Defination of Mechanical engineering

Mechanical engineering is the discipline that applies the principles of engineering, physics and
materials science for the design, analysis, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical
systems. It is the branch of engineering that involves the design, production, and operation of
machinery and tools.[1][2] It is one of the oldest and broadest of the engineering disciplines.

Mechanical engineers design and build engines, power plants...

The engineering field requires an understanding of core concepts including mechanics,

kinematics, thermodynamics, materials science, structural analysis, and electricity. Mechanical
engineers use these core principles along with tools like computer-aided engineering, and
product lifecycle management to design and analyze manufacturing plants, industrial equipment
and machinery, heating and cooling systems, transport systems, aircraft, watercraft, robotics,
medical devices, weapons, and others.

Mechanical engineering emerged as a field during the industrial revolution in Europe in the 18th
century; however, its development can be traced back several thousand years around the world.
Mechanical engineering science emerged in the 19th century as a result of developments in the
field of physics. The field has continually evolved to incorporate advancements in technology,
and mechanical engineers today are pursuing developments in such fields as composites,
mechatronics, and nanotechnology. Mechanical engineering overlaps with aerospace
engineering, metallurgical engineering, civil engineering, electrical engineering, petroleum
engineering, manufacturing engineering, chemical engineering, and other engineering disciplines
to varying amounts. Mechanical engineers may also work in the field of Biomedical engineering,
specifically with biomechanics, transport phenomena, biomechatronics, bionanotechnology and
modeling of biological systems, like soft tissue mechanics.
Development

Mechanical engineering finds its application in the archives of various ancient and medieval
societies throughout mankind. In ancient Greece, the works of Archimedes (287 BC–212 BC)
deeply influenced mechanics in the Western tradition and Heron of Alexandria (c. 10–70 AD)
created the first steam engine.[3] In China, Zhang Heng (78–139 AD) improved a water clock and
invented a seismometer, and Ma Jun (200–265 AD) invented a chariot with differential gears.
The medieval Chinese horologist and engineer Su Song (1020–1101 AD) incorporated an
escapement mechanism into his astronomical clock tower two centuries before any escapement
can be found in clocks of medieval Europe, as well as the world's first known endless power-
transmitting chain drive.[4]

...structures, and vehicles of all sizes.

During the years from 7th to 15th century, the era called the Islamic Golden Age, there were
remarkable contributions from Muslim inventors in the field of mechanical technology. Al-
Jazari, who was one of them, wrote his famous Book of Knowledge of Ingenious Mechanical
Devices in 1206, and presented many mechanical designs. He is also considered to be the
inventor of such mechanical devices which now form the very basic of mechanisms, such as the
crankshaft and camshaft.[5]

Important breakthroughs in the foundations of mechanical engineering occurred in England

during the 17th century when Sir Isaac Newton both formulated the three Newton's Laws of
Motion and developed Calculus, the mathematical basis of physics. Newton was reluctant to
publish his methods and laws for years, but he was finally persuaded to do so by his colleagues,
such as Sir Edmund Halley, much to the benefit of all mankind. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz is
also credited with creating Calculus during the same time frame.

During the early 19th century in England, Germany and Scotland, the development of machine
tools led mechanical engineering to develop as a separate field within engineering, providing
manufacturing machines and the engines to power them.[6] The first British professional society
of mechanical engineers was formed in 1847 Institution of Mechanical Engineers, thirty years
after the civil engineers formed the first such professional society Institution of Civil
Engineers.[7] On the European continent, Johann von Zimmermann (1820–1901) founded the
first factory for grinding machines in Chemnitz, Germany in 1848.
In the United States, the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) was formed in
1880, becoming the third such professional engineering society, after the American Society of
Civil Engineers (1852) and the American Institute of Mining Engineers (1871).[8] The first
schools in the United States to offer an engineering education were the United States Military
Academy in 1817, an institution now known as Norwich University in 1819, and Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute in 1825. Education in mechanical engineering has historically been based
on a strong foundation in mathematics and science

Education

Archimedes' screw was operated by hand and could efficiently raise water, as the animated red ball
demonstrates.

Degrees in mechanical engineering are offered at universities worldwide. In Brazil, Ireland,

Philippines, Pakistan, China, Greece, Turkey, North America, South Asia, India, Dominican
Republic and the United Kingdom, mechanical engineering programs typically take four to five
years of study and result in a Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng. or B.E.), Bachelor of Science
(B.Sc. or B.S.), Bachelor of Science Engineering (B.Sc.Eng.), Bachelor of Technology
(B.Tech.), Bachelor of Mechanical Engineering (B.M.E.), or Bachelor of Applied Science
(B.A.Sc.) degree, in or with emphasis in mechanical engineering. In Spain, Portugal and most of
South America, where neither B.Sc. nor B.Tech. programs have been adopted, the formal name
for the degree is "Mechanical Engineer", and the course work is based on five or six years of
training. In Italy the course work is based on five years of training, but in order to qualify as an
Engineer one has to pass a state exam at the end of the course. In Greece, the coursework is
based on a five year curriculum and the requirement of a 'Diploma' Thesis, which upon
completion a 'Diploma' is awarded rather than a B.Sc.

In Australia, mechanical engineering degrees are awarded as Bachelor of Engineering

(Mechanical) or similar nomenclature[10] although there are an increasing number of
specialisations. The degree takes four years of full-time study to achieve. To ensure quality in
engineering degrees, Engineers Australia accredits engineering degrees awarded by Australian
universities in accordance with the global Washington Accord. Before the degree can be
awarded, the student must complete at least 3 months of on the job work experience in an
engineering firm. Similar systems are also present in South Africa and are overseen by the
Engineering Council of South Africa (ECSA).

In the United States, most undergraduate mechanical engineering programs are accredited by the
Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology (ABET) to ensure similar course
requirements and standards among universities. The ABET web site lists 302 accredited
mechanical engineering programs as of 11 March 2014.[11] Mechanical engineering programs in
Canada are accredited by the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board (CEAB),[12] and most
other countries offering engineering degrees have similar accreditation societies.

Some mechanical engineers go on to pursue a postgraduate degree such as a Master of

Engineering, Master of Technology, Master of Science, Master of Engineering Management
(M.Eng.Mgt. or M.E.M.), a Doctor of Philosophy in engineering (Eng.D. or Ph.D.) or an
engineer's degree. The master's and engineer's degrees may or may not include research. The
Doctor of Philosophy includes a significant research component and is often viewed as the entry
point to academia.[13] The Engineer's degree exists at a few institutions at an intermediate level
between the master's degree and the doctorate.

