NATIONAL LAW UNIVERSITY, JODHPUR

SUMMER SESSION

(JULY-NOVEMBER 2017)

HISTORY I

C.A. II – BOOK REVIEW

“A HISTORY OF INDIA”
(ROMILA THAPAR)
(Word Count: 4677 )

REVIEWED BY: SUBMITTED TO:

KRISHAN SINGHAL (1556) (SEC. A) DR. OM PRAKASH

MRIDUL NAGAR (1561) (SEC. A) (FACULTY OF POLICY SCIENCE)

B.A. LL.B. (HONS.) I SEMESTER

(A Partial fulfillment as an assignment submitted in History I)

At the very beginning of this book review, I would like to express my gratitude to all those who
have helped me in the completion of this book review. I am highly obliged to them because
without their help I would not be able to complete this assignment.

First of all I would like to thank my teacher of history, Dr. Om Prakash who has helped me
throughout this book review. He guided and supported me to get better insight about this topic. It
was because of his continuous support and guidance that I am able to complete my book review.
I would like to thank him for his precious time he gave me to clear my doubts and queries. I
would also like to thank the members of library who provided me the much needed assistance to
complete my assignment. I am also grateful to all IT staff for providing me the sources during
the execution of this book review.

I would also like to extend my gratitude to my friends and batch mates for helping me in
completion of this assignment. At last, I thank all who extended their support to me during the
completion of this book review.

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Table of Contents

1. The Antecedents ........................................................................................................... 4

2. The Impact Of Aryan Culture ....................................................................................... 5

3. Republics and Kingdoms .............................................................................................. 6

4. The Emergence of Empire ............................................................................................ 8

5. The Disintegration of Empire ....................................................................................... 9

6. The Rise Of The Mercantile Community ..................................................................... 9

7. The Evolution Of The ‘Classical’ Pattern .................................................................. 11

8. Conflict In The Southern Kingdoms .......................................................................... 12

9. The South In The Ascendant ...................................................................................... 13

10. The Beginnings Of Regional States in Northern India ............................................... 14

11. Feudalism In The Regional States .............................................................................. 15

12. The Re-Alignment Of Regional Kingdoms ................................................................ 16

13. Assimilation On Trial ................................................................................................. 18

14. The south Conforms ................................................................................................... 19

15. Critical Analysis ......................................................................................................... 21

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 ABOUT ROMILA THAPAR

Romila Thapar belongs to a Punjabi family and spent her early years in various parts of India.
She took her first degree from the Punjab University and her doctorate at London University in
1958. She was a Lecturer in the Ancient History of South Asia at the School of Oriental and
African Studies, University of London, subsequently a Reader at Delhi University, and in 1970
was appointed to the Chair in Ancient Indian History at the Jawaharlal Nehru University in New
Delhi, where she is now Emeritus Professor of History. She is an Honorary Fellow of Lady
Margaret Hall, Oxford, and has been a Distinguished Visiting Professor at Cornell University
and at the University of Pennsylvania and has frequently lectured at the College de France.
In 1983 she was elected General President of the Indian History Congress. Since then she has
travelled extensively, visiting sites in South Asia. She has lectured on early South Asian history
at a large number of universities in various parts of the world.

INTRODUCTION

The history of India begins with the culture of the Indo-Aryans and not with the prehistoric
cultures of India. The book covers the history of the sub-continent until the arrival of the
Europeans in the sixteenth century. Hence the choice of the date 1526 as the terminal. From the
perspective of historical evolution within the sub-continent, this is perhaps an awkward date at
which to stop, since the momentum of the preceding period was continued into subsequent
centuries.1526 marks the arrival of the Mughuls in northern India and they were
(amongst other things) actively involved in the future of Europe in India.

