SIR SYED UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING

AND TECHNOLOGY

ASSIGNMENT # 1

IMMUNE SYSTEM

SUBMITTED BY: SUBMITTED TO:

OMAR FAROOQ MAM NOREEN

2006-BM-122
Introduction to Immune System

The immune system is a network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to
defend the body against attacks by “foreign” invaders. These are primarily
microbes—tiny organisms such as bacteria, parasites, and fungi that can cause
infections. Viruses also cause infections, but are too primitive to be classified as
living organisms. The human body provides an ideal environment for many
microbes. It is the immune system’s job to keep them out or, failing that, to seek out
and destroy them.

The Lymph System

Lymph is an alkaline (pH > 7.0) fluid that is usually clear, transparent, and
colorless. It flows in the lymphatic vessels and bathes tissues and organs in its
protective covering. There are no RBCs in lymph and it has a lower protein content
than blood. Like blood, it is slightly heavier than water (density = 1.019 ± .003).

The lymph flows from the interstitial fluid through lymphatic vessels up to either the
thoracic duct or right lymph duct, which terminate in the subclavian veins, where
lymph is mixed into the blood. (The right lymph duct drains the right sides of the
thorax, neck, and head, whereas the thoracic duct drains the rest of the body.)
Lymph carries lipids and lipid-soluble vitamins absorbed from the gastrointestinal
(GI) tract. Since there is no active pump in the lymph system, there is no back-
pressure produced. The lymphatic vessels, like veins, have one-way valves that
prevent backflow. Additionally, along these vessels there are small bean-
shaped lymph nodes that serve as filters of the lymphatic fluid. It is in the lymph
nodes where antigen is usually presented to the immune system.

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Organs of the Immune System

Bone Marrow:
During hematopoiesis, bone marrow-derived stem cells differentiate into either
mature cells of the immune system or into precursors of cells that migrate out of the
bone marrow to continue their maturation elsewhere. The bone marrow produces B
cells, natural killer cells, granulocytes and immature thymocytes, in addition to red
blood cells and platelets.

Thymus:
In the thymus gland lymphoid cells undergo a process of maturation and education
prior to release into the circulation. This process allows T cells to develop the
important attribute known as self tolerance.

Spleen:
The spleen is an immunologic filter of the blood. It is made up of B cells, T cells,
macrophages, dendritic cells, natural killer cells and red blood cells. This organ can
be thought of as an immunological conference center. In the spleen, B cells
become activated and produce large amounts of antibody. Also, old red blood cells
are destroyed in the spleen.

Lymph Nodes:
Lymph nodes are small bean shaped structures lying along the course of
lymphatics. They are aggregated in particular sites such as the neck, axillae, groins
and para-aortic region. Knowledge of the sites of lymph nodes is important in
physical examination of patients. Lymph nodes have two main functions:

• phagocytic cells act as filters for particulate matter and micro-organisms

• antigen is presented to the immune system

Non Specific Defenses

Nonspecific defenses include physical and chemical barriers, the inflammatory

response, and interferons. Physical barriers include the intact skin and mucous
membranes. These barriers are aided by various antimicrobial chemicals in tissue
and fluids. An example of such a substance is lysozyme, an enzyme present in
tears that destroys the cell membranes of certain bacteria.

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Inflammatory Response

Another line of defense is the inflammatory response, in which white blood cells
called monocytes and granulocytes (e.g., basophils and neutrophils) reach an
injured area. Basophils release histamine, which results in increased local blood
flow and increased permeability of the capillaries and allows phagocytizing cells,
such as neutrophils and monocytes (macrophages), into the area. The same
response sometimes results in fever. Leakage of the clotting protein fibrinogen and
other substances into the injured area results in blockage of tissue by clots, which
wall off the injured area to retard the spread of bacteria or their toxins.

Interferons

Interferons are proteins released by a virus-invaded cell that prompt surrounding

cells to produce enzymes that interfere with viral replication. They are the reason
that, in most instances, infection with one virus precludes infection by a second
virus.

The Complement System

The first part of the immune system that meets invaders such as bacteria is a group
of proteins called the complement system. These proteins flow freely in the blood
and can quickly reach the site of
an invasion where they can
react directly with antigens
-molecules that the body
recognizes as foreign
substances. When activated,
the complement proteins can:

• trigger inflammation
• attract eater cells such
as macrophages to the
area
• coat intruders so that
eater cells are more
likely to devour them
• kill intruders

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Physical Barriers

Phagocytes: This is a group of immune cells specialized in finding and "eating"

bacteria, viruses, and dead or injured body cells. There are three main types, the
granulocyte, the macrophage, and the dendritic cell.