Modern tools

An oblique view of a four-cylinder inline crankshaft with pistons

Many mechanical engineering companies, especially those in industrialized nations, have begun
to incorporate computer-aided engineering (CAE) programs into their existing design and
analysis processes, including 2D and 3D solid modeling computer-aided design (CAD). This
method has many benefits, including easier and more exhaustive visualization of products, the
ability to create virtual assemblies of parts, and the ease of use in designing mating interfaces
and tolerances.

Other CAE programs commonly used by mechanical engineers include product lifecycle
management (PLM) tools and analysis tools used to perform complex simulations. Analysis tools
may be used to predict product response to expected loads, including fatigue life and
manufacturability. These tools include finite element analysis (FEA), computational fluid
dynamics (CFD), and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM).

Using CAE programs, a mechanical design team can quickly and cheaply iterate the design
process to develop a product that better meets cost, performance, and other constraints. No
physical prototype need be created until the design nears completion, allowing hundreds or
thousands of designs to be evaluated, instead of a relative few. In addition, CAE analysis
programs can model complicated physical phenomena which cannot be solved by hand, such as
viscoelasticity, complex contact between mating parts, or non-Newtonian flows.

As mechanical engineering begins to merge with other disciplines, as seen in mechatronics,

multidisciplinary design optimization (MDO) is being used with other CAE programs to
automate and improve the iterative design process. MDO tools wrap around existing CAE
processes, allowing product evaluation to continue even after the analyst goes home for the day.
They also utilize sophisticated optimization algorithms to more intelligently explore possible
designs, often finding better, innovative solutions to difficult multidisciplinary design problems.

Defination of Engine
Engine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about a machine to convert energy into useful mechanical motion. For other uses of
engine, see Engine (disambiguation). For other uses of motor, see Motor (disambiguation).
A V6 internal combustion engine from a Mercedes car

An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert energy into useful mechanical motion.[1][2]
Heat engines, including internal combustion engines and external combustion engines (such as
steam engines) burn a fuel to create heat, which then creates motion. Electric motors convert
electrical energy into mechanical motion, pneumatic motors use compressed air and others—
such as clockwork motors in wind-up toys—use elastic energy. In biological systems, molecular
motors, like myosins in muscles, use chemical energy to create motion.

Terminology

"Engine" was originally a term for any mechanical device that converts force into motion.
Hence, pre-industrial weapons such as catapults, trebuchets and battering rams were called
"siege engines". The word "gin," as in "cotton gin", is short for "engine." The word derives from
Old French engin, from the Latin ingenium, which is also the root of the word ingenious. Most
mechanical devices invented during the industrial revolution were described as engines—the
steam engine being a notable example.

In modern usage, the term engine typically describes devices, like steam engines and internal
combustion engines, that burn or otherwise consume fuel to perform mechanical work by
exerting a torque or linear force to drive machinery that generates electricity, pumps water, or
compresses gas. In the context of propulsion systems, an air-breathing engine is one that uses
atmospheric air to oxidise the fuel rather than supplying an independent oxidizer, as in a rocket.

When the internal combustion engine was invented, the term "motor" was initially used to
distinguish it from the steam engine—which was in wide use at the time, powering locomotives
and other vehicles such as steam rollers. "Motor" and "engine" later came to be used
interchangeably in casual discourse. However, technically, the two words have different
meanings. An engine is a device that burns or otherwise consumes fuel, changing its chemical
composition, whereas a motor is a device driven by electricity, which does not change the
chemical composition of its energy source.[3]

A heat engine may also serve as a prime mover—a component that transforms the flow or
changes in pressure of a fluid into mechanical energy.[4] An automobile powered by an internal
combustion engine may make use of various motors and pumps, but ultimately all such devices
derive their power from the engine. Another way of looking at it is that a motor receives power
from an external source, and then converts it into mechanical energy, while an engine creates
power from pressure (derived directly from the explosive force of combustion or other chemical
reaction, or secondarily from the action of some such force on other substances such as air,
water, or steam).[5]

Devices converting heat energy into motion are commonly referred to simply as engines.[6]

History
Antiquity

Simple machines, such as the club and oar (examples of the lever), are prehistoric. More
complex engines using human power, animal power, water power, wind power and even steam
power date back to antiquity. Human power was focused by the use of simple engines, such as
the capstan, windlass or treadmill, and with ropes, pulleys, and block and tackle arrangements;
this power was transmitted usually with the forces multiplied and the speed reduced. These were
used in cranes and aboard ships in Ancient Greece, as well as in mines, water pumps and siege
engines in Ancient Rome. The writers of those times, including Vitruvius, Frontinus and Pliny
the Elder, treat these engines as commonplace, so their invention may be more ancient. By the
1st century AD, cattle and horses were used in mills, driving machines similar to those powered
by humans in earlier times.

According to Strabo, a water powered mill was built in Kaberia of the kingdom of Mithridates
during the 1st century BC. Use of water wheels in mills spread throughout the Roman Empire
over the next few centuries. Some were quite complex, with aqueducts, dams, and sluices to
maintain and channel the water, along with systems of gears, or toothed-wheels made of wood
and metal to regulate the speed of rotation. More sophisticated small devices, such as the
Antikythera Mechanism used complex trains of gears and dials to act as calendars or predict
astronomical events. In a poem by Ausonius in the 4th century AD, he mentions a stone-cutting
saw powered by water. Hero of Alexandria is credited with many such wind and steam powered
machines in the 1st century AD, including the Aeolipile and the vending machine, often these
machines were associated with worship, such as animated altars and automated temple doors.

Medieval

Medieval Muslim engineers employed gears in mills and water-raising machines, and used dams
as a source of water power to provide additional power to watermills and water-raising
machines.[7] In the medieval Islamic world, such advances made it possible to mechanize many
industrial tasks previously carried out by manual labour.

In 1206, al-Jazari employed a crank-conrod system for two of his water-raising machines. A
rudimentary steam turbine device was described by Taqi al-Din[7] in 1551 and by Giovanni
Branca[8] in 1629.[9]
In the 13th century, the solid rocket motor was invented in China. Driven by gunpowder, this, the
simplest form of internal combustion engine was unable to deliver sustained power, but was
useful for propelling weaponry at high speeds towards enemies in battle and for fireworks. After
invention, this innovation spread throughout Europe.