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 1. THE ANTECEDENTS

Summary:

“We begin in the world as anagrams of our antecedents.”- Maggie O’Farrell

This is an introductory chapter which gives a general understanding about the antecedents that
were always imbued with the idea that India would be a land of untold wealth and mystical
happenings. But this notion of Europeans changed when the Europe entered the modern age.
They begin to look at India with disdain and dismissed the rule of the Maharajas and Sultans for
being despotic and totally unrepresentative of public opinion. Nevertheless, a small section of
European scholars, including Sir William Jones, Charles Wilkins and Max Muller, emerged
which had discovered India largely through its ancient philosophy and its literature in Sanskrit.
Another disparagement was the comparison of Indian civilization with that of Greece.

When European scholars became curious about India’s past, their sources of information were
the brahman priests, who were generally biased for those in authority, and the descriptions left
by foreign travellers.

Analysis:

In this chapter, the author makes an attempt to indicate the institutions and the events which have
contributed to the evolution of Indian culture and highlights the transformation in the opinion of
Europeans about India when Europe entered into period of modernization. This chapter gives a
brief account of the events which took place till 1526 B.C.(the terminal chosen by Author).

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 2. THE IMPACT OF ARYAN CULTURE

Summary:

"We do not need to explain how the Aryans entered and settled in the Dravidian country, and
subjugated and oppressed the Dravidians. Nor do we need to explain how before the Aryans
entered the Dravidian country, the Dravidian country had a civilization and arts of the highest
rank."

— Periyar E.V. Ramasamy

According to traditions, first king of India was Manu Svayambhu (the self born Manu), a
hermaphrodite, who had two sons and three daughters. This is where the chain of Manus began.
One of them was Prithu who was first consecrated king of earth and thus gave his name to earth -
‘Prithvi’. But, most famous of them was the tenth Manu, during whose reign the great flood
occurred. The flood left entire mankind devastated. The Mankind recommenced from him and
his family. He had nine sons. The first son was a hermaphrodite from who arose the two lines of
royal descent- Suryavamsha and Chandravamsha. But these traditions where challenged when
new evidence of history emerged in late eighteenth and early nineteenth century. The European
scholars of Sanskrit realized with some surprise that Sanskrit, in its structure and sound,
resembles to Latin and Greek. This gave way to the belief of a common language predominantly
spoken by Indo-European people (the ancestors of aryans). This further gave rise to the notion
that history of India begins with the advent of Aryans.

However, this well constructed theory suffered a jolt in twentieth century when the existence of
pre-Aryan civilization i.e., Indus Valley Civilization was unearthed in 1921-22. Therefore, it
was finally concluded that- The Indus Valley civilization declined in the second millennium B.C.
and had almost completely disintegrated when (by 1500 B.C.) the Aryans entered the north-west
of India. It was during this period that the collection of Vedas began. Rigveda is the earliest of
the four Vedas. It consisted of 1028 hymns wherein the mentioning of various rivers of the
peninsula points to the extent of geographical knowledge of Aryans. Mahabharata and Ramayana
are also believed to be written during this period only.

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Many see the advent of Aryans as a backward step as the Indus valley people were far more
advanced. Originally, they were cattle rearers and turned towards agriculture as and when they
began settling down. The use of iron was not evident until 800 B.C. Barter system was existing
with cow being the main unit of exchange. The king was primarily a military leader whose war
skills were essential in his remaining king. The caste system finds its roots when Aryans made
distinctions between themselves and non-aryans on the basis of varna (colour) and the latter
being darker they were tagged as ‘dasas’(salves). This division entrenched with the coming up
of four classes viz. Kshatriyas, Brahmans, Vaishyas and Shudras. Gambling and music were
the favourite pastimes and chariot racing was a prestigious sport.

Analysis:

The author highlights the three theories of the origin of history of India, first being the least
trusted i.e., traditional narratives, acoording to which the mankind started with Manus. Second
theory, which emerged in late 18th and early 19th century, attributes beginning of history of India
to arrival of Aryans. This belief received a jolt when the third evidence came up in 1921-22,
which claimed existence of civilization in India even before Aryans came. However, Aryans
played a significant role in shaping India’s history- the present caste system and the Hindu holy
scriptures are their contributions alone.

