four reactor coolant pumps, and a pressurizer. The four-loop
units in the United States are Braidwood 1 and 2, Byron 1 and 2, Callaway, Catawba 1 and 2, Comanche Peak 1 and 2, D.C.
Cook 1 and 2, Diablo Canyon 1 and 2, Indian Point 2 and 3, McGuire 1 and 2, Millestone 3, Salem 1 and 2, Seabrook,
Sequoyah 1 and 2, South Texas Project 1 and 2, Vogtle 1 and 2, Watts Bar 1, and Wolf Creek. Each of these plants has 193
fuel assemblies arranged inside a reactor vessel that has an internal diameter of 173 inches (except South Texas has an
internal diameter of 167 inches). The fuel assemblies are arranged in 17 x 17 array except for Cook and Indian Point, which
have 15 x 15 fuel. The electrical output of these plants ranges from 950 to 1250 megawatts.

The curse of the traditional PWRs is their steam generators. These complicated and costly huge pieces
of equipment are disappointingly short lived because of the corrosion of the internal tubes, which can
cause leaks. The plant owners used to change them after some fifteen years. An extremely expensive
and troublesome and also time consuming operation.

Steam dryer in a SG
In the upper part of the steam generators there is the moisture separator and the steam dryer. The
HP-BWR is “borrowing” this equipment which can be used without the troublesome steam generators.

5. References

All university text books written for nuclear engineering students contain detailed descriptions of both
Boiling Water Reactors and Pressurized Water Reactors. Also manufacturers in Europe, Asia and
America publish data about their designs. There is also a wealth of information about BWRs and PWRs
on the internet.

The Indian Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR) is being designed and
developed to achieve large-scale use of thorium for the generation of commercial
nuclear power. This reactor will produce most of its power from thorium, with no
significant external input of uranium-233, in the equilibrium cycle.
AHWR is a 300 MWe, vertical, pressure tube type, boiling light water cooled, and
heavy water moderated reactor. The reactor incorporates a number of passive safety
features, and it is associated with a fuel cycle having reduced environmental impact. At
the same time, the reactor possesses several features, which are likely to reduce its
capital and operating costs.

The AHWR fuel contains three rows of fuel pins surrounding a central displacer rod.
The inner two rows contain thirty (Th-U233)O2 fuel pins and the outer row contains
twenty four (Th-Pu)O2 fuel pins. The central rod contains dysprosia in zirconia matrix.
The central rod of fuel also incorporates a water tube for the injection of Emergency
Core Coolant System (ECCS) water directly on fuel pins during a postulated Loss of
Coolant Accident (LOCA). AHWR fuel is currently designed for an average burn-up of
24 GWd/Te. Its design makes it amenable for reconstitution, if desired to facilitate a
further extension of burn-up in the (Th-U233)O2 fuel pins in future.
AHWR employs natural circulation for cooling of the reactor core under all conditions.
All event scenarios initiating from non-availability of main pumps are therefore
excluded. During incidents leading to increase in void, the negative void coefficient of
reactivity brings down the reactor power without necessitating any external control or
operator action. The ECCS is designed to remove the core heat by passive means in case
of a postulated LOCA. In the event of a rupture in the primary coolant pressure
boundary, the cooling is initially achieved by a large flow of borated water from
advanced accumulators, and later cooling of the core is achieved by the injection of cold
water from a large Gravity Driven Water Pool (GDWP) located near the top of the
reactor building and later submerging the core.
In AHWR, subsequent to energy absorption by Gravity Driven Water Pool (GDWP), the
Passive Containment Cooling System (PCCS) provides long term containment cooling
following a postulated LOCA.

The principle of double containment has been adopted in designing the containment for
AHWR. For containment isolation, a passive system has been provided in the AHWR.
The reactor building air supply and exhaust ducts are shaped in the form of U bends of
sufficient height. In the event of LOCA, the containment pressure acts on the water pool
surface and pours water by swift establishment of syphon into the U-bends of the duct.
Water in the U-bends acts as a seal between the containment and the external
environment, providing necessary isolation between the two.

The AHWR fuel cycle will be self–sufficient in U233 after initial loading. The spent fuel
streams will be reprocessed and thorium and U233 will then be recycled and reused.
There are also plans to recycle the actinides back into the reactor.

Incidentally, the thorium fuel cycle also presents low proliferation risks, a factor
considered significant by several nuclear supplier nations for export of nuclear
technology. A quantitative analysis of the AHWR fuel cycle substantiates this feature.

Important Design Parameters of

AHWR
Reactor power 920 MWTh

Core configuration Vertical, pressure tube type

design

Coolant Boiling light water

Number of coolant 452

channels

Pressure tube ID 120 mm

Lattice pitch 270 mm (square pitch)

No. of pins in fuel cluster 54
(Th-Pu)O2 - 24 pins
(Th-U)O2 - 30 pins

Pin OD 11.2 mm

Heated fuel length 3.5 m

Total core flow rate 2175 kg/s

Coolant inlet temperature 259 oC (nominal)

Feed water temperature 130 oC

Average steam quality 19 %

Steam generation rate 414 kg/s

Steam drum pressure 70 bar

PHT loop height 39 m

Calandria diameter 8000 mm

Calandria height 5000 mm