Calculus 101

Unit 4: Calculus
Notes
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Theory of Sets
4.2.1 Definition of a Set
4.2.2 Set Notations
4.2.3 Set Operations
4.2.4 Properties of Set Operations
4.2.5 Applications of Sets
4.2.6 Cartesian Product of Sets
4.3 Relations and Functions
4.3.1 Relation
4.3.2 Function
4.3.3 Types of Function
4.4 Limits and Continuity
4.4.1 Limits
4.4.2 Continuity of a Function
4.5 Differentiation
4.5.1 Derivative of a Function
4.5.2 Some Standard Derivatives
4.5.3 Rules for Derivatives
4.5.4 Economic Applications of Derivatives
4.6 Maxima and Minima
4.7 Integration
4.7.1 Basic Rules of Intergration
4.7.2 Methods of Integration
4.7.3 Definite Integrals
4.7.4 Learning Curves
4.8 Summary
4.9 Check Your Progress
4.10 Questions and Exercises
4.11 Key Terms
4.12 Further Readings

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
 Understand the meaning of sets and functions.
 Understand the concepts of limit and continuity of a function at a point.
 Find and interpret the derivative of a function.
 Find maxima and minima of a function.
 Find and interpret the integral of a function.

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4.1 Introduction
Notes In many real world problems, a correspondence is often found to exist between two or more
sets of numbers. For example there is a correspondence between quantity demanded and
price of the commodity marks obtained by a candidate inM.B.A. examination and his salary
at the point of entry in service, etc. The rule by which this correspondence can be expressed
in terms of symbols is known as a function. Given a function, we are often interested to know
how the change in one variable corresponds to changes in the other.

We begin with the theory of sets which is necessary to introduce the idea of functions.
We shall also study about relations and further gain knowledge about limits and Continuity
based on that. The questions relating to rates of changes require the introduction to the
concept of derivatives and antiderivatives. The maxima and minima of functions, an important
application of derivatives, also included. Thereafter, we shall study about Differentiation and
integration and solve few numerical problems based on that.

4.2 Theory of Sets

The concept of a set plays a basic role in modern mathematics. A large number of
mathematical concepts are based on the theory of sets and rule of logic. We shall study the
different types and notations of sets.

4.2.1 Definition of a Set

A set is a collection of well defined objects, things or numbers. The individual objects that
make up a set are known as the elements or members of the set.
A few examples of the sets are:

1. The set of all students of a college.

2. The set of all colleges in a university.

3. The set of all households above a particular income.

4. The set of all real numbers.

5. The set of all villages in a state.

Finite and Infinite Sets

A set is said to be finite if it contains none or a countable number of elements. A set which
is not finite is called an infinite set.
For example,

(i) The number of students in a class is a finite set.

(ii) The number of stars in the sky is an infinite set.

(iii) The set of real number is an infinite set.

4.2.2 Set Notations

Usually the capital letters A,B,C, ... X, Y ... etc. are used to denote a set. The elements of
a set are denoted by small letters a, b, c, ... x, y, ... etc.

When we write x  A (read as x belongs to A), it implies that x is an element of the set
A. Similarly, x  B is used to denote that x is not an element of the set B.

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There are two ways of expressing a set.

(i) Roster Method Notes

In this method various elements of a set are written one after another, separated by
commas. The whole list of elements is placed with in braces { }. For example, the set
of first six natural numbers is written as {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, the set of vowels in English
alphabets {a, e, i, o, u,} etc.

(ii) Set Builder or Rule Method

When the actual elements forming a set are not given or it is not possible to write all
the elements, a set is expressed by writing a rule that gives a method of determining
the elements of a set. For example, the set of all real numbers between 5 and 10 is
written as
A = {x : 5 < x < 10, x  R}
Null or Empty Sets
A set which contains no elements is called a Null or empty set. This set is often denoted by
the Greek Letter  (phi) and written as  = { }. For example, the set of boy students in a
girls’ college. It should be noted that the set {0} is not a null set. This set has 0 as one
element.
Singleton or Unit Set
A set containing only one element is known as a unit set.
Disjoint Sets
If two sets have no elements in common, they are called disjoint sets. For example, the sets
A = {2, 10, 15} and B = {1, 7, 9, 14, 18} are disjoint sets.
Subset
A set X is called a subset of another set Y, if every element of X is also an element of Y. In
symbols, this is written as X Y.
We should note that every set Y is a subset of itself. Also  is a subset of every set.
Proper Subset
A subset X of a set Y, other than  and Y, is called a proper subset of Y and is symbolically
written as X  Y..
Equal Sets
Two sets A and B are said to be equal if every element of A is an element ofB and conversely
every element of B is also an element of A. When A and B are equal, we write A = B.