3. REPUBLICS AND KINGDOMS

Summary:

Permanent settlement of tribes gave rise to their geographical identity and to maintain this
geographical identity required a political system, either a monarchy or a republic. However, the
republic system pre-existed the monarchy. The monarchies were concentrated in the Ganges
plains, whereas the republics were spread in northern periphery of these monarchies and in
Punjab. The nature of the republican reaction to Vedic orthodoxy indicates that the people of the
republics were maintaining an older and continuous tradition. The republics consisted of either a
single tribe (Shakyas, Koliyas, and Mallas) or a confederacy of tribes. The republics were more

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open for individualistic opinions and less orthodox than the Ganges plains, hence Buddhism and
Jainism and theories of social contract different than that of Brahmans surfaced in these republics
only. But the two systems were not mutually exclusive, for instance, Kamboja had seen the
transition from a monarchy to a republic. However, this transition was unheard of in the Ganges
Plains. The kings of all the four castes are known to have ruled the kingdoms but gradually
Kingship became hereditary with most preferred class to be Kshatriyas.

Kashi, Kosala (adjoining Kashi on the east), Magadha (modern southern Bihar), and the republic
of the Vrijis (Janakpur in Nepal and the Muzaffarpur district of Bihar) were embattled for about
a hundred years to establish their pre-eminence in the region. Magadha emerged victorious and
became the epicenter of all the political activities in northern India. Bimbisara, who ascended the
throne in latter half of sixth century, was the first important king of Magadha. He was murdered
by his own son, Ajatashatru, in about 493B.C. The success of Magadha could be attributed to its
strategic location- surrounded by five hills- which provided it a natural defence. Unlike his
father, who was more interested in conquering Anga in south-east, Ajatashatru showed penchant
for north and west. Not only Magadha’s geographical location, but Natural resources were also
favourable to Magadha; the soil was rich for cultivation, the neighbouring forests provided both
timber for building and elephants for the army, and local iron deposits made possible better
implements and weapons and a profitable trade in iron. The next five successors of this dynasty
were not able rulers and people of Magadha deposed them and enthroned Shishunaga, hitherto
viceroy, as King and thus began the naga dynasty which lasted for merely half a century. The
nagas were followed by again a short-lived dynasty, Nanda, established by Mahapadmananda
who, according to some sources, was son of a shudra mother. But it was during the Mauryan
period that the idea of imperialism became popular. Chandragupta Maurya usurped the throne in
321B.C.

Analysis:

The tribes when settled formed a political system, either a monarchy or a republic. The republics
pre-existed the monarchies but it could be observed that the most powerful kingdom of Magadha
followed monarchy. The dynasties ruling Magadha prior to Mauryan dynasty have been
discussed.

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 4. THE EMERGENCE OF EMPIRE

Summary:

Chandragupta Maurya succeeded to the Nanada throne in 321B.C. under the guidance of his
mentor Kautilya. He belonged to a inferior caste, his family apparently being Vaishyas. He
began expanding his territory in the north-west, however he had to pause when he reached Indus
region as Greek Seleucid dynasty had fortified itself there. In 303 B.C. Chandragupta entered
into a marriage alliance with Seleucus Nikator. Chandragupta adopted Jainism towards the end
of his life.

Chandragpta was succeeded by his son Bindusara who was given the title of Amitraghat by the
Greeks. He turned his conquests towards the south and was believed to have conquered the ‘land
between two seas’. At the time of his death almost entire subcontinent became his territory
except Kalinga which was probably left for his son Ashoka.

Ashoka has been referred to as a benevolent king who used ‘Piyadassi’ as a second name for
himself. In 260 B.C. Ashoka campaigned against the Kalingans, the war left hundreds of
thousands of people dead. After observing the huge bloodshed during the war, he went into deep
remorse and got attracted towards the tenets of Buddhism and finally converted into a Buddhist.

Ashoka ruled for tirty seven years and died in 232B.C. without leaving behind any competent
heir. The Ganges valley remained in Mauryan control but the north-western areas were lost to
Bactrian-greeks. The decline of Mauryan empire was generally attributed to his pro-buddhism
policies and economic pressures during his reign. By 180 B.C. with the end of Mauryan dynasty
the first attempt of creating imperialism also ended.

