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D of P Satisfying 1 D P. If An Integer A 1 Is Not A Prime, It Is Called A

1. The document discusses elementary number theory, including definitions of prime numbers, theorems about factorizing integers into primes, and properties of prime numbers. 2. It also covers the binomial theorem, defining binomial coefficients and proving that the binomial theorem holds for any real numbers x and y. 3. The document contains several open problems and conjectures about primes, such as whether there are infinitely many primes of the form n^2 + 1, and if there are arbitrarily long arithmetic progressions of primes.

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71 views4 pages

D of P Satisfying 1 D P. If An Integer A 1 Is Not A Prime, It Is Called A

1. The document discusses elementary number theory, including definitions of prime numbers, theorems about factorizing integers into primes, and properties of prime numbers. 2. It also covers the binomial theorem, defining binomial coefficients and proving that the binomial theorem holds for any real numbers x and y. 3. The document contains several open problems and conjectures about primes, such as whether there are infinitely many primes of the form n^2 + 1, and if there are arbitrarily long arithmetic progressions of primes.

Uploaded by

luishipp
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Elementary Number Theory

Section 1.2 Primes

Definition 1.2.1 An integer p > 1 is called a prime in case there is no divisor


d of p satisfying 1 < d < p. If an integer a < 1 is not a prime, it is called a
composite number.

Theorem 1.2.2 Every integer n > 1 can be expressed as a product of primes.

Lemma 1.2.3 If p|a1 a2 · · · an , p being a prime, then p divides at least one factor
ai .

Theorem 1.2.4 (Fundamental theorem of arithmetic) The factorization of any


integer n > 1 into primes is unique apart from the order of the prime factors.
[Two proofs.]
∏
Remark 1.2.5 (a) For any positive integer a, a = p pα(p) is called the canonical
factoring of n into∏prime powers. ∏ ∏
(b) let a = p pα(p) , b = p pβ(p) , c = p pγ(p) . If c = ab, then γ(p) =
α(p) + β(p). ∏ ∏
(a, b) = p pmin(α(p),β(p)) , [a, b] = p pmax(α(p),β(p)) .
a is a perfect square if and only if, for all p, α(p) is even.
(c) The second proof of 1.2.4 is independent of the previous theorems, so
the formulas of (a, b), [a, b] can be used to prove many results in Section 1.1.

Example 1.2.6 The number systems in which the factorization is not unique.
(a) E = {2, 4, 6,√8, · · · }.
(b) C = {a + b 6 : a, b ∈ Z}.
√
Example 1.2.7 (Pythagoras) The number 2 is irrational.

1.2.8 The Sieve of Eratosthnes (276-194 B.C.) Write down the integers from
2 to n in natural order and then systematically eliminate all
√ the composite
numbers by striking out all multiples of p of the primes p ≤ n. The integers
that left on the list are primes.

Theorem 1.2.9 (Euclid) The number of primes is infinite. [Three proofs.]

Remark 1.2.10 It is not known whether there are infinitely many prime p for
which p# + 1 is also prime, where p# is the product of all primes that less than
or equal to p.
At present, 19 primes of the form p# + 1 have been identified: p =
2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 31, 379, 1019, 1021, 2657, 3229, 4547, 4787, 11549, 13649, 18523, 23801,
1
2

24029, 42209 (discovered in 2000). The integerp# + 1 is composite for all other
p ≤ 120000.

Remark 1.2.11 Let pn denote the nth of the prime numbers in natural order.
(a) pn < p1 p2 · · · pn−1 + 1, n ≥ 2.
(b) pn < p1 p2 · · · pn−1 − 1, n ≥ 3.
(c) (Bonse inequality) p2n < p1 p2 · · · pn−1 , n ≥ 5.
(d) p2n ≤ p2 p3 · · · pn − 2, n ≥ 3
n−1
Theorem 1.2.12 If pn is the nth prime number, then pn ≤ 22 .
n
Corollary 1.2.13 For n ≥ 1, there are at least n + 1 primes less than 22 .

Theorem 1.2.14 (Bertrand conjecture 1845, proved by P.L. Tchebycheff in


1852) Between n ≥ 2 and 2n there is at least one prime.

Corollary 1.2.15 pn < 2n .


∑
Theorem 1.2.16 For every real number y ≥ 2 , 1
prime p≤y p > ln ln y − 1.

Remark 1.2.17 (a) A corollary


∑ of 1.2.16 1is 1.2.9.
(b) It can be shown that prime p≤y p − ln ln y is a bounded function of y.
π(x)
(c) (Prime Number Theorem) limx→∞ x/ ln x = 1, that is π(x) ∼ x
ln x , where
π(x) is the number of primes ≤ x.