Industrial Revolution

Boulton & Watt engine of 1788

The Watt steam engine was the first type of steam engine to make use of steam at a pressure just
above atmospheric to drive the piston helped by a partial vacuum. Improving on the design of the
1712 Newcomen steam engine, the Watt steam engine, developed sporadically from 1763 to
1775, was a great step in the development of the steam engine. Offering a dramatic increase in
fuel efficiency, James Watt's design became synonymous with steam engines, due in no small
part to his business partner, Matthew Boulton. It enabled rapid development of efficient semi-
automated factories on a previously unimaginable scale in places where waterpower was not
available. Later development led to steam locomotives and great expansion of railway
transportation.

As for internal combustion piston engines, these were tested in France in 1807 by de Rivaz and
independently, by the Niépce brothers . They were theoretically advanced by Carnot in
1824.[citation needed] In 1853-57 Eugenio Barsanti and Felice Matteucci invented and patented an
engine using the free-piston principle that was possibly the first 4-cycle engine.[10] The Otto
cycle in 1877 was capable of giving a far higher power to weight ratio than steam engines and
worked much better for many transportation applications such as cars and aircraft.

Automobiles

The first commercially successful automobile, created by Karl Benz, added to the interest in light
and powerful engines. The lightweight petrol internal combustion engine, operating on a four-
stroke Otto cycle, has been the most successful for light automobiles, while the more efficient
Diesel engine is used for trucks and buses. However, in recent years, turbo Diesel engines have
become increasingly popular, especially outside of the United States, even for quite small cars.
Horizontally opposed pistons

In 1896, Karl Benz was granted a patent for his design of the first engine with horizontally
opposed pistons. His design created an engine in which the corresponding pistons move in
horizontal cylinders and reach top dead center simultaneously, thus automatically balancing each
other with respect to their individual momentum. Engines of this design are often referred to as
flat engines because of their shape and lower profile. They are or were used in: the Volkswagen
Beetle, some Porsche and Subaru cars, many BMW and Honda motorcycles, and aircraft engines
(for propeller driven aircraft), etc.

Advancement

Continuance of the use of the internal combustion engine for automobiles is partly due to the
improvement of engine control systems (onboard computers providing engine management
processes, and electronically controlled fuel injection). Forced air induction by turbocharging
and supercharging have increased power outputs and engine efficiencies. Similar changes have
been applied to smaller diesel engines giving them almost the same power characteristics as
petrol engines. This is especially evident with the popularity of smaller diesel engine propelled
cars in Europe. Larger diesel engines are still often used in trucks and heavy machinery, although
they require special machining not available in most factories. Diesel engines produce lower
hydrocarbon and CO2 emissions, but greater particulate and NOx pollution, than gasoline
engines.[11] Diesels are also 40% more fuel efficient than a comparable gasoline engine.[11]

Increasing power

The first half of the 20th century saw a trend to increasing engine power, particularly in the
American models[clarification needed]. Design changes incorporated all known methods of raising
engine capacity, including increasing the pressure in the cylinders to improve efficiency,
increasing the size of the engine, and increasing the speed at which power is generated. The
higher forces and pressures created by these changes created engine vibration and size problems
that led to stiffer, more compact engines with V and opposed cylinder layouts replacing longer
straight-line arrangements.

Combustion efficiency

The design principles favoured in Europe, because of economic and other restraints such as
smaller and twistier roads, leant toward smaller cars and corresponding to the design principles
that concentrated on increasing the combustion efficiency of smaller engines. This produced
more economical engines with earlier four-cylinder designs rated at 40 horsepower (30 kW) and
six-cylinder designs rated as low as 80 horsepower (60 kW), compared with the large volume V-
8 American engines with power ratings in the range from 250 to 350 hp, some even over 400 hp
(190 to 260 kW).[clarification needed][citation needed]
Engine configuration

Earlier automobile engine development produced a much larger range of engines than is in
common use today. Engines have ranged from 1- to 16-cylinder designs with corresponding
differences in overall size, weight, engine displacement, and cylinder bores. Four cylinders and
power ratings from 19 to 120 hp (14 to 90 kW) were followed in a majority of the models.
Several three-cylinder, two-stroke-cycle models were built while most engines had straight or in-
line cylinders. There were several V-type models and horizontally opposed two- and four-
cylinder makes too. Overhead camshafts were frequently employed. The smaller engines were
commonly air-cooled and located at the rear of the vehicle; compression ratios were relatively
low. The 1970s and 1980s saw an increased interest in improved fuel economy, which caused a
return to smaller V-6 and four-cylinder layouts, with as many as five valves per cylinder to
improve efficiency. The Bugatti Veyron 16.4 operates with a W16 engine, meaning that two V8
cylinder layouts are positioned next to each other to create the W shape sharing the same
crankshaft.

The largest internal combustion engine ever built is the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C, a 14-cylinder,
2-stroke turbocharged diesel engine that was designed to power the Emma Mærsk, the largest
container ship in the world. This engine weighs 2,300 tons, and when running at 102 RPM
produces 109,000 bhp (80,080 kW) consuming some 13.7 tons of fuel each hour.

Heat engine
Main article: heat engine

Combustion engine

Combustion engines are heat engines driven by the heat of a combustion process.

Internal combustion engine

Main article: Internal Combustion Engine

Animation showing the four stages of the four-stroke combustion engine cycle:
1. Induction (Fuel enters)
2. Compression
3. Ignition (Fuel is burnt)
4. Emission (Exhaust out)

The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel (generally,
fossil fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber. In an internal
combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and high pressure gases, which are
produced by the combustion, directly applies force to components of the engine, such as the
pistons or turbine blades or a nozzle, and by moving it over a distance, generates useful
mechanical energy.[12][13][14][15]
External combustion engine
Main article: external combustion engine

An external combustion engine (EC engine) is a heat engine where an internal working fluid is
heated by combustion of an external source, through the engine wall or a heat exchanger. The
fluid then, by expanding and acting on the mechanism of the engine produces motion and usable
work.[16] The fluid is then cooled, compressed and reused (closed cycle), or (less commonly)
dumped, and cool fluid pulled in (open cycle air engine).