If A = {5, 10, 15} and B = {15, 5, 10}, then A = B.

Equivalent Sets
Two sets are said to be equivalent, if there is one to one correspondence between their
elements.

The one to one correspondence is said to exist between two sets A and B if it is
possible to associate each element of A with a single element of B and vice-versa. We may
note that the sets A  {a1,a2 ,a3 } and B  {b1,b2 ,b3 } are equivalent sets and we denote this
by writing A  B or A~B. Further equivalent sets have the same number of elements.

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Set of Sets

Notes A set where each of its element is also a set, is called a set of sets. For example A = [{  },
{1}, {2}, {1,2}] is a set of sets.
Power Set
The set of all subsets of a set A is called power set and is denoted by P (A). Let A = {a, b, c}
be a set. Then its power set is given by P (A) = [{  }, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a,b}, {a,c}, {b,c}, {a, b, c}]

Universal Set
The totality of all the objects relevant to a particular problem is called a universal set. For
example, in the study of income distribution of households of a city, the universal set will
include all the households of the city as its elements.

4.2.3 Set Operations

The sets may be combined or operated in various ways to obtain new sets. The basic
operations on sets are discussed below.
Compliment of a Set
The compliment of a set A is set of all those elements of the universal set which do not
belong to A. It is denoted by A or Ac .

Let the universal set be U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and A= {4, 5, 6}, then A = {1, 2, 3}.

The compliment of a set can be represented by Venn Diagram where the rectangular
box represents the universal set.

Fig.4.1
Figure 4.1
Difference of Two Sets
The difference of two sets A and B, denoted as A–B, is the set of those elements of A which
do not belong to B.

We can write
A  B  {x : x  A and x  B}.

Using Venn diagram the set A–B is represented by the shaded area.

A B

Fig.4.2
Figure 4.2

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Union of Two Sets
The union of two sets A and B, written as A  B, is the set of all elements that belong to A or Notes
B or to both A and B.

Symbolically A  B = {x : x  A or x  B or x  both A and B}

Alternatively, A  B is the set of those elements which belongs to at least one of the two
sets A or B.

For example if A = {3, 4, 5, 6} and B = {5, 6, 7, 8} then

A  B = {3, 4 , 5, 6, 7}

A B

Fig.4.3
Figure 4.3
Intersection of Two Sets

The intersection of two sets A and B, written as A  B, is the set of all elements that belong
to both A and B.

If A and B are two sets, considered above, then

A  B  {5,6}

The intersection of two sets is represented by the shaded area in the following Venn-
diagram.

A B

Fig.4.4
Figure 4.4
Union and Intersection of Three Sets

Like union of two sets, the union of three sets, denoted as A  B  C, is the set of all
elements belonging to at least one of the sets A, B or C. The shaded area in figure represents
A  B  C.

C C

A A

B B

Fig.4.5 Fig.4.6
Figure 4.5 Figure 4.6

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Similary, the intersection of the three sets, denoted as A  B  C, is the set of all elements
s
belonging to the sets A, B and C. This is shown by the shaded area in fig. 4.6.
Notes
Example 1
Let U  {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10},A  {1,2,6,7}
B  {7,8,9,10} and C  {3,4,7,9,10}. Find

(i) A  B, (ii) B  C, (iii) A  B, (iv) C  B, (v)B, (vi) A  C, (vii) A  B

Solution

(i) A  B  {1,2,6,7,8,9,10}

(ii) B  C  {3,4,7,8,9,10}

(iii) A  B  {7}

(iv) C  B  {7,9,10}

(v) B  {1,2,3,4,5,6}

(vi) A  B  {5,8}

(vii) A  B  {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}

Example 2

Let U  {1,2,3,......,10},A  {x : x  Uand x  5},

B  {x : x  U and x  7} and C  {x : x  U and 4  x  8}

Find (i) A  B (ii) A  B  C (iii) A  B (iv) A  B  C

(v) (A  B)  C (vi) A  (B  C) (vii) A  B (viii) B  A

(ix) A  B (x) (A  B)  C

Solution

(i) A  B  {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}  U

(ii) A B C  A B  U

(iii) A  B  {6,7}

(iv) A  B  C  {6,7}

(v) (A  B)  C  {5,6,7,8}

(vi) A  (B  C)  {5,6,7,8,9,10}

(vii) A  B  {6,7,8,9,10}

(viii) B  A  1,2,3,4,5,6,7

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(ix) A  B  {8,9,10}
Notes
(x) (A  B)  C  {1,2,3,4,9,10}

4.2.4 Properties of Set Operations

(i) Commutative Property

Given two sets A and B, the commutative properties implies that A  B  B  A

(i.e. the unoin of two sets is commutative).

and A  B  B  A (i.e. the intersection of two sets is commutative).