Remark 1.2.18 A repunit is an integer written as a string of 1’s. Let Rn denote


the repunit consisting of n consecutive 1’s. R2 , R19 , R23 , R317 , R1031 , R49081 , R86453 (
discovered in 2001) are primes. These are the only possible Rn for all n ≤ 45000.

Conjecture 1.2.19 (a) There are infinitely many primes of the form n2 − 2.
(b) There are infinitely many primes of the form 2n + 1.
(c) There are infinitely many primes of the form n2 + 1.
(d) There are infinitely many primes of the form 2n − 1.
(e) There are infinitely many primes p such that p + 50 is also prime.
(f) Every even integer can be written as the difference of two consecutive
primes in infinitely many ways.

Remark 1.2.20 There is an unsolved question: Whether there are infinitely


many pairs of twin primes.
The largest twins are 33218925 · 2169690 ± 1 (discovered in 2002).

Theorem 1.2.21 There are arbitrarily large gaps in the series of primes.
3

Remark 1.2.22 (a) The largest gap discovered is 1132 after the prime
1693182318746371.
(b) Conjecture: There is a prime gap for every even integer.

Remark 1.2.23 (a) Goldbach Conjecture (1972): Every even integer is the sum
of two numbers that are either primes or 1.
(b) More generally, every even integer greater than 4 is the sum of two odd
prime numbers.
(c) This conjecture implies that each odd number larger than 7 is a sum of
three odd primes.
(d) It is known that every even integer is a sum of six or fewer primes.

Theorem 1.2.24 (Hardy, Littlewood, 1922; I.M. Vinogradov, 1937; Borozdkin,


1956; 2002) All odd integers large than 101346 can be written as a sum of three
odd primes.

Proposition 1.2.25 There are infinitely many primes of the form 4n + 3.

Theorem 1.2.26 (P.G.L. Dirichlet,1837) If a and d are relatively prime positive


integers, then the arithmetic progression a, a + d, a + 2d, a + 3d, . . . contains
infinitely many primes.

Theorem 1.2.27 If all the terms of the arithmetic progression p, p+d, p+2d, p+
3d, . . . , p + (n − 1)d are prime numbers, then d is divisible by every prime q < n.

Remark 1.2.28 (a) There is an unsolved problem: Whether there exist arbi-
trary long arithmetic progression consists only of primes.
(b) The longest progression found to date is 114103378550553+4609098694200n,
0 ≤ n ≤ 21.
(c) A sequence of 10 consecutive primes which is an arithmetic progression
was discovered, the common difference is 210.

Remark 1.2.29 (a) Let f (n) = n2 + n + 41. Then f (k) are primes for k =
0, 1, 2, . . . , 40.
(b) Let g(n) = 103n2 − 3945n + 34381. Then g(k) are primes for k =
0, 1, 2, . . . , 42.
(c) Let h(n) = 36n2 − 810n + 2753. Then h(k) gives a string of 45 prime
values.

Lemma 1.2.30 It is impossible to find a polynomial f (n) such that f (k) are
primes for all k ∈ N.

Theorem 1.2.31 (W.H.Mills,1947) There is a positive real number r such that


n
f (n) = br3 c is prime for n = 1, 2, 3, . . . .
4

Section 1.3 The Binomial Theorem


(α)
Definition 1.3.1 Let α ∈ R, and k ∈ N. Then the binomial coefficient k is
given by α(α−1)···(α−k+1)
k! .

Lemma 1.3.2 The product of any k consecutive integers is divisible by k!.

Theorem 1.3.3 (The binomial


n
) k n−k For any integer n ≥ 1 and any real
∑n (nTheorem)
numbers x, y, (x + y) = k=0 k x y . [Combinatoric proof, analytic proof]

∑n P (r) (0)
Lemma 1.3.4 Let P (z) = k=0 ak z k ∈ C[z]. Then ar = r! for 0 ≤ r ≤ n.
(n) (n+1) (n+1)
Lemma 1.3.5 k + k = k+1 for n, k ∈ N.
∑∞ (α)
Theorem 1.3.6 (1 + z)α = k=0 k z k for |z| < 1. [Combinatoric proof,
analytic proof]
(2n)
n , n ≥ 0. It first
1
Example 1.3.7 The Catalan numbers defined by Cn = n+1
appeared in 1938 when Eugeneéne Catalan(1814-1894) show that there are Cn
ways of parenthesizing a nonassociative product of n + 1 factors.

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