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A Brief Summary of Modern Physics

The document summarizes key concepts in modern physics including the three types of radioactive particles (alpha, beta, gamma), the photoelectric effect, nuclear fission and fusion, and practical applications of radioactivity such as using cobalt-60 for radiation therapy and issues with uranium enrichment and radioactive contamination. It also discusses historic uses of radium in glow-in-the-dark watch dials and how atomic clocks work.

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107 views5 pages

A Brief Summary of Modern Physics

The document summarizes key concepts in modern physics including the three types of radioactive particles (alpha, beta, gamma), the photoelectric effect, nuclear fission and fusion, and practical applications of radioactivity such as using cobalt-60 for radiation therapy and issues with uranium enrichment and radioactive contamination. It also discusses historic uses of radium in glow-in-the-dark watch dials and how atomic clocks work.

Uploaded by

Willow
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Brief Summary of Modern Physics

Willow Edge
3 types of radioactive particles
There are three types of radioactive particles: alpha, beta, and gamma. These different
types of radioactive particles classify the intensity of the radiation from a given atom.
Alpha Particles: Alpha Particles are a set of two protons and two neutrons, basically the
centre of a helium atom. They are emitted from an atom as it splits into two parts trying to
stabilize its isotope state. Emitting these protons and neutrons brings down it’s atomic weight,
and even changes what element it is. They have a high density compared to beta particles, and
are easily stopped, even by a piece of paper or a layer of skin. An example of an unstable isotope
is polonium, which has no stable form, but if you have polonium 208, the nuclear equation
would be 20884Po ====> 42𝛼+ 20482Pb.
Beta Particles: Beta Particles are simply electrons emitted from an atom. When an
electron is emitted, there is simultaneously an antineutrino emitted from the neutron. By ejecting
the negative charge from a neutron, it leaves the neutron with a positive charge making it a
proton. The additional proton means the element changes and the isotope stabilises into a safer
form. Carbon 14 is a very common radioisotope that is used to study history, but it is still and
unstable and radioactive element. When it emits one beta particle the nuclear equation would
look like this 146C ====>0-1𝛽+147N.
Gamma Particles: Gamma radiation isn’t an atom emitting particles, but energy. It
dispels energy in a form similar to x-rays, but they come from the nucleus and tend to hold more
energy. The energy it emits is in the form of photons, and the atomic weight nor the proton count
does not change, leaving it as the same isotope. A basic example of a nuclear equation for cobalt
would be 60m27Co ====> 𝛾+ 6027Co.

The photoelectric effect and Classic physics


The photoelectric effect is a concept proven by Albert Einstein which describes the idea
that certain photosensitive metals would emit electron if high frequency light is shone upon it.
Some circuits can even get a current initiated by shining a light on the photosensitive metal. This
theory did contradict classical physics, because it meant even a dim but high frequency light
could displace electrons from an element, even when a brighter one couldn’t simply because of
its low frequency.

Nuclear fission and Nuclear Fusion


Nuclear fusion is the joining of two atomic nuclei into one, and nuclear fission is the
splitting of an atomic nuclei into separate parts. Nuclear fission is most commonly done in
laboratories, and does not occur much in nature, but in the solar system nuclear fusion occurs
fairly frequently in large bodies like stars. Both fusion and fission are high energy interactions
between particles, however much of fusion’s energy is used towards the fusion while fission’s
energy is released upon impact. Both can still be used as sources of power and fuel, fission being
harvested primarily through uranium isotopes, and fusion being harvested in experimental fusion
with hydrogen isotopes.
Practical Applications
Cobalt in radiation therapy
Cobalt 60 is used as a cancer treatment for a variety of reasons in a couple different ways.
Gamma rays are very powerful and when the energy is focused they can destroy cells very
effectively. Cobalt machines are very expensive, but the radiation produced from cobalt 60 can
be very easily focused into a specific location. While this works in some cases, in severe
situations a radioactive isotope may actually be placed inside a person to try and destroy the
tumour, and cobalt 60 is usually the best option to be implanted, because of its short half life. A
half life is the time it takes for half of the sample of an element to decay, and cobalt 60 has a half
life of 5.3 years, very short for such a powerful radioisotope, making it optimal to implant.

Uranium enrichment
Uranium enrichment is the process of taking mined uranium, usually uranium 238, and
separating the 235 and the 238 to gather the more versatile form, uranium 235 for various
purposes. This is the process that it takes to prepare the fuel for a nuclear reactor, but because of
the extremely similar properties, it’s a very long and difficult process. Uranium enrichment is
rather ethically controversial, because the process tends to have an unjustified bias towards
affecting minorities, as the locations chosen for the process often are near lower-income
communities.

Radioactive contamination
Radioactive contamination causes many negative repercussions, including cancerous
tumours, contaminated water, and drastic damage to the local plant life. In the case of the
Chernobyl incident they put a concrete dome over the site to try and handle the situation and just
told people to stay clear of the location, as it would remain radioactive for thousands of years.
They also sent robots in to try and assess the situation, and after a few transmitted photographs,
the robots succumbed to the radiation as well. In the Fukushima incident, they warned those
trying to cleanup the radiation and disaster that the radiation would get to them and likely kill
them, but elderly people have volunteered to help out, claiming they would not live long enough
for the radiation to help them. They are installing filters for air and water, cooling systems to
avoid future fires, and the soil was contaminated so little, the crops it produces are still safe for
human consumption.

Glowing Watch Dials & Isotopes


Watch dials were made from the element radium, which releases beta particles that excite
the air in a manner that causes it to glow. The radium used in watch dials were unstable
radioisotopes, meaning they release beta particles to try and balance out their neutrons and
protons, which changes its element to become a more stable form. Releasing those particles can
be dangerous and on occasion even deadly.
Atomic Clocks
Atomic clocks measure the signal emitted as an electron moves from one shell to another
in an atom. In some of the most accurate, the clock cools the atom down with a laser to ensure
the most accuracy possible. National standards set the accuracy as up to 10-9 seconds per day.
These are helpful to set the national standards, and use a continuous time scale for long term
science experiments. In 2014 NIST released a new atomic clock that would neither gain nor lose
a second in 300 million years.
Works Cited
"Nuclear Chemistry." Radioactive Decay. Bodner Research Group, n.d. Web. 03 June 2016.

Goldman, Martin V. "The Photoelectric Effect." The Photoelectric Effect. National Science
Foundation, n.d. Web. 03 June 2016.

Nave, C. R. "Alpha, Beta, Gamma." HyperPhysics Concepts. Georgia State University, 2016.
Web. 03 June 2016.

"Nuclear Fission: Basics." Atomicarchive.com: Exploring the History, Science, and


Consequences of the Atomic Bomb. National Science Digital Library, n.d. Web. 03 June 2016.

Conn, Robert W. "Nuclear Fusion." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica,


n.d. Web. 03 June 2016.

EMSD. "Nuclear Fission." Nuclear Fission. Hong Kong Observatory, n.d. Web. 05 June 2016.

"Uranium Enrichment." Uranium Enrichment. World Nuclear Association, May 2016. Web. 03
June 2016.

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