(ii) Associative Property

Given three sets A, B and C, the associative property implies that

(A  B)  C  A  (B  C) (i.e. the union of sets is associative)

and (A  B)  C  A  (B  C) (i.e. the intersection of sets is associative).

(iii) Distributive Property

Given three sets A, B and C, we have

A  (B  C)  (A  B)  (A  C) (i.e. intersection distributes over union)

and A  (B  C)  (A  B)  (A  C) (i.e. union distributes over intersection).

(iv) De Morgan’s Law

Given two sets A and B, we have

(a) (A  B)  A  B, and

(b) (A  B)  A  B

Example 3

(i) If A  {2,3,4} and B  {7,10,14}

Verify that A  B  B  A

and A  B  B  A

(ii) If A  {a,b,c,d,e},B  {a,c,e,g} andC  {b,e,f,g}

Verfity that

1. (A  B)  C  A  B(B  C)

2. (A  B)  C  A  B(B  C)

3. A  (B  C)  (A  B)  (A  C)

4. A  (B  C)  (A  B)  (A  C)

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Solution

Notes (i) We can write A  B  {2,3,4,7,10,14}

and B  A  {7,10,14,2,3,14}

Since the order of elements in a set is immaterial, therefore A  B  B  A

Further A  B   B  A  

Hence A  B  B  A.

(ii) 1. A  B  {a,b,c,d,e,g}

(A  B)  C  {a,b,c,d,e,f,g}

Also B  C  {a,b,c,e,f,g}

and A  (B  C)  {a,b,c,d,e,f,g}

Thus (A  B)  C  A  (B  C)

2. A  B  {a,c,e}

(A  B)  C  {e}

Also (B  C)  {e,g}

and A  (B  C)  {e}

Thus (A  B)  C)  A  (B  C)

3. We can write A  (B  C)  {a,b,c,d,e,g}

Also (A  B)  {a,b,c,d,e,g}

A  C  a,b,c,d,e,f,g

 (A  B)  (A  C)  {a,b,c,d,e,g}

Thus A  (B  C)  (A  B)  (A  C)

4. B  C  {a,b,c,e,f,g}

A  (B  C)  {a,b,c,e}

Also A  B  {a,c,e}

A  C  {b,e}

 (A  B)  (A  C)  (a,b,c,e)

Thus A  (B  C)  (A  B)  (A  C).

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Example 4

If U  {p,q,r,s,t}, A  {p,q,s} and B  {q,s,t}, Show that Notes

(a) (A  B)  A  B and

(b) (A  B)  A  B and

Solution

(a) (A  B)  {p,q,s,t}
 A  B  {r}
Also A  {r,t} and B  {p,r}
 A  B  {r}

A B  A B

(b) (A  B)  {q,s}
(A  B)  {p,r,t}
Also A  B  {p,r,t}
 (A  B)  A  B

4.2.5 Applications of Sets

Let A and B be two finite sets so that their number of elements can be counted. We shall
denote the number of elements in set A by n(A), number of elements in set B by n(B) and
number of elements in set A  B , by n (A  B) The number of elements in set A  B, denoted
by n ( A  B ) is given by
n(A  B)  n(A)  n(B)  n(A  B)
 n(A)  n(B) if A and B are disjoint sets.

Generalising this result to three sets, we can write

n(A  B  C)  n(A)  n(B)  n(C)  n(A  B)  n(A  C)  n(B  C)  n(A  B  C)

Example 5

In a group of 1000 persons, 760 can speak Hindi and 430 can speak Punjabi.

(i) How many can speak both Hindi and Punjabi?

(ii) How many can speak Hindi only?

(iii) How many can speak Punjabi only?

Solution
Let A denote the set of persons who can speak Hindi and B denote the set of persons who
can speak punjabi.

In terms of notations, it is given that

n(A  B)  1000, n(A)  760, n(B)  430.

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(i) The number of persons who can speak Hindi and Punjabi is

Notes n (A  B)  n (A)  n (B)  n (A  B)

 760  430  1000  190

(ii) The number of persons who can speak Hindi only is

n(A  B)  n(A)  n(A  B)

430  190  240.