Analysis:

This chapter deals with the Mauryan Dynasty and its contribution in shaping the history of India.
The author accredited the idea of imperialism to The Mauryas and especially to Ashoka, who has

8
been described as one of the greatest rulers of India. The impact of tenets of Buddhism and
Jainism on the life of these rulers has also been highlighted.

5. THE DISINTEGRATION OF EMPIRE

Summary:

The immediate heirs of Mauryas in 180 B.C. were the Shungas, who hailed from Ujjain.
Pushyamitra Shunga assassinated the last of the Mauryas to usurp the throne. He was a keen
supporter of Brahman orthodoxy. The shungas were constantly engaged in wars and their
kingdom covered almost entire Ganges valley and parts of northern India. However, within
hundred years the kingdom shrank to Magadha alone. The shungas were succeeded by Kanwas
who ruled for another fifty years till 28 B.C.

Meanwhile, Kalinga rose to power in the 1st century B.C. under the king Kharavela, whose
inscriptions at Hathigumpha shows that despite being a Jain, he was addicted to military
conquests. After Kharavela’s death, Kalinga relapsed into quiescence.

Analysis:

This part discusses the disintegration of the Empire aftermath the Mauryan period. The lack of
stability in the governance in the post-Mauryan dynasties, continuous warfares and the rise of
Kalinga have been cited as the reasons for its fragmentation.

6. THE RISE OF THE MERCANTILE COMMUNITY

Summary:

Despite all the political vicissitudes of Shungas, Satvahanas, Indo-Greeks, Shakas, Kushanas,
Cheras and Cholas the mercantilism continued to grow. The occupation of north-west India by
Indo-greeks had opened up opportunities for trade with western Asia and Mediterranean world.

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The Shakas, Parthians and Kushanas brought central Asia in the ambit of Indian traders. The
guilds continuing from the Mauryan period became even more important as vast majority of
artisans joined these guilds since it was difficult for them to compete as individuals. There was
also a provision of registration of guilds in the locality they were located. Leading guilds were
those of potters, metal-workers and carpenters. These guilds performed the functions of laying
down the rules of work, the quality of finished products and the prices to safeguard the interest of
artisans and costumers. However, these guilds crept into the private lives of its members. Besides
guilds, there were other worker-bodies also, such as workers’ co-operatives. The guilds could
also act as bankers, financers and trustees as well. However, these categories of functions were
performed by different categories of merchants known as the sreshthins (seths of north-India)
and chettis (South-India). Usury was an accepted part of banking at that time.

The use of money was evident from the excavations but the barter system was not completely
driven out. In Chola kingdom, coinage in copper and paddy remained the units of exchange for
many centuries. The industries were generally set up in areas where raw-materials were readily
found, or where a tradition of particular craft existed and where artisans could be gathered from
surrounding areas. Magadha bore large quantities of iron, copper was in abundance in Rajasthan,
Deccan and in foothills of Himalayas, salt range of Punjab was the main source of salt and
southern India provided spices, gold, precious stones and sandalwood.

Maritime trade was also prominent, especially in Southern kingdoms. The Cholas retained a
large share in the trade carried in the Indian Ocean. India’s most profitable trade was the
Roman trade with Southern India. Although the economic impact of Roman trade was more
evident in Southern India, the inpact of Roman-Greek ideas and artefacts was more evident in the
north.

Analysis:

This chapter brings into light the growth of mercantilism and the contribution of different
dynasties in promoting trade and commerce. For instance, building of roads by Mauryans, Indo-
Greek kings encouraged contact with western Asia and the Mediterranean world, The

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Shakas, Parthians, and Kushanas brought central Asia into the orbit of the Indian
merchant etc.

7. THE EVOLUTION OF THE ‘CLASSICAL’ PATTERN

Summary:

The period of Gupta dynasty is referred to as the Classical age of ancient India. This
description is true in so far as we speak of upper classes whose living standards reached the
unprecedented heights and for the north-India. Since, the deccan and southern India it was the
post-Gupta period that saw the evolution of a higher level of civilization.