"Combustion" refers to burning fuel with an oxidizer, to supply the heat. Engines of similar (or
even identical) configuration and operation may use a supply of heat from other sources such as
nuclear, solar, geothermal or exothermic reactions not involving combustion; but are not then
strictly classed as external combustion engines, but as external thermal engines.

The working fluid can be a gas as in a Stirling engine, or steam as in a steam engine or an
organic liquid such as n-pentane in an Organic Rankine cycle. The fluid can be of any
composition; gas is by far the most common, although even single-phase liquid is sometimes
used. In the case of the steam engine, the fluid changes phases between liquid and gas.

Air-breathing combustion engines

Air-breathing combustion engines are combustion engines that use the oxygen in atmospheric
air to oxidise ('burn') the fuel, rather than carrying an oxidiser, as in a rocket. Theoretically, this
should result in a better specific impulse than for rocket engines.

A continuous stream of air flows through the air-breathing engine. This air is compressed, mixed
with fuel, ignited and expelled as the exhaust gas.

Examples

Typical air-breathing engines include:

 Reciprocating engine
 Steam engine
 Gas turbine

airbreathing jet engine

Turbo-propeller engine

 Pulse detonation engine

 Pulse jet
 Ramjet
 Scramjet
 Liquid air cycle engine/Reaction Engines SABRE.
Environmental effects

The operation of engines typically has a negative impact upon air quality and ambient sound
levels. There has been a growing emphasis on the pollution producing features of automotive
power systems. This has created new interest in alternate power sources and internal-combustion
engine refinements. Though a few limited-production battery-powered electric vehicles have
appeared, they have not proved competitive owing to costs and operating characteristics.[citation
needed]
In the 21st century the diesel engine has been increasing in popularity with automobile
owners. However, the gasoline engine and the Diesel engine, with their new emission-control
devices to improve emission performance, have not yet been significantly challenged.[citation needed]
A number of manufacturers have introduced hybrid engines, mainly involving a small gasoline
engine coupled with an electric motor and with a large battery bank, but these too have yet to
make much of an inroad into the market shares of gasoline and Diesel engines.

Air quality

Exhaust from a spark ignition engine consists of the following: nitrogen 70 to 75% (by volume),
water vapor 10 to 12%, carbon dioxide 10 to 13.5%, hydrogen 0.5 to 2%, oxygen 0.2 to 2%,
carbon monoxide: 0.1 to 6%, unburnt hydrocarbons and partial oxidation products (e.g.
aldehydes) 0.5 to 1%, nitrogen monoxide 0.01 to 0.4%, nitrous oxide <100 ppm, sulfur dioxide
15 to 60 ppm, traces of other compounds such as fuel additives and lubricants, also halogen and
metallic compounds, and other particles.[17] Carbon monoxide is highly toxic, and can cause
carbon monoxide poisoning, so it is important to avoid any build-up of the gas in a confined
space. Catalytic converters can reduce toxic emissions, but not completely eliminate them. Also,
resulting greenhouse gas emissions, chiefly carbon dioxide, from the widespread use of engines
in the modern industrialized world is contributing to the global greenhouse effect – a primary
concern regarding global warming.

Noncombustive heat engines

Main article: heat engine

Some engines convert heat from noncombustive processes into mechanical work, for example a
nuclear power plant uses the heat from the nuclear reaction to produce steam and drive a steam
engine, or a gas turbine in a rocket engine may be driven by decomposing hydrogen peroxide.
Apart from the different energy source, the engine is often engineered much the same as an
internal or external combustion engine. Another group of noncombustive engines includes
thermoacoustic heat engines (sometimes called "TA engines") which are thermoacoustic devices
which use high-amplitude sound waves to pump heat from one place to another, or conversely
use a heat difference to induce high-amplitude sound waves. In general, thermoacoustic engines
can be divided into standing wave and travelling wave devices.[18]
HISTORY OF Toyota Motor

Toyota Kirloskar Motor Pvt Ltd is a subsidiary of Toyota Motor Corporation of Japan[1][2]
(with Kirloskar Group as a minority owner), for the manufacture and sales of Toyota cars in
India. It is currently the 4th largest car maker in India after Maruti Suzuki, Hyundai, and
Mahindra.

The company Toyota Kirloskar Motor Pvt Ltd (TKMPL) according to its mission statement aims
to play a major role in the development of the automotive industry and the creation of
employment opportunities, not only through its dealer network, but also through ancillary
industries with a business philosophy of "Putting Customer First".[2]

On June 7, 2012, Vice Chairman of the company revealed that the company is planning to enter
the healthcare sector and its first hospital is will open in Karnataka in May 2013.[3]

History

Toyota Motor Corporation entered India in 1997 in a joint venture with the Kirloskar Group.[4]

Manufacturing facilities

TKMPL's current plant at Bidadi, Karnataka is spread across 432 acres and has a capacity of
80,000 vehicles per annum.[5]
TKMPL's second manufacturing plant on the outskirts of Bangalore, Karnataka has a capacity of
70,000 vehicles per annum. Both plants have a combined capacity of 150,000 vehicles per
annum.

On 16 March 2011, it announced that it was increasing production to 210,000 vehicles per
annum[6] due to increase in demand for its models especially the Etios and Fortuner.

With effect from June 1, 2012, Toyota Kirloskar Motor will be increasing the prices of Etios
diesel and Innova by 1 per cent and Fortuner and Etios Liva diesel by 0.5 per cent. The price
hike is on account of the weakening of Rupee.[7] Toyota announced that Etios sedan and the Liva
hatchback has posted sales of over one lakh units, hence Toyota is all set for giving its
production a big boost.Toyota Kirloskar Motor (TKM) plans to hike the production capacity of
its Etios series models by 75% by early 2013.[8] Toyota Kirloskar Motors would launch its motor
racing series in 3 cities in India next year.[9]

Industrial relations

On 16 March 2014, Toyota Kirloskar Motor temporarily suspended the production at two of its
assembly plants in Bidadi, Karnataka whose production capacity was 310,000 units annually and
has employee strength of 6,400. Cause for the shutdown was failure to reach an agreement with
the union over the issue of wages, deliberate stoppages of the production line by certain sections
of the employees and abusing & threatening of supervisors thereby disrupting the production for
the past 25 days.[10][11][12][13] Toyota Kirloskar Motor announced on 21 March 2014 to lift the
lockout at the plants effective from March 24, 2014 with subject to an acceptance of a service
condition which requires all the employees signing an undertaking on good conduct.[14][15] On 22
April 2014, employees called off the strike after 36 days of standoff and resumed full
operations.[16]