(iii) The number or persons who can speak Hindi only is

n(A  B)  n(A)  n(A  B)

 760  190  570

Example 6
The following results were obtained in an examination of a class of 150 students.

45 students failed in mathematics, 50 students failed in physics, 48 students failed in

chemistry, 30 students failed in both mathematices and physics, 32 failed in both physics
and chemistry, 35 failed in both mathematics and chemistry and 25 failed in all the three
subjects. Find the number of students who have failed in at least one subject.
Solution
Let M, P and C denotes the set of students failing in Mathematics, Physics and Chemistry
respectively.

It is given that n(M)=45, n(P)=50 and n(C)=48, n(M  P)  30,

n(P  C)  32,n(M  C)  35 and n(M  P  C)  25 .
We have to find n(M  P  C) .
We know that

n(M  P  C)  n(M)  n(P)  n(C)  n(M  P)  n(P  C)  n(M  C)  n(M  P  C)

 45  50  48  30  32  35  25  71

Hence 71 students failed in at least one subject.

4.2.6 Cartesian Product of Sets

Let there be two sets A={1,2} and B={4,5,6}. The cartesian product of the two sets is a set
of odered paris given by A×B={(1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,4), (2,5) (2,6)}

Note that the concept of an ordered pair is different from the concept of a set. Where as
in case of a set, the order in which its elements are written is immaterial i.e. the set {2,4} is
same as the set {4,2} the ordered pair (2,4) is not the same as the order pair (4,2). We use
( ) type of enclose an ordered pair.

If X  x : x  R and Y  y : y  R are two real valued sets, then

X  Y  (x,y) : x  R and y  R is the set of ordered pairs in XY-plane. Each ordered

pair (xi ,yi ), i  1,2,...n, can be denoted by a point in XY-plane as shown in Figure 4.7.

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Y
Notes
yi P(xi ,yi )

o xi x
Fig. 4.7

Figure 4.7

The values xi and yi are called the coordinates of the point P. The XY-plane is also
termed as real plane or R 2 -plane.

4.3 Relations and functions

We shall study about relations first and then functions in detail.
Y

4.3.1 Relation
A relation S from a set X to set Y is a subset of X×Y. The set
X, of relevent values, is called the domain of S and the
corresponding set of Y values is called the range of o x
S. In Figure 4.8, the subset of points, shown by the shaded
area, is a relation. We note that a relation S from X to Y, Fig. 4.8
denoted by the subset (x,y) is such that correspnding to
Figure 4.8
each value of x, in its domain, we can associate one or more values of y.
Some Example of Relations

(i) The set of points on a line given by S  (x,y) : y  2x  3 is a relation

(ii) The set of points given by S  (x,y) : y  x is a relatoin.

(iii) The set of points given by S  { x,y  : x 2  y 2  4} is a reltion. This is the set of points
on the circumaference of the circle.

(iv) The set of point given by S  { x,y  : x 2  y 2  4} is a relation

(v) The set of points enclose by a tringle or a rectangle is also a relation.

4.3.2 Function

A function f from a set X to a set Y is a subset of X  Y, denoted as (x, y), such that
corresponding to each value of x we can associate one and only one value of y. In such a
situation, y is said to be a function of x and is denoted as y  f(x) .

From the definition of the function, we note that a function is also a relation but a relation
may or may not be function. The relation given in example (i), above is also a function. As
another example, consider the subject of points given by (x, y) : y  x .
2
Since

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corresponding to each value of x we can associate only one value of y, thus y  x 2 . is a

Notes function.

Another important point to be noted is that although the definition of a function requires
the existence of only one value of y corresponding to a given value of x, the converse of this
may not hold true i.e. it is possible to associate more than one value of x with a given value
of y. This type of situation is shown in figure below.

As in case of a relation, the set X is termed as the domain of the function. For each value
of x in X, the corrsponding value of y in Y is called the value of the function or the image of x.
The set of all possible values of the function, corresponding to its domain, is called the range
of the function.

When we write a function as y  f(x) , x is termed as the independent variable or argument

of the function and y is termed as the dependent variable. Thus, domain of a function may be
defined as the set of all possible values that the independent variable can take and the range
of a corresponding to its domain.

Remarks:
The mathematical formulation of a problem is done by the use of symbols. These symbols
can broadly be classified into two categories

(i) Variable : A variable is a measurable characteristics whose magnitude can change or

can take different values in a problem. For example, price of a commodity, quantity
demanded or supplied, cost of production, level of output etc.