The Gupta dynasty came into being with the accession of Chandragupta I. He ruled over
Magadha and parts of eastern U.P. He took the title of ‘Maharajadhiraja’. He was succeeded by
his son Samudragupta in about 335A.D. He aspired to extend his territory to the entire sub-
continent on the lines of Mauryan period. His list of conquests is impressive, but the Shakas
remained unconquered in Western India. However, his character was more gentler and civilized
as he was being described as the lover of poetry and music. And many of his coins show him
playing the Vina.

Chandragupta II, the successor of Samudragupta, is believed to have the most chivalrous and
heroic qualities of all Gupta rulers. He ruled for about forty years from 375 to 415 A.D. his
major campaign was against the Shakas between 388 and 409 A.D. which resulted in defeat of
Shakas and annexation of Western India by Guptas. Chandragupta II was adorned with the title
of ‘Vikramaditya’. Fa Hsien, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim described his kingdom as a generally
happy one. It was during the reign of Chandragupta II’s son Kumaragupta( 415-54 A.D.) that
there came the first hint of a new invasion from the north-west. However, on the whole,
Kumaragupta’s reign was peaceful and he succeeded in keeping the empire intact. But, his
successors couldn’t defend their kingdom as he had done. With the death of Skandagupta( son of
Kumaragupta) the kingdom declined at an increasing rate. After the Guptas and before the rise of
Harsha, petty kingdoms vied with each other to succeed Guptas. Northern India segmented into
four main kingdoms- Guptas of Magadha, the Maukharis, the Pushyabhutis and Maitrakas.

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Harshwardhana ascended to the throne in 606 A.D. and ruled for forty one years. During his
reign he included Jalandhar, Kashmir and Nepal in his territory but was unable to extend his
power to Deccan or Southern India. He faced a major defeat at the hands of a Deccan king
Pulaksen II.

Analysis:

This chapter particularly deals with the Gupta dynasty as it is known as classical age of ancient
India. The author asserts that the idea of imperialism did not die with the Mauryas, the Guptas
were successful if only the territory was to be considered but it failed when it came to
centralization of power.

8. CONFLICT IN THE SOUTHERN KINGDOMS

Summary:

“From the pre-historical times to the present day, there has been no period when the two regions
did not influence each other politically and culturally." - K.A. Nilkanta Sastri

This chapter deals with the conflicts in the southern kingdoms of India. The author critically
analyses the provinces and their administration, present in southern India. The “Badami
Chalukyas” were the earliest Chalukyas dynasty that ruled from their capital called Vatapi
(modern Badami), from the middle of the 6th centuryA.D. The next dynasty that author
addressed is “Pallavas of Kanchipuram”, who occupied the south-eastern part of the Satavahana
Empire and founded their capital at Kanchipuram, popularly known as“Kanchi”.The Dravidian
race that occupied southern extremity was “Pandyas of Madurai”. The other dynasty that
originated in peninsular India was Rashtrakutas and there were differing opinions revolving
around the issue such as home of their earliest ancestors. The dominance of the Rashtrakutasin
the Deccan is considered as the remarkable period in southern India.

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 “Without Bhakti, there is no Tamil literature”

The poetry of the Bhakti movement consists of — first being the Nalayira Divya Prabandham
(4,000 songs) of the Alwars (Vaishnavite) and the Twelve Thirumurais (comprising 18,426
songs) of the Shaivite saints - the main theme was religion and god.

Interestingly, author also analyses about Virupaksha temple that is easily one of the oldest
functioning temple in India, located on the south bank of the river Tungabadra. The temple was
believed to build in the 7th century by Chalukyas.

Analysis:

The processes of the opening up of river valleys and the rise of the first major states under the
Chalukyas, the Pallavas and the Rashtrakutas form the subject matter of the eight chapter. The
long-standing complaint that general histories of India neglect peninsular India is not valid. The
results of the up-to-date research in the field are incorporated and a useful summary of existing
debates, with a statement of one's own position, is available. Explanation of society, economy,
religion and culture is done with respect to political developments.