Etios motor racing

Toyota India started a One make racing series in India with the Etios car called the Etios motor
racing series. The series started in 2012, it witnessed an overwhelming response from the Indian
youngsters, with 3300 applicants. They held 2 rounds of exhibition races in 2012, one at a
purpose built race track in chennai called the sriperumbudur race track and other in the form of
ROC (Race of champions) in Gurgaon. The 25 selected drivers will compete in the main
championship to be held in the later half of 2013. The cars are prepared by Red Rooster
performance based in bangalore, and designed by TRD(Toyota Racing Development). With
stock engines producing almost 100 bhp, the cars are a good platform for youngsters to step from
karting to touring cars.Also the relatively cheaper budget of just $3216 for the entire series which
includes an entire OMP racing kit makes it one of the best one make series to compete in.
http://www.toyotaetiosmotorracing.in/
Waku Doki Q Service Campaign

Toyota Kirloskar Motor (TKM) launched its Waku Doki Q Service Campaign from July 16 -
September 15, 2012. The campaign provides free check-ups and custom offers on Toyota cars
across Toyota dealerships in the country.[17]

Models

8th Generation Toyota Camry

10th Generation Toyota Corolla

Toyota Fortuner
 Toyota Innova

Manufactured/assembled locally

1. Toyota Camry (Launched 2002)

2. Toyota Corolla (Launched 2003)
3. Toyota Etios (Launched 2010)
4. Toyota Etios Cross (Launched 2014)
5. Toyota Etios Liva (Launched 2011)
6. Toyota Fortuner (Launched 2009)
7. Toyota Innova (Launched 2005)

Imported

1. Toyota Land Cruiser (Launched 2009)

2. Toyota Land Cruiser Prado (Launched 2004)
3. Toyota Prius (Launched 2010)

Discontinued

 Toyota Qualis (1999–2005)

Sales and service network

As of April 2011, it has more than 205 dealerships in 98 cities across 22 states and 3 union
territories of India.[18]

Sales performance

TKMPL sold 74,759 vehicles in India in the year 2010 registering a growth rate of 38%
compared to 2009 sales.[19]
Services of RADIANT TOYTA

IN WORKSHOP

Hydraulic lift

It is mainly
used for lift the car in to the workshop. It is easy step to left the car.
Fig : car lefted with the help of hydraulic lift
Air pressure gun

Air filter
Tire balance
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

An automotive technician installing wheel weights on a wheel balancing machine

Tire balance, also referred to as tire unbalance or imbalance, describes the distribution of mass
within an automobile tire or the entire wheel to which it is attached.

When the wheel rotates, asymmetries of mass may cause it to hop or wobble, which can cause
ride disturbances, usually vertical and lateral vibrations. It can also result in a wobbling of the
steering wheel or of the entire vehicle. The ride disturbance, due to unbalance, usually increases
with speed. Vehicle suspensions can become excited by unbalance forces when the speed of the
wheel reaches a point that its rotating frequency equals the suspension’s resonant frequency.

Zinc tire weight

Tires are balanced in factories and repair shops by two methods: static balancers and dynamic
balancers. Tires with high unbalance forces are downgraded or rejected. When tires are fitted to
wheels at the point of sale, they are measured again on a balancing machine, and correction
weights are applied to counteract the combined effect of the tire and wheel unbalance. After sale,
tires may be rebalanced if driver perceives excessive vibration.

Static balance

Static balance can be measured by a static balancing machine where the tire is placed in its
vertical axis on a non-rotating spindle tool. The spot on the tire with the greatest mass is acted
upon by gravity to deflect the tooling downward. The amount of deflection indicates the
magnitude of the unbalance. The angle of the deflection indicates the angular location of the
unbalance. In tire manufacturing factories, static balancers operate by use of sensors mounted to
the spindle assembly. In tire retail shops, static balancers are usually non-rotating bubble
balancers, where the magnitude and angle of the unbalance is observed by looking at the center
bubble in an oil-filled glass sighting gauge. While some very small shops which lack specialized
machines still do this process, they have been largely replaced in larger shops with machines.

Dynamic balance

Kevin Byrd explains tire balance during an episode of Two Guys Garage on the Speed Channel.

Dynamic balance describes the forces generated by asymmetric mass distribution when the tire is
rotated, usually at a high speed. In the tire factory, the tire and wheel are mounted on a balancing
machine test wheel, the assembly is accelerated up to a speed of 100 RPM (10 to 15 mph with
recent high sensitivity sensors) or higher, 300 RPM (55 to 60 mph with typical low sensitivity
sensors), and forces of unbalance are measured by sensors as the tire rotates.[1] These forces are
resolved into static and couple values for the inner and outer planes of the wheel, and compared
to the unbalance tolerance (the maximum allowable manufacturing limits). If the tire is not
checked, it has the potential to wobble and perform poorly. In tire retail shops, tire/wheel
assemblies are checked on a spin-balancer, which determines the amount and angle of unbalance.
Balance weights are then fitted to the outer and inner flanges of the wheel. Dynamic balance is
better (it is more comprehensive) than static balance alone, because both couple and static forces
are measured and corrected.

The dynamic balance can only be conducted if the driver comes to the garage and has the garage
check for imbalances. With the existing sensors found in many cars, however, the imbalance can
be estimated in real time, as seen in a recent SAE paper: sensors such as the ABS wheel speed
sensors were used to detect an imbalanced tire or tires in real time.[2]
The physics of dynamic balance

Physics of tire imbalance

Mathematically, the moment of inertia of the wheel is a tensor. That is, to a first approximation
(neglecting deformations due to its elasticity) the wheel and axle assembly are a rigid rotor to
which the engine and brakes apply a torque vector aligned with the axle. If that torque vector is
not aligned with the principal axis of the moment of inertia, the resultant angular acceleration
will be in a different direction from the applied torque. Whenever a rotor is forced to rotate about
an axis that is not a principal axis, an external torque is needed. This is not a torque about the
rotation axis (as in a driving or braking torque), but is a torque perpendicular to that direction. If
the rotor is suspended by bearings, this torque is created by reaction forces in the bearings
(acting perpendicular to the shaft). These reaction forces turn with the shaft as the rotor turns, at
every point producing exactly the torque needed to keep the wheel rotating about the non-
principal axis. These reaction forces can excite the structure to which they are attached. In the
case of a car, the suspension elements can vibrate giving an uncomfortable feel to the car
occupants. In practical terms, the wheel will wobble. Automotive technicians reduce the wobble
to an acceptable level when balancing the wheel by adding small weights to the inner and outer
wheel rims. Balancing is not to be confused with wheel alignment.