(ii) Constant : A constant is a measurable characteristics whose magnitude remains

unchanged in a given problem. For example, the price at which demand of a commodity
fall to zero price of a commodity in a perferctly competitive market, fixed cost of production
etc.
Some Examples of functions from Business and Economics

(i) Demand Function, written as x  D(p), where p, the price of x, is an indepdent variable
and x, the quantity demanded, is a dependent variable.

(ii) Cost Function, written as C  F(x), where x, the level of output, is an independent
variable and C, the cost of production, is dependent variable.

(iii) Total revenue Funcation, written as R  f(x), where x, the level of sales, is an
independent variable and R, the total revenue, is a dependent variable.

(iv) Supply Function, written as x  S(p), where p, the price of x, is an independent

variable and x, the quantity supplied, is a dependent variable.

(v) Consumption Function, written as C  f(,Y) where

Y, the level of a national income, is an independent Y
variable and C, the level of national consumption is a
dependent variable.
(x2 ,y1 )
4.3.3 Types of Functions (x1 ,y1 )

Depending upon the nature of their symbolic expressions,

various functions can be classified into the following x1 x 2 o x1
categories:
Fig. 4.9
Figure 4.9

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(a) Polynomial Function

A Function of the form y  a0  a1x  a2 x 2  ....  an x n , where n is a positive integer, x and y Notes
are real numbers, and an  0 , is called a polynomial function of degree n.

(i) If n  0,we have y  a 0 ,a constant function

(ii) If n  1,we have y  a0  a1x,a linear function.

(iii) If n  2, we have y  a0  a1x  a2 x 2 , a quadratic or parabolic function.

(iv) If n  3, we have y  a0  a1x  a2 x 2  a3 x 3 ,a cubic function and so on.

Power Function

It is a special case of a polynomial function of degree n where a0  a1,...  an 1  0, This

function is written as y  ax n where n can be a real number. The diagrammatic representation
of quadratic, cublic and power function is given in Figure 4.10.

Y Y Y
y  a 0  a1x  a 2 x 2 2
y  a0  a1x  a2x  a3x 3 y  ax 3

a0
o x o x o x

Fig. 4.10
Figure 4.10

We note that, in general, a polynomial of degree n is suppose to have at most (n – 1)

bumps or wiggles in its curve.
(b) Rational Function

f(x)
A rational function is defined as the ratio of two polynomials, For example y  is a
g(x)
rational function where f(x) and g(x) are polynomials in x such that g(x)  0 .

(c) Irrational Functions

A function which is expressed as a root of a polynomical is called an irrational function, For
example, y  ax 2  bx  c is an irrational function.

(d) Step Function

A function define as follows is a step function:

x 0  x  10 10  x  18 18  x  26

y 2 3 4

We note that as x takes a value in the interval [0,10], the dependent variable takes
a constant value 2. The moment x become greater than 10, the value of y suddenly jumps
to 3. The Figure 4.11 of such a function is like steps as shown:
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Y
Notes 4

o 10 18 26 x
Fig. 4.11

Figure 4.11

The fare strucate of a transport service or rates of postal charges are very common
examples of a step function.

The function, discussed so far, are often known asalgebraic functions. There is another
category of functions known as non algebraic or transcedental functions. The functions like
exponential, lograithmic and trigonometric (or circular) are known as non-algebraic functions.
(e) Exponantial Functions

An exponential function is a function of the form y  b x , where b  1 is a real constant.

Since the independent variable appears as an exponent to the base b, y  b x is termed an
exponential function. The graph of an exponential function forvarious values of b is given in
Figure 4.12

3 x Y 2.3x 3x 2 x
2 x

1
'
x o X

Fig. 4.12
Figure 4.12

Important features of the exponential functions are:

(i) For domain ( , ) the range of the function is (0,  ), i.e. the value of y is positive for
all real values of x.
(ii) y is a montonic function of x, monotonically increasing when b  1 and monotonically
decreasing when 0  b  1 . The monotonicity of the function implies that there is a
unique value of y for a given value of x and vice-versa. The positive range of the function
indicates that any positive number can be expressed as
a unique power to a given base (>1).
Y
Note : If a function y = f (x) is solved for x in terms of y to y  log a x
get, say, x = g(y), then f (x) and g(y) are said to be inverse
functions of each other. It may be noted that the diagrams of y
= f(x) and x = g(y) are same.
(f) Logarithmic Functions
O 1 X
Logarithmic functions are inverse to exponential functions. The
inverse of an exponential function y = bx can be written as x =
logb y. Y
Fig. 4.13
Figure 4.13
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The domain of a logarithmic function is (0,  ) and its range is (-  ,  ). The diagram of
x = logb y is same as that given in figure.
Notes
However, following the convention of keeping x as an independent variable and y as a
dependent variable, we can write a logarithmic function as

y = logax Where a > 1 is a constant.