9. THE SOUTH IN THE ASCENDANT

Summary:

"Well, if at all I have to get married, I will choose a poor soldier, who won’t take me away from
this Chola Kingdom."— Sumeetha Manikandan (Ponni's Beloved - An English Translation Of
Kalki Krishnamurthy's Ponniyin Selvan)

The chapter discusses about the Cholas, Hoysalas, Cherasand local assemblies. The
longestruling dynasty in the history of southern India was the Chola dynasty. In 9th century, the

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Cholas gained control and dethroned the Pallavas. They ruled from 9th to 13th century in
southern India.

Then, Prof. Thapar shows how Hoysalas came into power and stood as a prominent South Indian
empire that ruled most of the modern day state of Karnataka between the 10th and 14th
centuries. Cheras ruled wide-ranging areas of Tamil Nadu and Kerala in south-eastern and south-
western India respectively, areas that had been settled since at least 5000 BC. Ur, Nadu, Sabha
and Nagaram were some of the corporate local assemblies present at that time and the main
functions undertaken by them was to collect, assess the revenue and to look after the local
administration as self governing bodies.

In 10th century Chola empire reached at its peak and it was the time when rulers gave
tremendous impetus to foreign trade. As a result of it, during the rule of the Vijayanagar empire
the ports on the west coast was humming with trade. In the end, Thapar paints a beautiful picture
of Chola architecture which she considered as their greatest achievement.

Analysis:

The expansion of the agrarian order, rise of market towns and other related developments with
the authoritative establishment of the Chola state are taken up in the 9th chapter. The temples
emerged as an important institution during Chola period. Temples played not only religious role,
but also acted as political, economic and socio-cultural centres. The philosophy of Shankara and
Ramanuja produced the philosophical churning during that time.

10. THE BEGINNINGS OF REGIONAL STATES IN NORTHERN INDIA

Summary:

The most powerful empires that arose in India during early medieval period were the Palas, the
Pratiharas and the Rashrakutas. The Palas ruled the eastern parts of India while the Pratiharas
controlled the western India and the third prominent dynasty the Rastrakutas, ruling in the

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Deccan region of India. The struggle for the control over Kannuaj among the three dynasties, is
described as Tripartite struggle in Indian history by author. These rulers tried to demonstrate
their power and resources by building large temples and inscribing their achievements which
were mainly found in sanskrit.

Other small regional kingdoms that were present at that time were kingdoms of Nepal,
Kashmir,Kamarupa(Assam), Utkala(Orissa), Eastern Chalukyas, Gangas and Solankis of
Gujarat. In the end, author throws light on the invasion of India by Muslim conqourers like
Mahmud of Ghazni and Muhammad Ghori.

11. FEUDALISM IN THE REGIONAL STATES

Summary:

“It is held that survival of feudalism occupied a definite, though subordinate, place under the
Sultans. But the system introduced by the Sultans sustained and strengthened feudalism as
whole, and made it dominant in economics and polity.” – Irfan Habib (Classifying Economic
Foundations in Pre-colonial India)

The chapter begins with the general introduction about Feudalism. It was the system relating to
land ownership and duties. All the land present in the state belonged to the king. In India, this
system gradually developed from the introduction of the land grants. The earliest epigraphic
record of land grants in India is a Saatavahana inscription of the 1st century BC. Some
implications of feudalism in medieval period are - Changes in agrarian relations, political
decentralization and emergence of new landed intermediaries.

The growth in overseas trade was another significant development in the period. This chapter has
detailed references to the Chola Kingdom in the Chinese annals. The book unfolds Karashima’s
thorough knowledge in technical terminology and the medieval social history of Tamil country,
based on Tamil epigraphy.

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The main reason behind emergence of certain new castes was the change in the economy. During
and post Gupta period the Brahmins stood at the top of the social hierarchy. Vaishyas in the
medieval India were almost debased to the Shudra community. In fact, Alberuni did not find any
major difference between the Vaishyas and Shudra.