Vehicle vibration
Vibration in cars and light trucks occurs for many reasons. Common reasons are poor wheel
balance, imperfect tire or wheel shape, brake pulsation, and worn or loose driveline, suspension,
or steering components. Occasionally and rarely, one will find foreign material stuck in tire's
tread causing vibration e.g. road tar in summer.

Environmental consequences

Every year, millions of small weights are attached to tires by automotive technicians while
balancing them. According to the US Environmental Protection Agency, worldwide these total
more than 20,000 tonnes of lead annually.[3] Traditionally, these weights have been made of lead,
but since lead is a toxic metal, political authorities and industrial groups are in the process of
converting to materials that are less toxic than lead.[4] The tire weight shown in the illustration
has a "Zn" stamp, indicating it is made of zinc rather than lead.

Wheel alignment

Wheel Alignment process being performed by an automotive technician.

Wheel alignment, sometimes referred to as breaking or tracking, is part of standard

automobile maintenance that consists of adjusting the angles of the wheels so that they are set to
the car maker's specification. The purpose of these adjustments is to reduce tire wear, and to
ensure that vehicle travel is straight and true (without "pulling" to one side). Alignment angles
can also be altered beyond the maker's specifications to obtain a specific handling characteristic.
Motorsport and off-road applications may call for angles to be adjusted well beyond "normal" for
a variety of reasons.[1]
All new vehicles leave the factory with their alignment checked and adjusted. Usually the
technician paints the heads of the adjustment hardware to show it has been set, also to show if it
has moved later on. It is advisable to do the alignment of the car after the first 5000 km, since all
the suspension get set. Failure to do this may result in the camber and toe specifications drifting
outside the manufacturer's limit. This may lead to vehicle pulling and tire wear.

Under normal driving conditions many vehicles can go 50 000 km+ before they need a new set
of tires, which is a good interval to have the alignment checked as well. Any severe driving
incidents, or changed suspension components would also warrant a check.

The typical alignment on an economy sedan takes about an hour under ideal circumstances. A
utility or performance vehicle may require additional labor. When fasteners and hardware are
rusted/seized, extra time may be required and/or parts may need to be replaced. A good start is to
consult your local licensed automotive technician.

In the same fashion that you will wear out your shoes if you walk only on the inside or outside
edge, so your tires may become worn if not within allowed specifications. Many performance
vehicles sacrifice tire life for driving performance.

As the tire will bounce, it is the first spring that your car rides on, affecting and potentially
shortening the life of all other components. Braking distance, ride quality, and even fuel
economy are all affected by the correct inflation and rotation of tires. A major improvement in
fuel savings would result if everyone correctly inflated their tires.

If your vehicle squeals while turning corners on dry pavement, it is probably time to have your
alignment checked. (or slow down)

Changing rims and tires will normally not affect the alignment but will affect secondary angles.
Consult your local licensed automotive technician.
Change engine oil and brake oil
Regularly changing your car's engine oil and filter is one of the most important things you can do to keep
your car running well. Over time, your oil will break down and your filter will become clogged with
contaminants. Depending upon your driving habits and type of vehicle, this may take as few as 3 months
or 3,000 miles, or be as long as 20,000 miles or 24 months (consult your owner's manual for service
intervals). Fortunately, changing your oil is both easy and inexpensive, so the sooner you change the oil
in your car if it needs it, the better.

Hydrometer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Not to be confused with Hygrometer.

Hydrometer from Practical Physics

Schematic drawing of a hydrometer. The lower the density of the fluid, the deeper the weighted float B
will sink; the depth can be read off the scale A.

A hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the specific gravity (or relative density) of
liquids; that is, the ratio of the density of the liquid to the density of water.

A hydrometer is usually made of glass and consists of a cylindrical stem and a bulb weighted
with mercury or lead shot to make it float upright. The liquid to be tested is poured into a tall
container, often a graduated cylinder, and the hydrometer is gently lowered into the liquid until it
floats freely. The point at which the surface of the liquid touches the stem of the hydrometer is
noted. Hydrometers usually contain a scale inside the stem, so that the specific gravity can be
read directly. A variety of scales exist, and are used depending on the context.

Hydrometers may be calibrated for different uses, such as a lactometer for measuring the density
(creaminess) of milk, a saccharometer for measuring the density of sugar in a liquid, or an
alcoholometer for measuring higher levels of alcohol in spirits.
Principle

Operation of the hydrometer is based on Archimedes' principle that a solid suspended in a fluid
will be buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the submerged part of
the suspended solid. Thus, the lower the density of the substance, the farther the hydrometer will
sink. (See also Relative density and hydrometers.)

History

An early description of a hydrometer appears in a letter from Synesius of Cyrene to the Greek
scholar Hypatia of Alexandria. In Synesius' fifteenth letter, he requests Hypatia to make a
hydrometer for him. Hypatia is given credit for inventing the hydrometer (or hydroscope)
sometime in the late 4th century or early 5th century.[1]

The instrument in question is a cylindrical tube, which has the shape of a flute and is about the
same size. It has notches in a perpendicular line, by means of which we are able to test the
weight of the waters. A cone forms a lid at one of the extremities, closely fitted to the tube. The
cone and the tube have one base only. This is called the baryllium. Whenever you place the tube
in water, it remains erect. You can then count the notches at your ease, and in this way ascertain
the weight of the water.[2]

According to the Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, it was used by Abū Rayhān al-
Bīrūnī in the 11th century and described by Al-Khazini in the 12th century.[3]

It later appeared again in the work of Jacques Alexandre César Charles in the 18th century.

Ranges

A NASA personnel using a hydrometer to measure the brine density of a salt evaporation pond.

In low-density liquids such as kerosene, gasoline, and alcohol, the hydrometer will sink deeper,
and in high-density liquids such as brine, milk, and acids it will not sink so far. In fact, it is usual
to have two separate instruments, one for heavy liquids, on which the mark 1.000 for water is
near the top of the stem, and one for light liquids, on which the mark 1.000 is near the bottom. In
many industries a set of hydrometers is used — covering specific gravity ranges of 1.0–0.95,
0.95–0.9 etc. — to provide more precise measurements.