The graph of this function can be obtained from the graph of the inverse of this function,
i.e. x = ay. This graph is shown in Figure 4.14.

We note the following important points regarding a logarithmic C

function.

(i) Since an exponential function is monotonic, a

logarithmic function will also be monotonic.

(ii) The logarithm of a negative number does not exist. x

A Fig. 4.14 B
(iii) The logarithm of a number lying between 0 and 1 is
negative.
Figure 4.14
(g) Trignometric Function
Consider a right angled triangle ABC with right angle at B. Let angle CAB be equal to x. We
BC
know, from trignometry that y = = Sin x.
AC

Thus y is a trignometric function of x. Other trignometric functions are cos x, tan x etc.
Since these functions are periodic in nature, therefore they are also known is circular functions.
Example 7

(i) Find the domain and range of the following functions :

x 2  4x  1
(a) y  4x 3  2x 2  x  5 (b) y 
x2  9
Solution

(a) Since y = 4x3 + 2x2 + x - 5 has a real value for all real values of x, its domain is
  x  .
Further, since y shall be a real number corresponding to a real value of x, the range is
  y  .

(b) Since the function is not defined when x = ± 3 the domain is   x  . and x  3.
The range of the function is   y  .
Example 8
x 1
Find inverse function of the function y = x  1

Solution

x 1
We can write y 
x 1

or y(x  1)  x  1

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or xy  y  x  1
Notes x(y  1)   y  1

(y  1) 1  y
or x   is the required inverse function.
y 1 1 y

4.4 Limits and Continuity

We will understand about limits and continuity now.

4.4.1 Limits
Before introducing the limit of a function, it will be advantageous to introduce the concept of
limit of a sequence.

Sequence : A sequence is defined as a functions of positive integers, written as

{yn} = f (n) where n is a positive integer.

n
Let a sequence be {yn} = , where n = 1,2,3,....... The different members of this
n 1
sequence can be written as
1 2 3 100
, , ,...., ,....(for n  1,2,3,....,100,...)
2 3 4 101

Y
y  f (x )

O x a X

Fig. 4.15
Figure 4.15
We note that as n becomes larger and larger, the successive terms of the sequence
becomes closer and closer to unity but none of them is exactly equal to unity. Such a
behaviour is summarised by saying that the sequence {yn} approaches unity for large values
of n or the limit of the sequence {yn} is unity. Symbolically, we write

lim lim  n 
  {yn }  1 or     1.
n n  n  1

Note that there is a difference between “approaching a value” and “attaining a value.” The
former term implies that we are very near to the value while the latter implies that we are
exactly at that value. Symbolically when x approaches a, we writex  a and when x attains
a value a, we write x = a.
Limit of a Function
In case of the limit of a function, we are concerned with the manner in which a function, say
y = f (x) approaches a particular value as the independent variable x approaches a particular
value, say a. Here we examine the behaviour of the function as x approaches a through

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values which are less than it (called left hand limit) and as x approach a through values which
are greater than it (called right hand limit), as shown by arrows in fig 4.15. The function y =
f (x) is said to have a limit b as x approaches a if Notes
lim f(x)  lim f(x)  b.
x  a x  a

Note that a- represents that we are approaching x through values which are less than a
lim
and f(x) denotes left hand limit of the function etc.
x  a

When the left hand limit and right hand limit are equal, we can also write lim f(x)  b.
xa

Example 9

x 2  16
Examine the limit of the function y  when x  4.
x4
Solution

To find left hand limit, we make the following table:

x 3 3.5 3.9 3.99 3.999
y 7 7.5 7.9 7.99 7.999

lim  x 2  16 
This table indicates that 8
x  4   x  4 
Similary, to find right hand limit, we make the following table:
x 5 4.5 4.1 4.01 4.001
y 9 8.5 8.1 8.01 8.001

lim  x 2  16 
Thus 8
x  4   x  4 
Since left hand limit=right hand limit, we say that the limit of the function is 8. This can
lim  x 2  16 
also be written as 8
x  4   x  4 

Alternative Method
On simplification, the function can be written as
x 2  16
y  x4
x4

To find left hand limit as x  4 , we substitute x by 4  h and take the limit as h  0.

