C AT T L E

management manual

A reference for agency staff, department employees, loan officers,

and others with a need to consult cattle management information

Douglas Reynolds, James Waggoner, and Michael Smith

November 2000
Nov
MP-97
Authors:
Douglas A. Reynolds, University of Wyoming Cooperative Extension Service Chair, Carbon
County, Rawlins, Wyoming

James Waggoner, Range and Livestock Specialist, Department of Renewable Resources,

University of Wyoming College of Agriculture

Michael Smith, Range Specialist, Department of Renewable Resources, University of Wyoming

College of Agriculture

Editor: Diana Marie Hill-Chavez, College of Agriculture, Office of Communications and Technology
Graphic Artist: Tana Stith, College of Agriculture, Office of Communications and Technology
Typing: Charlene Abbott, University of Wyoming Cooperative Extension Service, Carbon County, Rawlins, Wyoming

Issued in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Glen
Whipple, Director, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming 82071.

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Trade or brand names used in this publication are used only for the purpose of educational information. The information given herein is supplied with
the understanding that no discrimination is intended, and no endorsement information of products by the Agricultural Research Service, Federal
Extension Service, or State Cooperative Extension Service is implied. Nor does it imply approval of products to the exclusion of others that also may be
suitable.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1 Cattle Behavior and Grazing ........................................................................ 1

Chapter 2 Cattle and Riparian Management ................................................................ 9

Chapter 3 Cattle Nutrition ......................................................................................... 17

Chapter 4 Nutritional Requirements and Production ................................................. 27

Chapter 5 Supplementation and Substitution ............................................................. 39

Chapter 6 Environmental Effects on Feed Intake and Production .............................. 49

Chapter 7 Marketing Cattle........................................................................................ 53

Chapter 8 Cattle Economics ....................................................................................... 65

Chapter 9 Beef Quality and Yield Grades ................................................................... 69

Chapter 10 Range Improvements ................................................................................. 71

Chapter 11 Brand Descriptions .................................................................................... 73

Chapter 1
Cattle Behavior and Grazing
I
nformation about cattle instincts and
associated behavior is a valuable tool
that helps producers understand why
cattle behave or respond as they do.
Although cattle have been domesticated for
a very long time, they are dictated by the
herding instinct, especially if they perceive
a dangerous situation. Cattle depend
heavily upon sight, and they have a nearly
360-degree panoramic view. This vision
scope allows them to see a predator without
turning their heads. However, they have
limited effective depth perception beyond
the frontal view, which explains why they
may balk when being driven or worked in a
handling facility (see Figure 1).
Cattle are sensitive to light and dark con-
trasts such as shadows. Slated fences and
vertical bars in a working facility cast shad-
ows that may interfere with cattle move-
ment. Research suggests cattle are not color
Figure 1.The shaded areas represent the cow’s blind spot.
blind; however, painting handling facilities
a bright yellow results in fewer injuries be-
cause cattle can better see a gate or fence.
No one can explain why cattle that have
never been exposed to an actual cattle
guard will refuse to cross one that is painted
on the road.
Humans rely heavily on vision to interpret
their environment, and we like to believe
other animals also have these capabilities.
Cattle, however, use other senses such as
hearing, taste, smell, and orientation. These
highly developed senses are referred to as
“cow sense.”
A bubble-shaped area called the flight zone
Figure 2. The triangle area shows where handlers should
surrounds a cow. When another animal, stand when moving an animal. To make the cow move
human, or object penetrates this zone, the forward, the handler should move into Position B, which is
cow either fights, runs, or submits, depend- just inside the boundary of the flight zone. The handler
ing on whether the animal or object enter- should retreat to Position A if he wants the animal to stop.
The solid curved lines indicate the location of the curved
ing this zone is perceived as dominant. single-file chute.

1
 The flight zone’s radius ranges from 5 feet in of dominant and submissive animals.
dairy cattle to 300 feet in range cattle, and it Cattle have a strong instinct to follow a
will change according to conditions. Cows leader; however, herd leaders are not neces-
will not tolerate flight zone penetration at sarily the dominant animals. Behavior be-
300 feet on open range, but when they are tween dominant and submissive animals is
corralled or being fed during the winter, the complicated. For example, X is dominant
zone ranges from 20 to 30 feet. When work- over Y, Y is dominant over A, or X and Y
ing or moving cattle, the handler should stay together dominate C. However, X or Y can-
on the flight zone’s edge (see Figure 2). not dominate over C alone, which means
that C is dominant over X and Y. Both
Cattle herds have a pecking or bump order,
dominant and submissive animals can cause
meaning the herd consists of a wide range
disturbances–especially when strange cattle
are introduced into the herd–because the
Generalized animal needs and bumping order has to be worked out again.
plant nutrient content during the year. Also, a cow in heat changes the bumping
order, creating a disturbance. It may be in
High
the best interest of the herd to cull both ex-
tremely dominant and submissive animals,
because their behavior is probably genetic.