Scales

Modern hydrometers usually measure specific gravity but different scales were (and sometimes
still are) used in certain industries. Examples include:

 API gravity, universally used worldwide by the petroleum industry.

 Baumé scale, formerly used in industrial chemistry and pharmacology
 Brix scale, primarily used in fruit juice, wine making and the sugar industry
 Oechsle scale, used for measuring the density of grape must
 Plato scale, primarily used in brewing
 Twaddell scale, formerly used in the bleaching and dyeing industries[4]

Specialized hydrometers

Specialized hydrometers are frequently named for their use: a lactometer, for example, is a
hydrometer designed especially for use with dairy products.

Lactometer

Lactometer is used to check purity of milk. The specific gravity of milk does not give a
conclusive indication of its composition since milk contains a variety of substances that are
either heavier or lighter than water. Additional tests for fat content are necessary to determine
overall composition. The instrument is graduated into a hundred parts. Milk is poured in and
allowed to stand until the cream has formed, then the depth of the cream deposit in degrees
determines the quality of the milk. The device works on the principle of Archimede's principle
that a solid suspended in a fluid will be buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced. If the milk sample is pure, then the lactometer floats on it and if it is adulterated or
impure, then the lactometer sinks.[citation needed]
Alcoholmeter

A alcoholometer testing beer immediately after brewing, before fermentation.

An alcoholmeter is a hydrometer which is used for determining the alcoholic strength of liquids.
It is also known as a proof and Tralles hydrometer (named after Johann Georg Tralles, but
commonly misspelled as traille and tralle). It only measures the density of the fluid. Certain
assumptions are made to estimate the amount of alcohol present in the fluid. Alcoholometers
have scales marked with volume percents of "potential alcohol", based on a pre-calculated
specific gravity. A higher "potential alcohol" reading on this scale is caused by a greater specific
gravity, assumed to be caused by the introduction of dissolved sugars. A reading is taken before
and after fermentation and approximate alcohol content is determined by subtracting the post
fermentation reading from the pre-fermentation reading.[5]

Saccharometer

A 20th century Saccharometer.

A saccharometer is a hydrometer used for determining the amount of sugar in a solution,

invented by Thomas Thomson.[citation needed] It is used primarily by winemakers and brewers,[6] and
it can also be used in making sorbets and ice-creams.[7] The first brewers' saccharometer was
constructed by Benjamin Martin (with distillation in mind) and initially used for brewing by
James Baverstock Sr in 1770.[8] Henry Thrale adopted its use and it was later popularized by
John Richardson in 1784.[9]

It consists of a large weighted glass bulb with a thin stem rising from the top with calibrated
markings. The sugar level can be determined by reading the value where the surface of the liquid
crosses the scale. It works by the principle of buoyancy. A solution with a higher sugar content is
denser, causing the bulb to float higher. Less sugar results in a lower density and a lower floating
bulb.
Multimeter

YX360TRF(Sanwa)

A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronic

measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical
multimeter would include basic features such as the ability to measure voltage, current, and
resistance. Analog multimeters use a microammeter whose pointer moves over a scale
calibrated for all the different measurements that can be made. Digital multimeters (DMM,
DVOM) display the measured value in numerals, and may also display a bar of a length
proportional to the quantity being measured. Digital multimeters are now far more common than
analog ones, but analog multimeters are still preferable in some cases, for example when
monitoring a rapidly varying value.

A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work, or a
bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy. They can be used to
troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as
electronic equipment, motor controls, domestic appliances, power supplies, and wiring systems.

Multimeters are available in a wide range of features and prices. Cheap multimeters can cost less
than US$10, while laboratory-grade models with certified calibration can cost more than
US$5,000.
History

Avometer Model 8

The first moving-pointer current-detecting device was the galvanometer in 1820. These were
used to measure resistance and voltage by using a Wheatstone bridge, and comparing the
unknown quantity to a reference voltage or resistance. While useful in the lab, the devices were
very slow and impractical in the field. These galvanometers were bulky and delicate.

The D'Arsonval/Weston meter movement used a fine metal spring to give proportional
measurement rather than just detection, and built-in permanent field magnets made deflection
independent of the orientation of the meter. Instead of balancing a bridge, values could be
directly read off the instruments's scale, which made measurement quick and easy. By adding a
series or shunt resistor, more than one range of voltage or current could be measured with one
movement.

Multimeters were invented in the early 1920s as radio receivers and other vacuum tube electronic
devices became more common. The invention of the first multimeter is attributed to British Post
Office engineer, Donald Macadie, who became dissatisfied with having to carry many separate
instruments required for the maintenance of the telecommunications circuits.[1] Macadie invented
an instrument which could measure amperes ( amps), volts and ohms, so the multifunctional
meter was then named Avometer.[2] The meter comprised a moving coil meter, voltage and
precision resistors, and switches and sockets to select the range.

Macadie took his idea to the Automatic Coil Winder and Electrical Equipment Company
(ACWEEC, founded in ~1923).[2] The first AVO was put on sale in 1923, and many of its
features remained almost unaltered through to the last Model 8.

Pocket watch style meters were in widespread use in the 1920s, at much lower cost than
Avometers. The metal case was normally connected to the negative connection, an arrangement
that caused numerous electric shocks. The technical specifications of these devices were often
crude, for example the one illustrated has a resistance of just 33 ohms per volt, a non-linear scale
and no zero adjustment.

Any meter will load the circuit under test to some extent. For example,a multimeter using a
movement with full-scale current of 50 microamps, the highest sensitivity commonly available,
must draw at least 50 microamps from the circuit under test to deflect fully. This may load a
high-impedance circuit so much as to affect the circuit, and to give a low reading.

Vacuum Tube Voltmeters or valve voltmeters (VTVM, VVM) were used for voltage
measurements in electronic circuits where high impedance was necessary. The VTVM had a
fixed input impedance of typically 1 megohm or more, usually through use of a cathode follower
input circuit, and thus did not significantly load the circuit being tested. VTVMs were used
before the introduction of digital electronic high-impedance analog transistor and field effect
transistor (FET) voltmeters. Modern digital meters and some modern analog meters use
electronic input circuitry to achieve high-input impedance—their voltage ranges are functionally
equivalent to VTVMs.

