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INTRODUCTION

Real-time obstacle avoidance is one of the key issues to

successful applications of mobile robot systems. All mobile
robots feature some kind of collision avoidance, ranging
from primitive algorithms that detect an obstacle and stop
the robot short of it in order to avoid a collision, through
sophisticated algorithms, that enable the robot to detour
obstacles. The latter algorithms are much more complex,
since they involve not only the detection of an obstacle, but
also some kind of quantitative measurements concerning
the obstacle's dimensions. Once these have been
determined, the obstacle avoidance algorithm needs to steer
the robot around the obstacle and resume motion toward
the original target. Autonomous navigation represents a
higher level of performance, since it applies obstacle
avoidance simultaneously with the robot steering toward a
given target. Autonomous navigation, in general, assumes
an environment with known and unknown obstacles, and it
includes global path planning algorithms [3] to plan the
robot's path among the known obstacles, as well as local
path planning for real-time obstacle avoidance. This
article, however, assumes motion in the presence of
unknown obstacles, and therefore concentrates only on the
local obstacle avoidance aspect.

One approach to autonomous navigation is the wall-following method

[1,17,18]. Here the robot navigation is based on moving alongside walls at a
predefined distance. If an obstacle is encountered, the robot regards the
obstacle as just another wall, following the obstacle's contour until it may
resume its original course. This kind of navigation is technologically less
demanding, since one major problem of mobile robots) the determination of
their own position) is largely facilitated. Naturally, robot navigation by the
wall-following method is less versatile and is suitable only for very specific
applications. One recently introduced commercial system uses this method on a
floor-cleaning robot for long hallways [16].
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A more general and commonly employed method for obstacle

avoidance is based on edge detection. In this method, the algorithm tries to
determine the position of the vertical edges of the obstacle and consequently
attempts to steer the robot around either edge. The line connecting the two
edges is considered to represent one of the obstacle's boundaries. This method
was used in our own previous research [5,6], as well as in several other
research projects, such as [9,11,28]. A disadvantage with obstacle avoidance
based on edge detecting is the need of the robot to stop in front of an obstacle
in order to allow for a more accurate measurement.
A further drawback of edge-detection methods is their sensitivity to
sensor accuracy. Unfortunately, ultrasonic sensors, which are mostly used in
mobile robot applications, offer many shortcomings in this respect:

1. Poor directionality that limits the accuracy in determination of the

spatial position of an edge to 10-50 cm, depending on the distance to the
obstacle and the angle between the obstacle surface and acoustic beam.
2. Frequent misreading that is caused by either ultrasonic noise from
external sources or stray reflections from neighbouring sensors ("cross
talk"). Misreading cannot always be filtered out and they cause the
algorithm to "see" nonexistent edges.
3. Specular reflections, which occur when the angle between the wave front and
the normal to a smooth surface is too large. In this case the surface reflects the
incoming ultra-sound waves away from the sensor, and the obstacle is either
not detected at all, or (since only part of the surface is detected) "seen" much
smaller than it is in reality.

To reduce the effects listed above we have decided to represent

obstacles with the Certainty Grid method. This method of obstacle
representation allows adding and retrieving data on the fly and enables easy
integration of multiple sensors.
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The representation of obstacles by certainty levels in a grid model has

been suggested by Elfes [15], who used the Certainty Grid for off-line global
path planning. Moravec and Elfes [23], and Moravec [24] also describe the use
of Certainty Grids for map building. Since the obstacle avoidance approach
makes use of this method, the basic idea of the Certainty Grid will be described
briefly.
In order to create a Certainty Grid, the robot's work area is divided into
many square elements (denoted as cells), which form a grid (in our
implementation the cell size is 10 cm by 10 cm). Each cell (i,j) contains a
Certainty Value C(i,j) that indicates the measure of confidence that an obstacle
exists within the cell area. The greater C(i,j), the greater the level of confidence
that the cell is occupied by an obstacle.
In our system the ultrasonic sensors are continuously sampled while the
robot is moving. If an obstacle produces an echo (within the predefined
maximum range limit of 2 meters), the corresponding cell contents C(i,j) are
incremented. A solid, motionless obstacle eventually causes a high count in the
corresponding cells. Misreading, on the other hand, occur randomly, and do not
cause high counts in any particular cell. This method yields a more reliable
obstacle representation in spite of the ultrasonic sensors' inaccuracies.
The novelty of the approach lies in the combination of Certainty Grids
for obstacle representation with the Potential Field method for local path
planning. Section 2 explains our basic Virtual Force Field (VFF) obstacle
avoidance approach in which the Potential Field method to a Certainty Grid is
applied. The VFF method is further enhanced by taking into account the
dynamic behaviour of a mobile robot at high speeds and by a comprehensive
heuristic solution to the "trap" problem (which is associated with the Potential
Field method). A discussion on these two algorithms is included in Sections 3
and 4. The described algorithms have been implemented and tested on our
mobile robot, CARMEL (Computer-Aided Robotics for Maintenance,
Emergency, and Life support).
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THE VIRTUAL FORCE FIELD (VFF) METHOD