Author ends the chapter by discussing Bhakti movement - Vaishnavism and Shaivism.
Vaishnavism is the acceptance and worship of Lord Vishnu and his various incarnations. Some
of the major Vaishnava groups include the Shrivaishnavas and Madhvas, teachings of Vallabha
and saint Chaitanya. While, Shaivism is the major traditions in Hinduism that reveres Shiva as
the Supreme Being. Major groups such as the Lingayats and the Kashmiri Shaivas contributed to
the theological principles of Shaivism.

Analysis:

The chapters 10 and 11 recapture the situation in Northern India from A.D. 700 to 1200. A
somewhat less researched period, largely on account of the obsessions with golden ages and dark
ages in an earlier fashion of historiography, the politics and economics are treated with
refreshing clarity about an important transitional phase in the history of the country. Of
consequence is the discussion of Central Asian intervention. Northern Indian states were
engaged in the struggle for supremacy during when attacks of Mahmud of Ghanzi and
Muhammed of Ghur happened. Development of feudalistic economic patterns was another
noteworthy development of this period.

12. THE RE-ALIGNMENT OF REGIONAL KINGDOMS

Summary:

“If a holy man eats half his loaf, he will give the other half to a beggar. But if a king conquers all
the world, he will still seek another world to conquer.” —SAADI, PERSIAN POET

This chapter provides the comprehensive account of establishment of Delhi sultanate from 1210
to 1526. Various Turkish and Pashtun dynasties ruled from Delhi:
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The Slave dynasty (1206-90),

The Khilji dynasty (1290-1320),

The Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1413),

The Sayyid dynasty (1414-51),

And the Lodi dynasty (1451-1526).

Qutb-ud-din Aibak, one of generals of Muhammad of Ghori, established the first dynasty of the
Delhi Sultanate - the Mamluks or Early Turks. The territory under his control expanded rapidly.
Iltutmish and Balban were among the dynasty's most well-known rulers. The Mamluk dynasty
came to an end in 1290 after facing revolts by conquered territories and rivalry among the
family. The Mamluk dynasty is the one in Sultanate to stake a claim of possessing one of the few
female rulers in India, Razia.

The central administration of Delhi sultanate followed well planned and very systematic
procedure which was run by several ministers. Additionally, there were also various departments
and Sultan was the head and enjoyed absolute power. The Delhi sultanate was in addition
divided into smaller provinces for convenience of the ministers, they were called Iqtas. Under
this system, the entire empire was divided into several large and small tracts of land ( iqtas).
After a series of successions, the Tughlaq dynasty ended. Khijr Khan founded Sayyid dynasty.

The last ruler of this dynasty Alauddin Alam Shah voluntarily abdicated the throne in favour of
Bahlol Lodi. Lodi Afghans tried to gain the old power and pomp of Delhi but could not succeed.
The first ruler of Lodi dynasty was Bahlol Lodi who was succeeded by his son Sikandar Lodi.
Sikandar died in 1517 and was succeeded by his son Ibrahim Lodi, who was the last Sultan of
the Delhi Sultanate. When discontent grew against him, he tried to subdue it by killing some of
the nobles. One of his uncles Daulat Khan Lodi fled to Kabul, invited Babur to invade India. In
Mewar, a new power under Rana Sanga was on its zenith. Under these circumstances, Babur
attacked India and closed the chapter of Delhi Sultanate.

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Analysis:

Chapter 12 deals with political development in northern India which witnessed the inclusion of
foriegn elements like Turks, Afghans etc who got assimilated duly like earlier invaders such as
Kushanas within the Indian socio-cultural mileu. Several regional powers also developed in
Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa etc. Development of their regional cultures in the form of separate
architecture, and literary traditions was another feature of this period.

13. ASSIMILATION ON TRIAL

Summary:

“There was that Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni who had invaded Hindustan seventeen, times—not
once or twice but seventeen times”. Khushwant Singh

This chapter gives general understanding about the administrative system of Delhi Sultanate
which were mainly governed by Quranic injunctions. The Quranic law was the supreme law of
the empire. The real head of the administration of Delhi Sultanate was the king or Sultan himself.
The Sultan at his death bed could also nominate his heirs and that was recognized by all other
nobles.