Additional scales such as decibels, and measurement functions such as capacitance, transistor
gain, frequency, duty cycle, display hold, and buzzers which sound when the measured
resistance is small have been included on many multimeters. While multimeters may be
supplemented by more specialized equipment in a technician's toolkit, some multimeters include
additional functions for specialized applications (temperature with a thermocouple probe,
inductance, connectivity to a computer, speaking measured value, etc.).

Operation

A multimeter is a combination of a multirange DC voltmeter, multirange AC voltmeter,

multirange ammeter, and multirange ohmmeter. An un-amplified analog multimeter combines a
meter movement, range resistors and switches.

For an analog meter movement, DC voltage is measured with a series resistor connected between
the meter movement and the circuit under test. A set of switches allows greater resistance to be
inserted for higher voltage ranges. The product of the basic full-scale deflection current of the
movement, and the sum of the series resistance and the movement's own resistance, gives the
full-scale voltage of the range. As an example, a meter movement that required 1 milliampere for
full scale deflection, with an internal resistance of 500 ohms, would, on a 10-volt range of the
multimeter, have 9,500 ohms of series resistance.[3]

For analog current ranges, low-resistance shunts are connected in parallel with the meter
movement to divert most of the current around the coil. Again for the case of a hypothetical 1-
mA, 500-ohm movement on a 1-Ampere range, the shunt resistance would be just over 0.5 ohms.

Moving coil instruments respond only to the average value of the current through them. To
measure alternating current, a rectifier diode is inserted in the circuit so that the average value of
current is non-zero. Since the rectified average value and the root-mean-square value of a
waveform need not be the same, simple rectifier-type circuits may only be accurate for
sinusoidal waveforms. Other wave shapes require a different calibration factor to relate RMS and
average value. Since practical rectifiers have non-zero voltage drop, accuracy and sensitivity is
poor at low values.

To measure resistance, a small battery within the instrument passes a current through the device
under test and the meter coil. Since the current available depends on the state of charge of the
battery, a multimeter usually has an adjustment for the ohms scale to zero it. In the usual circuit
found in analog multimeters, the meter deflection is inversely proportional to the resistance; so
full-scale is 0 ohms, and high resistance corresponds to smaller deflections. The ohms scale is
compressed, so resolution is better at lower resistance values.

Amplified instruments simplify the design of the series and shunt resistor networks. The internal
resistance of the coil is decoupled from the selection of the series and shunt range resistors; the
series network becomes a voltage divider. Where AC measurements are required, the rectifier
can be placed after the amplifier stage, improving precision at low range.

Digital instruments, which necessarily incorporate amplifiers, use the same principles as analog
instruments for range resistors. For resistance measurements, usually a small constant current is
passed through the device under test and the digital multimeter reads the resultant voltage drop;
this eliminates the scale compression found in analog meters, but requires a source of significant
current. An autoranging digital multimeter can automatically adjust the scaling network so that
the measurement uses the full precision of the A/D converter.

In all types of multimeters, the quality of the switching elements is critical to stable and accurate
measurements. Stability of the resistors is a limiting factor in the long-term accuracy and
precision of the instrument.

Micrometer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the measuring device. For the unit of length, see Micrometre.
 Modern micrometer (value: 1.64 milimeters)

Outside, inside, and depth micrometers

A micrometer (/maɪˈkrɒmɨtər/ US dict: mī·krŏm′·ĭ·tər), sometimes known as a micrometer

screw gauge, is a device incorporating a calibrated screw widely used for precise measurement
of components[1] in mechanical engineering and machining as well as most mechanical trades,
along with other metrological instruments such as dial, vernier, and digital calipers. Micrometers
are usually, but not always, in the form of calipers (opposing ends joined by a frame), which is
why micrometer caliper is another common name. The spindle is a very accurately machined
screw and the object to be measured is placed between the spindle and the anvil. The spindle is
moved by turning the ratchet knob or thimble until the object to be measured is lightly touched
by both the spindle and the anvil.

Micrometers are also used in telescopes or microscopes to measure the apparent diameter of
celestial bodies or microscopic objects. The micrometer used with a telescope was invented
about 1638 by William Gascoigne, an English astronomer.

Colloquially the word micrometer is often shortened to mike or mic (/ˈmaɪk/) (US dict: mīk′).
Contents

History of the device and its name

Gascoigne's Micrometer as drawn by Robert Hooke

The word micrometer is a neoclassical coinage from Greek micros, meaning "small", and
metron, meaning "measure". The Merriam-Webster Collegiate Dictionary[2] says that English got
it from French and that its first known appearance in English writing was in 1670. Neither the
metre nor the micrometre nor the micrometer (device) as we know them today existed at that
time. However, the people of that time did have much need for, and interest in, the ability to
measure small things and small differences. The word was no doubt coined in reference to this
endeavor, even if it did not refer specifically to its present-day senses.

The first ever micrometric screw was invented by William Gascoigne in the 17th century, as an
enhancement of the vernier; it was used in a telescope to measure angular distances between
stars and the relative sizes of celestial objects.

Henry Maudslay built a bench micrometer in the early 19th century that was jocularly nicknamed
"the Lord Chancellor" among his staff because it was the final judge on measurement accuracy
and precision in the firm's work.

The first documented development of handheld micrometer-screw calipers was by Jean Laurent
Palmer of Paris in 1848;[3] the device is therefore often called palmer in French, and tornillo de
Palmer ("Palmer screw") in Spanish. (Those languages also use the micrometer cognates:
micromètre, micrómetro.) The micrometer caliper was introduced to the mass market in
anglophone countries by Brown & Sharpe in 1867,[4] allowing the penetration of the instrument's
use into the average machine shop. Brown & Sharpe were inspired by several earlier devices,
one of them being Palmer's design. In 1888 Edward W. Morley added to the precision of
micrometric measurements and proved their accuracy in a complex series of experiments.

The culture of toolroom accuracy and precision, which started with interchangeability pioneers
including Gribeauval, Tousard, North, Hall, Whitney, and Colt, and continued through leaders
such as Maudslay, Palmer, Whitworth, Brown, Sharpe, Pratt, Whitney, Leland, and others, grew
during the Machine Age to become an important part of combining applied science with
technology. Beginning in the early 20th century, one could no longer truly master tool and die
making, machine tool building, or engineering without some knowledge of the science of
metrology, as well as the sciences of chemistry and physics (for metallurgy,
kinematics/dynamics, and quality).