The idea of having obstacles conceptually exerting forces onto a mobile

robot has been suggested by Khatib [20]. Krogh [21] has enhanced this concept
further by taking into consideration the robot’s velocity in the vicinity of
obstacles. Thorpe [26] has applied the Potential Fields Method to off-line path
planning. Krogh and Thorpe [22] suggested a combined method for global and
local path planning, which uses Krogh"s Generalized Potential Field (GPF)
approach. These methods, however, assume a known and prescribed world
model of the obstacles. Furthermore, none of the above methods has been
implemented on a mobile robot that uses real sensory data. The closest project
to this concept is that of Brooks [7,8], who uses a Force Field method in an
experimental robot equipped with a ring of 12 ultrasonic sensors. Brooks"s
implementation treats each ultrasonic range reading as a repulsive force vector.
If the magnitude of the sum of the repulsive forces exceeds a certain threshold,
the robot stops, turns into the direction of the resultant force vector, and moves
on.

2.1 The Basic VFF Method

This section explains the combination of the Potential Field method

with a Certainty Grid. This combination produces a powerful and robust
control scheme for mobile robots, denoted as the Virtual Force Field (VFF)
method.

As the robot moves around, range readings are taken and projected into
the Certainty Grid, as explained above. Simultaneously, the algorithm scans a
small square window of the grid. The size of the window is 33x33 cells (i.e.,
3.30x3.30m) and its location is such that the robot is always at its centre.
Each occupied cell inside the window applies a repulsive force to the
robot, "pushing" the robot away from the cell. The magnitude of this force is
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proportional to the cell contents, C(i,j), and is Inversely proportional to the

distance between the robot and the cell:
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(-) is a specially defined operator for two operands, and (in degrees), and is
used in the form c = (-). The result, c (in degrees), is the shortest rotational
difference between and therefore, c is always in the range -180 < c < 180.

A typical obstacle map in Certainty Grid representation shows obstacle-

boundaries as clusters of cells with high certainty values. Misreading, on the
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other hand, occur at random and therefore produce mostly isolated cells with
low certainty values. Summation of repulsive forces from occupied cells (Eq.
2) makes the robot highly responsive to clusters of filled cells, while almost
completely ignoring isolated cells.

2.2 Advantages Over Conventional Methods

The VFF algorithm has several advantages over edge detecting

methods, which are presently used in many mobile robot applications:

1. In edge detection methods, misreading or inaccurate range

measurements may be misinterpreted as part of an obstacle contour,
thereby gravely distorting the perceived shape of the obstacle. The
sharply defined contour required by these methods cannot accommodate
the blurry and inaccurate information provided by ultrasonic sensors.
Edge detection methods require binary knowledge about the obstacle
contour (exists or does not exist), and therefore cannot implement
certainty methods, in which the data is weighted. The VFF method, on
the other hand, does not utilize sharp contours in the world model, but
rather responds to clusters of high likelihood for the existence of an
obstacle. This results in increased robustness of the algorithm in the
presence of misreading.

2. The VFF method does not require the robot to stop for data acquisition
and evaluation, or for corner negotiation (as in the cases reported in
[6,8,9,11,12,19]). Except for the artificially introduced effect of
damping (see discussion in Section 3.1), the VFF method allows the
robot to negotiate all obstacles while it travels at up to its maximum
velocity.
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3. Updating the grid-map with sensor information and using the grid-map
for navigation is two independent tasks that are performed
asynchronously, each at its optimal pace. The edge detection method, by
contrast, requires the following activities to be performed in sequence:
detect an obstacle, stop the robot, measure the obstacle (find its edges),
recalculate path, and resume motion.

4. The grid representation for obstacles lends itself easily to the integration
of data from groups of similar, as well as from different types of sensors
(such as vision, touch, and proximity), in addition to data from previous
runs or from pre-programmed stationary obstacles (such as walls).
DYNAMIC MOTION ENHANCEMENTS FOR ROBOTS RUNNING AT
HIGH SPEEDS

This section discusses the main enhancements that have been

incorporated in the VFF method in order to account for the dynamic properties
of a mobile robot [2,4] moving at higher speeds (up to 0.78 m/sec).
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The mobile robot used in all experiments is a commercially available

CYBERMATION K2A mobile platform [13]. The K2A has a maximum travel
speed of V = 0.78 m/sec, a maximum steering rate of =120 deg/sec, and
weights (in its current configuration) about W=125 kg.

