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GY305 Lecture4 Seismology

Seismology is the study of seismic wave transmission through the Earth. There are three main types of seismic waves: P-waves, S-waves, and surface waves. P and S waves are body waves that travel through the Earth's interior, while surface waves travel along the surface. Seismic waves can be used to measure physical properties within the Earth by analyzing transmission speed and reflections at density contrasts. Analysis of seismic wave arrival times and amplitudes provides information about earthquake locations, magnitudes, and fault plane solutions. Seismic reflection and refraction data can image subsurface geological structures.

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80 views26 pages

GY305 Lecture4 Seismology

Seismology is the study of seismic wave transmission through the Earth. There are three main types of seismic waves: P-waves, S-waves, and surface waves. P and S waves are body waves that travel through the Earth's interior, while surface waves travel along the surface. Seismic waves can be used to measure physical properties within the Earth by analyzing transmission speed and reflections at density contrasts. Analysis of seismic wave arrival times and amplitudes provides information about earthquake locations, magnitudes, and fault plane solutions. Seismic reflection and refraction data can image subsurface geological structures.

Uploaded by

tarek mahmoud
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GY305 GEOPHYSICS

Seismology
Seismology & Seismic Waves

• Seismology is the study of the transmission of seismic wave energy


through the Earth

• 3 fundamental seismic waves


• P-wave: compressional wave
• S-wave: shear wave
• Surface wave: wave that travels along the surface of the earth

• Seismic wave transmission can me used to remotely measure


physical properties of the internal layers of the Earth:
• Transmission speed is proportional to density
• Density contrasts cause reflection and refraction according to
Snell’s law
• S-waves cannot be transmitted through a liquid
Physics of Seismic Waves

• P-wave: particle motion vibrates in the direction of wave-front


travel
• S-wave: particle motion vibrates perpendicular to the
direction of wave travel
• Surface Wave: composed of Rayleigh and Love waves:
• Rayleigh: particle motion perpendicular to ground
surface
• Love: particle motion parallel to ground surface
• P-waves and S-waves are considered “Body” waves because
they travel through the Earth’s interior
• P-waves have higher velocities and therefore arrive at
seismograph stations 1st
• S-waves have an intermediate velocity and arrive 2nd
• Surface waves are slower than P- or S- waves and therefore
arrive last
P- versus S-wave
Particle Motion
P-wave S-wave
Rayleigh versus Love Components
of Surface Waves
Relationship between Density and
Seismic Velocity
• Density versus Seismic wave velocity at (a) 0.2 GPa, (b) 0.6 GPa, and (c) 1.0
GPa confining pressure (depths = 6, 18, and 30 km)
• Solid circles = Igneous & Metamorphic
• Open circles = Sedimentary
Earthquake Seismology Terms

• Seismograph: instrument that records the arrival of seismic


waves at the instrument location over time
• Seismic station network: global array of seismic stations
built to detect the location and magnitude of seismic
events, natural and man-made
• Epicenter: 2D location of seismic event on a map- requires
latitude & longitude
• Focal Point: 3D location- latitude, longitude, and depth
• Magnitude: measure of the release of energy from the
seismic event
Earthquake Epicentral Distance

• Because P-waves travel faster than S-waves the epicentral distance from
the seismic station may be calculated
• The time differential (∆t) is proportional to the epicentral distance

Seismic Station A
S-wave ∆t=1:00:12-1:00:05=7 seconds
P-wave

TP=1:00:05PM TS=1:00:12PM
1:00:00PM 1:00:10PM 1:00:20PM 1:00:30PM 1:00:40PM
Graphical Plot of P- and S-Wave Epicentral
Distances
Seismic Station A

20

15
Time
(sec.)
10 ∆t=7sec.

5
7sec.