Thus
lim  x 2  16  lim
   (4  h  4)  8
x  4 x  4  h  0

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Similary, for right hand limit, we substitute x by 4 + h and take limit as h  0 .

Notes lim  x 2  16  lim
    (4  h  4)  8.
x  4 x  4  h  0

Example 10

3x  2
Examine the limit of the function y  as x  1.
x 1
Solution
Left hand limit:

lim  3x  2  lim  3(1  h)  2  lim  5  3h 

   
x  1 x  1 h  0  1  h  1  h  0  h 
 

lim  5
 3    .
h  0  h

Right hand limit:

lim  3x  2  lim  3(1  h)  2  lim  5  3h 

  
x  1   x  1  h  0  1  h  1  h  0  h 

lim  5
  3    .
h  0 h

Since LHL  RHL, the function doesnot have a limit as x  1 .

Rules for the limit of a Function

The limit of a function can also be obatained by following certain rules, given below:

1. The limit of a constant is constant itself.

lim
2. If y  x,then y  a.
xa

lim lim
For any two functions f (x) and g(x) such that f (x)=1 and g(x)  m,
xa xa
where 1 and m are real numbers, we can state that.

lim lim lim

3. {f(x)  g(x)}  f(x)  g(x)  1 m.
xa xa xa

We note that if 1 and m are infinite numbers, then     , however, we cannot say
anything about the magnitude of    .

lim lim lim

4. {f(x),g(x)}  f(x). g(x)  1.m.
xa xa xa

On the basis of above rules, we can write a rule for the limit of a polynomial of
degree x.
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If (x)   0  1x   2 x 2  ...  n x n ,
Notes
lim
then Φ(x)  α0  α1a  α 2 a2  ...  αn an .
xa

lim
lim f(x) x  a f(x) 1
 
5. x  a g(x) lim m
n   f(x)

(Where 1 and m are finite numbers such that m  0 ).

Remarks:

(i) If 1  0 and m  0. the ratio does not have a limit or in other words, the limit is infinite.

(ii) If l  m  0, the limit of the ratio may or may not exist. This case is of great practcial
importance because, as we will see later, it forms the basis of the development of
differential calculus.

(iii) If l  m   , the limit of the ratio may or may not exist.

It should be noted that most of the problems regarding the finding of limits fall under the
lim f(x) f(x)
categories (i), (ii) and (iii) given above. As a general rule, to find , the ratio
x  a g(x) g(x)
should first be simiplified or algebriaclly manipuled.
Example 11
lim  x 2  3x  2 
Evaluate  
x  3 x  3 

Solution
Using polynomial rule of limits, we get
lim
(x 2  3x  2)  9  9  2  20 (finite) and
x3

lim
(x  3)  3  3  6(finite).
x3

lim  x 2  3x  2  20
 Using rule, we get x  3  x  3   6  3.33.
 

Example 12
lim  x 2  x  6 
Evaluate  
x  2 x  2 

Solution

lim
(x 2  x  6)  4  2  6  0and
x2
lim
(x  2)  2  2  0.
x2
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We note here that x=2 is a solution of the polynomial in numerator. After factorisation of
the numeator, we can write
Notes
lim (x  3)(x  2) lim
 (x  3)  5.
x2 x2 x2

Example 13
lim  a x 2  b1x  c1 
Evaluate x    1 2 
 a2 x  b2 x  c 2 

Solution
We note that the separate limits of the numerator and denominator are  . To find the limit,
we divide numerator and denominator by the. The term consisting of highest power of x. In
this case it is x 2. Thus

 b1 c1 
 a1x 2  b1x  c1 
lim lim  a1  x  x 2 
x   2   x   
 a2 x  b2 x  c 2   a2  b2  c 2 
 x x2 

a1  0  0 a1
 
a2  0  0 a2

Example 14
lim 1
Find x  0
x
1 1 x 
Solution
We note that the ratio is by  form. In this case we can find the limit by rationalisation. We
can write

1 1 1 x 1 1 x 1  (1  x)

1 1 x    
x x 1 1 x x 1 1 x  
1

1 1 x
lim 1 lim 1 1

x 0x

1 1 x   
x  0 1  1  x 2.

Example 15
Show that the function, defined below, does not have a limit as x 
y  3x  4 when x  3
y  13.5 when x  3
y  3x  5 when x  3

Solution
lim
The left hand limit (LHL) = x  3  (3x  4)  13

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lim
The right hand limit (RHL)= x  3  (3x  4)  14
Notes
Since LHL  RHL, the function does not have a limit as x  a .