The Sultanate government was essentially a centralized one though it had the original democratic
nature of an Islamic State. During the rule of the slave dynasty there were four ministers— the
wazir, the ariz–i–mamalik, the diwan–i–insha and the diwan–i–rasalat. Wazir had great
authority and often exercised the Sultan’s power and prerogatives though with some restrictions.
Diwan-i-ariz was the controller general of the military establishment. Diwan-irasalat was in
charge of the royal correspondence. Provincial administration was run by Muqti, Iqtadars and
other government officials. Iqtadars were the landholders. During the Sultanate period, primarily
Indian Muslims were either of the converted Hindus or were descendants of such converted
Muslims. In India the Muslims were divided into two classes namely the Umaras or nobles and

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the Ulemas or the theologians. Art and architecturetook a new direction in the Delhi Sultanate
period. RomilaThaper discussed Three schools of architecture:

(1) The Delhi school of art which was a mix of Hindu and Muslim styles

(2) The provincial styles which were also a blend of Hindu-Muslim styles

(3) The Hindu style, free from Muslim influences.

Analysis :

The reactions witnessed in political changes also reflected themselves in the form of new theory
of kingship and a tinge of theocracy. Morever the cultural repercussions were the emergence of
Sufi movement in India and its influence on Bhakti movement. Emergence of a synthesised form
of Indian and foreign elements in the field of architecture as Indo-Islamic or Indo-persian
architecture and development of new methods of surplus appropriation in the form Of Iqta
system were some new developments in this period.

14. THE SOUTH CONFORMS

Summary:

"The death of an old man like me is indeed of little moment, but to your Majesty, it will be the
loss of an empire, and the ruin of your character"- (Mahmud Gawan's last words to Muhammad
Shah)

This chapter deals with the Bahmani kingdom, expeditions of Malik Kafur under Alauddin
Khilji, Vijayanagara Empire and disintegration of Bahamani kingdom.The Bahmani kingdom
was founded by Alauddin Hasan. It was the Muslim state of the Deccan (South India), one of the
great medieval Indian kingdoms. The empire was established after revolting against the Delhi
Sultanate of Muhammad bin Tughlaq. Nazir Uddin Ismail Shah who had revolted against the
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Delhi Sultanate stepped down on that day in favour of Bahman Shah. His revolt was successful,
and he established an independent state on the Deccan. Malik Kafur was the personal favorite of
Alauddin Khilji and was hence entrusted with the responsibility of invading the Southern part of
India. In 1538, Bahamani kingdom was disintegrated into five kingdoms - Ahmednagar, Berar,
Golcunda, Bidar and Bijapur.

Analysis:

The discussed period was the period of political turmoil and conflict between Bahmani and
Vijayanagar empire for keeping control over Raichur doab. But this period also witnessed
enrichment in cultural and economic fields. New styles of architecture under state patronage
were remarkable. Economy provided the solid base with thriving overseas trade and commerce.

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 15. CRITICAL ANALYSIS

History writing in India has become a sensitive initiative, carrying ideological leanings and
authors’ personal views rather than integrating new findings into an ever-growing perspective. In
fact, available archaeological evidence places Indian civilization as a manifestation different
from how it is familiar in the rest of the world. Indian history so far available is squeezed into a
western-centric framework through artificial and alien terminology: barbarism, feudalism,
Aryanisation and class war.

It begins with an introduction that there is no sense of national pride in the intellectual horizon of
the Indian historians, who blindly follow the colonial version of Indian history. She projected
Ancient India as virtual utopia, starting with the Vedic Age where the people were cattle-herders
looking for good pastures, without familiarity with agriculture and grains like rice.

In the next phase, the author projects Indus Valley civilisation as the origin of many cultures of
India. Archaeological sites have yielded many artefacts that evidence a cultural continuity with
later Indian civilization.

Besides this critical approach, the book provides updated archaeological material on climate in
Indus valley, detailed description of south Indian kingdom, urbanisation in the Ancient Indus
Valley, decline of Buddhism in India, the status of State religion in Ancient India, all of which
would be useful for research scholars in Archaeology and History.

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