This platform has a unique 3-wheel drive (synch-drive) that permits

omni directional steering. In order to control this mobile platform, two data
items must be sent (through a serial link) to its onboard computer: a velocity
command, V, and a steering-rate command, (computed in Eq. 5 above).

The mobile platform has been equipped with a ring of 24 Polaroid

ultrasonic sensors [25] and an additional computer (a PC-compatible single
board computer, running at 7.16 MHz), to control the sensors. Similar sensor
configurations have been designed for other mobile robots, such as [14] or
[27].

Since the remaining part of this paper focuses on various aspects of

motion performance, simulation of obstacles in the Certainty Grid has been
used rather than use real sensory data.

The undeterministic nature of actual ultrasonic range information makes

it difficult to reproduce test-runs or compare them with each other. The VFF
algorithm, however, works
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The effect of this damping method is that the robot experiences the repulsive
forces at their full magnitude, as it approaches the obstacle frontally (with -cos
=1). As the robot turns toward a direction alongside the obstacle’s boundary,
the repulsive forces are weakened by the factor 0.75*cosθ , and will be at
their minimum value when the robot runs parallel to the boundary. Notice that
setting w=0 is undesirable, since the robot will eventually run into an obstacle
as it approaches it at a very small angle.

Careful examination of Eq. 8 reveals the fact that the damped sum of
repulsive forces, F' may become negative (thereby actually attracting the
robot), as the robot moves away from the obstacle (and cos >0). We found the
attraction-effect to improve damping and reduce oscillatory motion.

3.3 Speed Control

The intuitive way to control the speed of a mobile robot in the VFF
environment is to set it proportional to the magnitude of the sum of all forces,
. Thus, if the path was clear, the robot would be subjected only to
the target force and would move toward the target, at its maximum speed.
Repulsive forces from obstacles, naturally opposed to the direction of F t (with
disregard to the damping effect discussed above), would reduce the magnitude
of the resultant R, thereby effectively reducing the robot’s speed in the
presence of obstacles. However, we have found that the overall performance
can be substantially improved by setting the speed command proportional to
cos (see Eq. 9). This function is given by:

With this function, the robot still runs at its maximum speed if no
obstacles are present. However, in the presence of obstacles, speed is reduced
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only if the robot is heading toward the obstacle (or away from it), thus creating
an additional damping effect. If, however, the robot moved alongside an
obstacle boundary, its speed is almost not reduced at all and it moves at its
maximum speed, thereby greatly reducing the overall travel-time.

Fig. 2b shows the joint effect of both damping measures on the resulting
path.
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RECOVERY FROM "LOCAL MINIMUM TRAPS"

One problem inherent to the basic VFF method is the possibility for the
robot to get "Trapped." This situation may occur when the robot runs into a
dead end (e.g., inside a U shaped obstacle). Traps can be created by a variety of
different obstacle configurations, and different types of traps can be
distinguished. This section presents a comprehensive set of heuristic rules to
recover from different trap conditions. Chattergy [10] presented some heuristic
local path planning solutions for various obstacle configurations (and trap
conditions), based on distance measurements to the obstacle. While his
approach to recovery from a single trap is similar to ours (through wall-
following, see discussion below), his solution to the problem of multiple traps
differs completely from ours. Also, Chattergy offers no solution to the inside-
wall problem (as discussed in section 4.2).

4.1 Trap-state Detection

In an ideal, non-inertial system, simply monitoring the speed of the

robot may discover trap-states. If caught in a trap, the robot’s speed will
become zero as the robot converges to the equilibrium position with R = 0. In a
dynamic system, however, the robot overshoots the equilibrium position and
will either oscillate or run in a closed loop, as shown in Fig. 3a for an actual
run. Therefore, it is impractical to monitor the magnitude of the resultant force
|R| for trap-state detection. Our method for trap-state detection compares the
Robot-To-Target direction, with the actual instantaneous direction of travel. If
the robot’s direction of travel is more than 90 degrees off- <90 the
robot starts to move away from the target and is very likely about to get
trapped. Therefore, to avoid trap-situations, the controller monitors the
condition in Eq. 12. If Eq. 12 is satisfied, the system switches to the recovery
algorithm discussed below. Notice that Eq. 12 expresses an over conservative
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condition, and under certain circumstances this condition may be satisfied

without the robot being subsequently trapped.
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since it is less sensitive to misreading of the ultrasonic sensors. A similar