Example 16

3x  4
Approximate the function y  , by a linear function, when x is anpproximately equal
x2
to 4.
Solution

1
If x is small, show that f(x)  f(0)  xf '(0) appromately. Show that can be
1  2x
approximated by 1  2x when x is small. Express the difference between the expression
and its approximation in terms of x.

At what points of the parabola y  2x 2  x  1 do the tangebts make equal angle with
the axes? Find the equations of these tangents.

4.4.2 Continuity of a Function

Intuitively a function can be regarded as continuous if its graph can be drawn without lifting
pen from the paper or if its graph is unbroken. When the graph of a function is broken at a
certain point, it implies that there is a sudden change in the value of the function as we move,
slightly, to the left or to the right of the point.

From the figure we note that when x takes a value that is slightly less than a, the
corresponding value of y is b1 and the moment x becomes slightly greater than a, the value
of y suddenly jumps from b1to b2. Thus, we say that the function is discontinuous at x = a.

Contrary to this, if a function is continuous at a point, it will imply that the change in the
value of the function is gradual for small changes in the value of the independent variable.

For the function y = f (x), let x change from a to a + h, where h is a small positive
number. The corresponding change in the value of the function is f (a + h) – f (a). For
continuity of the function at x = a, we require that f (a + h) – f (a) should be small for small
values of h.

lim
or {f(a  h)  f(a)}  0
h0

lim
or f(a  h)  f(a)  0
h0

lim
or f(a  h)  f(a) ......(1)
h0

This equation implies that RHL of the function as x  a should be equal to f (a), the
value of the function at x = a. This condition will ensure continuity as we approach a from its
right hand side.

In a similar manner, for continuity of f (x) from left hand side of a, we should have

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lim
f(a  h)  f(a) .......(2)
Notes h0

From (1) and (2) we can write down the conditions for continuity of a function y = f (x) at
point x = a as:

(i) f (a) should exist, i.e. it should be finite.

(ii) Both the left-hand and the right-hand limits be equal to the value of the function at
x = a, i.e.
lim lim
f(a  h)  f(a  h)  f(a)
h0 h0

lim
The above condition can also be written as f(x)  f(a) Thus, we can
xa

say that a function will be continuous at a point if the limit of the function is equal to its
value at that point.
Remarks:

For the existence of limit of a function y  f(x) as x  a we only require that

lim lim
f(a  h)  f(a  h) which may or may not be equal to f (a).
h0 h0

Continuity of a Function in an Interval

A function y = f (x) is said to be continuous in an interval (a, Y
b2 y  f (x )
b), where a < b, if and only if it is continuous at every point in
the interval. b1

Example 17
Discuss the continuity of the function o x a x
2
y  2x  x  5 at x  4 .
Fig. 4.16
Solution Figure 4.16
The value of the function at x  4 is
y  32  4  5  33 (finite)
lim
Also {2x2  4x  5}  33
x4

Thus, the function is continuous at x  4 .

Remarks: A polynomial function of nth degree (where n is a+ve integer) is always

continuous for all real values of x.
Example 18

x2  4
Show that the function f(x)  is discontinuous at x  2. What is the nature of
x2
discontinuity? Show by a diagram.

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Solution

Since f( 2) is not defined (i.e. not finite), therefore the function is not continous at x  2. Notes
Nature of Discontinuity
To determine the nature of discontinuity, we find LHL and the RHL.
lim  (  2  h)2  4 
LHL    Y
h  0  2  h  2  X' x
-2 o
lim  4  4h  h2  4 
  
h  0 h  2
lim
 (  4  h)  4. o
h0 Y'
Similarly, Fig. 4.17
Figure 4.17
lim  (-2  h)2  4  lim  4  4h  h2  4 
RHL     
h  0  2  h  2  h  0  h 
lim
(  4  h)  4.
h0

Thus LHL = RHL. This implies that the curve of the function has a gap only at the point
x  2 as shown in figure. This discontinuity is known asremovable discontinuity. It can be
removed if we redefine the function as
x2  4
f(x)  when x  2
x2
 4 when x  2.

Remarks: If LHL  RHL at a point, the discontinuity is said to be irremovable.

Example 19
A function is defined as
y  x  1 for  1  x  0
yx for  0  x  1
y  2  x for  1  x  2.

Examine the continuity of the function at x = 0 and x = 1.

Solution
At x  0,f(0)  0(finite)

lim
LHL: (x  1)  1
x  0

lim
RHL: x0
x  0

Since LHL  RHL, the function is discontinuous at x = 0.

At x  1, f(1)  1 (finite)

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