0 10 20 Epicentral Distance (Km) 60 70


Plotting Epicenter Location

Seismic Epicentral
Station
Distance
A 23 km
B
B 57 km
C 30 km
C
A
Calculation of the Time of the
Seismic Event
Seismic Event time = 1:00:05PM – 5 sec. = 1:00:00PM

• Once the epicentral distance is calculated


20 the time of arrival of the P- or S-wave at
any of the seismic stations can be used to
calculate the time of the seismic event

15
Time
(sec.)
10 ∆t=7sec.

P-wave travel time = 5 sec.

0 10 20 Epicentral Distance (Km) 60 70


Earthquake Magnitude

• All earthquake magnitude calculations (i,.e. Richter scale) are


derived from the below equation:
• M = Log(A/T) + q(,h) + a
• A = Amplitude of wave in 10-6 meters
• T = period of wave in seconds
• q = function correcting for () angular distance from
seismometer to epicenter, and for (h) the focal depth
• a = an empirical constant that takes into account variations
specific to the seismic station and seismic instrument
• Note the log scale – a magnitude 8 event releases
thousands of times the energy compared to a magnitude 5
event
Earthquake Magnitude Frequency

Magnitude Number per Year


> 8.0 1
7 – 7.9 18
6 – 6.9 108
5 - 5.9 800
4-4.9 6,200
3 – 3.9 49,000
2-2.9 300,000

*Mean annual frequency of earthquakes recorded 1918-1945


(Gutenberg and Richter, 1954)
Seismic Wave Paths in the Earth

• P- and S-waves travel in curved


paths because of refraction
• Rapid density changes across
contacts may also cause
reflections
• S-waves will not transmit through
the liquid outer core
Reflection, Refraction, and Snell’s Law

• Reflected ray paths match the


incident angle indicated by the
normal to the boundary

• Example:
• Velocity medium 1 = 8.8 km/sec
• Velocity medium 2 = 6.3 km/sec
• Layer 1 incident angle = 40
• V2 * sin (1) = V1 * sin(2)
• 6.3 * sin 40 = 8.8 * sin 2
V1=8.8km/sec
• sin 2 = 6.3/8.8 * sin(40)
• sin 2 = 0.726
• 2 = 27.4

V2=6.3km/sec
1st Motion Studies and Fault Motion Solutions

• P-wave 1st arrivals at seismic stations will be either


compressional or dilational
• This will indicate the relative fault block motion along a
fracture and therefore the type of fault (normal, reverse,
dextral, sinistral)

Sinistral strike-slip

Normal Dip-slip Reverse Dip-Slip


Dextral Strike-Slip Example of 1st Motion
• Compressional 1st motion displays as a positive “up-tick” on strip chart
• Dilational 1st motion displays as a negative “down-tick” on strip chart
• Note that 1st motion gives 2 possible fault plane solutions- you need some
knowledge of the regional geology to determine the correct fault plane
• Note that the intensity of the P-wave amplitude decreases to 0 at the nodal
plane
Example of Dextral Strike-Slip Motion on an East-
West Transform

• Solid circles are compressional


1st Motions
• Open circles are dilational 1st
motions
• Circles with crosses are low-
amplitude indeterminate
Example 1st Motion Data From Dip-Slip Faults

Normal Reverse
Example 1st Motions from Mid-Atlantic Ridge
Relationship of Seismic Wave Velocity to Earth’s Internal
Layers

• Phase changes
create rapid
density changes
• Physical state
(solid vs. liquid)
generate velocity
gradients
Potential Ray Paths due to Reflection and Refraction

• The ray path


that moves
along the layer
interface is
termed the
“Head Wave”
Seismic Reflection

• Known quantities: shot point offset and geophone


spacing
• Depth = Sqrt(((ray path dist)/2)^2-(ground dist)/2)^2)
• Ray path dist = 2-way travel time * velocity
Seismic Reflection cont.

• 2-way travel times on a horizontal surface follow a hyperbolic trend


Seismic Reflection: Fault Offset

• Fault offset produces an offset in hyperbolic curve


Consolidated Reflection Data

• Multiple Shot points are collected by computers and processed into


a reflection profile
• Below is a profile through the Rio Grande Rift displaying the top of
the rift magma chamber

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