implementation for wall following has been suggested by Brooks and Connell
[8]
There is, however, one catch to the WFM, which may occur if more
than one trap is present. Figure 6a shows one such case. Here the robot
switches to WFM at point A and follows a wall to its left. Then, at point B, it
switches back to VFF mode, since its heading is now less than 90 off the target
direction. At point C, a new trap condition is detected, and the robot goes again
into WFM (notice that at this time the robot follows the obstacle at its right).
This pattern repeats itself at points D, E, and F, inside the second and third
trap. Subsequently, the robot returns and oscillates between the traps.
To solve this problem, two possible walls following modes must be
distinguished: L-mode, where the robot follows a wall to its left, and R mode,
where the robot follows a wall to its right. This distinction is utilized in the
implementation of the WFM in our system, as is explained below. In a given
run the robot might select either L or R-mode at the first trap-situation, but then
it must stick always to this mode within the given run.
The result of running this algorithm is depicted in Fig. 6b (for the same
obstacle configuration as in Fig. 6a). The robot encounters a trap at point A and
chooses L-mode. At point B the trap-situation is resolved and the robot returns
to VFF mode. However, a new obstacle is encountered, which "pushes" the
robot into R-mode (at point C). Since the robot has to stick to the original
WFM, it slows down and performs a U-turn (at point D). Subsequently, the
robot resumes motion in VFF mode (at point E). A new trap is detected at point
F, but this trap can be resolved by running in (the original) L-mode. At point G
the robot resumes motion in VFF mode and reaches the target.
The average speed for this run was 0.5 m/sec. One last exception that
needs to be addressed occurs when the robot is in WFM on an inside wall of a
closed room (with the target in the same room). In this case, the robot will

follow that wall indefinitely, since the condition for exiting WFM
will not be satisfied.
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However, the above situation may be detected by monitoring the sum of

the changes of the target direction, between sampling intervals

>360 indicate that the robot has travelled at least

one full loop around the target. This only happens when the robot follows an
inside wall completely surrounding the target. Once detected, there are several
ways to remedy the situation. In our algorithm, the robot is simply forced out
of the WFM and back into normal target pursuit. Fig. 7 shows an example: At
point A the algorithm detects the trap condition and switches into WFM with
R-mode. At point B the robot has completed one full revolution about the
target (since A) and the loop condition (>360) is detected. The robot slows
down and stops at point C. Theoretically, there is no need to stop at C, but for
the trivial purpose of untangling the umbilical cord (note that the robot has
spun almost 720 by the time it reaches C) the robot does stop at C. It then
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rotates on the spot until its heading is directed toward the target again, and
resumes motion in
VFF mode.

Fig. 8 shows a run of the robot with actual ultrasonic data, obtained in
real-time during the robot’s motion. Partitions were set up in the lab such as to
resemble the simulated obstacles in Fig. 3. The robot ran at a maximum speed
of 0.78 m/sec and achieved an average speed of 0.53 m/sec. The maximal
range for the sensors was set to 2 m, which is why only part of the rightmost
wall is shown, whereas the rear wall and most of the leftmost wall remained
undetected.

Each dot in Fig. 8 represents one cell in the Certainty Grid. In our
current implementation Certainty Values (CVs) range only from 0 to 3. CV = 0
means no sensor reading has been projected into the cell during the run (no dot
at all). CV = 1 (or CV = 2) means that one (or two) readings have been
projected into the cell, and this is shown in Fig. 8 with dots comprising of 1 (or
2) pixels. CV = 3 means that 3 or more readings have been projected into the
same cell, and this is represented by a 4-pixel dot in Fig. 8.

At least two misreading can be identified in Fig. 8, which have been

encircled for emphasis.
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CONCLUSIONS
A comprehensive obstacle avoidance approach for fast-running mobile
robots, denoted as the VFF method, has been developed and tested on our
experimental mobile robot CARMEL. The VFF method is based on the
following principles:

1. A Certainty Grid for representation of (inaccurate) sensory data about

obstacles provides a robust real-time world model.
2. A field of virtual attractive and repulsive forces determines the direction
and speed of the mobile robot.
3. The combination of 1. and 2. results in the characteristic behaviour of
the robot: The robot responds to clusters of high-likelihood for the
existence of an obstacle, while ignoring single (possibly erroneous) data
points.
4. Trap states are automatically detected and recovery routines are
activated. These routines distinguish among several different situations
and take appropriate action for each situation.
5. Oscillatory robot motion is resolved by damping algorithms (which only
marginally compromise the robot’s average speed).

Based on the VFF method for autonomous obstacle avoidance, we are

currently developing a new mode of operation for the remote guidance of
mobile robots. Under this mode of operation, the mobile robot follows the
general direction prescribed by the operator.

If the robot encounters an obstacle, it autonomously avoids collision with that

obstacle, trying to match the prescribed direction as good as possible. With this
integrated self-protection mechanism, robots can be steered at high speeds and
in cluttered environments, even by inexperienced operators.
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