The granulocytes: often take the first stand during an infection. They attack any
invaders in large numbers, and "eat" until they die. The pus in an infected wound
consists chiefly of dead granulocytes. A small part of the granulocyte community is
specialized in attacking larger parasites such as worms.

The macrophages: “big eaters” are slower to respond to invaders than the granulocytes,
but they are larger, live longer, and have far greater capacities. Macrophages also play a
key part in alerting the rest of the immune system of invaders. Macrophages start out as
white blood cells called monocytes. Monocytes that leave the blood stream turn into
macrophages.

Specific Defenses

specific defenses or immunity is provided by the coordinated activities of T-cells

and B-cells, which respond the presence of specific antigens. The basic functional
relationship can be summarized as follows:

Lymphocytes - T cells and B cells

White blood cells called lymphocytes originate in the bone marrow but migrate to
parts of the lymphatic system such as the lymph nodes, spleen, and thymus. There
are two main types of lymphatic cells, T cells and B cells. The lymphatic system
also involves a transportation system - lymph vessels - for transportation and
storage of lymphocyte cells within the body.

T-Cells: T cells come in two different types, helper cells and killer cells. They are
named T cells after the thymus, an organ situated under the breastbone. T cells are
produced in the bone marrow and later move to the thymus where they mature.

B-Cells: The major function of B lymphocytes is the production of antibodies

in response to foreign proteins of bacteria, viruses, and tumor cells.
Antibodies are specialized proteins that specifically recognize and bind to
one particular protein that specifically recognize and bind to one particular
protein. Antibody production and binding to a foreign substance or antigen,
often is critical as a means of signaling other cells to engulf, kill or remove
that substance from the body.

Innate Immunity

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Everyone is born with innate (or natural) immunity, a type of general protection that
humans have. Many of the germs that affect other species don't harm us. The
term, innate immunity, refers to the basic resistance to disease that a species
possesses - the first line of defense against infection. The characteristics of the
innate immune response include the following:

• Responses are Broad-Spectrum (non-specific)

• There is no memory or lasting protective immunity
• There is a limited repertoire of recognition molecules
• The responses are phylogenetically ancient

Acquired Immunity

Acquired immunity is immunity that develops with exposure to various antigens.

Your immune system builds a defense that is specific to that antigen. This type of
immunity develops throughout our lives. Adaptive immunity involves the
lymphocytes (as in the process described above) and develops as children and
adults are exposed to diseases or immunized against diseases through
vaccination. Acquired immunity takes time to develop after initial exposure to a new
antigen. However, because a memory is formed, subsequent responses to a
previously encountered antigen are more effective and more rapid than those
generated by innate immunity.

The Immune Response

An immune response to foreign antigen requires the presence of an antigen-

presenting cell (APC), (usually either a macrophage or dendritic cell) in
combination with a B cell or T cell. When an APC presents an antigen on its cell
surface to a B cell, the B cell is signalled to proliferate and produce antibodies that
specifically bind to that antigen. If the antibodies bind to antigens on bacteria or
parasites it acts as a signal for pmns or macrophages to engulf (phagocytose) and
kill them. Another important function of antibodies is to initiate the "complement
destruction cascade." When antibodies bind to cells or bacteria, serum proteins
called complement bind to the immobilized antibodies and destroy the bacteria by
creating holes in them. Antibodies can also signal natural killer cells and
macrophages to kill viral or bacterial-infected cells.

If the APC presents the antigen to T cells, the T cells become activated. Activated
T cells proliferate and become secretory in the case of CD4+ T cells, or, if they are
CD8+ T cells, they become activated to kill target cells that specifically express the
antigen presented by the APC. The production of antibodies and the activity of
CD8+ killer T cells are highly regulated by the CD4+ helper T cell subset. The

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CD4+ T cells provide growth factors or signals to these cells that signal them to
proliferate and function more efficiently. This multitude of interleukins or cytokines
that are produced and secreted by CD4+ T cells are often crucial to ensure the
activation of natural killer cells, macrophages, CD8+ T cells, and PMNs is listed in
the chart below.