Low Habitat and Forage Selection

Cattle select a habitat or forage where opti-
Spr ing Sum me r Fall Winter
mal grazing is available. Getting enough
Cows needs nutrients to balance amounts of expended
Cows actual nutrient intake energy is important (see Figure 3).
Plant nutrient content - dry matter basis
Habitat and forage selection will be both
Figure 3.
extensive and microscaled within larger ar-
eas. For example, when choosing which
plant to bite, cattle will select mid-sized
bunches over small- or large-sized bunches.
This method allows them to maximize in-
take and reduce energy expended.
The following three graphs show:
• How production and percent TDN
(energy) of native range relate to
each other
• The TDN requirements of a Febru-
ary calving cow
• The TDN requirements of a May
Cattle must lower their heads to determine distances. calving cow

2
NUTRIENTS AVAILABLE SEASONALLY
80 800

70 700

Pounds TDN/acre
60 600

50 500
Graph 1.
40 400 Assume 1,000 pounds per acre
annual growth peak in late spring.
30 300

20 200

10 100

0 0
Feb Apr June Aug Oct Dec
Jan M ar M ay July Sept Nov

Percent
Pounds

NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS (NRC)

80 15

70 14
Pounds TDN/day

60 13
Graph 2.
Diet of a 1,000-pound cow
50 12
calving in late February.

40 11

30 10
Feb Apr Ju ne Aug Oct Dec
Ja n Mar May Ju ly Sept Nov

Pounds TDN
Percent
80 15

70 14
Pounds TDN/day

60 13

12
50 Graph 3.
Diet of a 1,000-pound cow
40 11 calving in late May.

30 10
Feb Apr June Aug Oct Dec
Jan Mar May July Sept Nov

Pounds TDN
Percent

3
 Cattle wrap their tongues around forage second grazing period. This method stabi-
and rip the plant parts. When grass is very lizes the nutrient intake over a longer pe-
short, cattle may change their method to a riod than would be possible if cattle were
biting action, but because they have inci- allowed to graze a pasture until they
sors on the bottom jaw only, the amount of depleted the forage.
forage that can be taken is limited. In either
The selectivity for available forage can nor-
case, cattle chew little and swallow rapidly.
mally be assigned to three different
The herd usually orients itself in the same
approaches during a grazing period:
direction while grazing but not necessarily
while resting. • Initial–Intermittent and low selectivity
When grazing on smooth areas with at least • Primary–Steady with increasing selec-
moderate amounts of forage, cattle move tivity
forward swinging their heads in a 60 to 90-
• Final–Intermittent and high selectivity
degree arc, and an area approximately twice
their body width is cleared. Rough pastures Cattle selectivity is directed by both natural
are grazed differently because cattle may instinct and learned behavior, providing
stand to graze, but more body movement is producers opportunities for manipulation.
required between grazing areas. Two major Cattle choose forage based on protein, fi-
grazing periods are predawn and sundown; ber, and moisture content.
however, if cattle are moved to a new area,
Cattle evolved to fill a particular niche in
where fresh feed is available, they will
the environment and, consequently, their
change their feeding patterns. Dormant
body size and shape, stomach type, mouth
winter forage is used best and lasts longer if
size and dentition, and other characteristics
cattle are rotated rapidly through several
heavily dictate habitat selection. Cattle gen-
pastures more than once. This rapid rota-
erally seek adequate forage quantity as op-
tion allows the best forage to be taken the
posed to spending energy in search of more
first time through; the next best forage, in
scarce, high-quality forage.
terms of quality, is consumed during the
Cattle select preferred habitats according to
plant quality and quantity, topography, el-
evation, climatic factors, and human ma-
nipulation. Selecting a preferred habitat
based on quality and quantity may be re-
duced when other factors are in effect.
Energy requirements are proportional to
body weight, within size ranges for game
animals and livestock. A useful method for
comparing big game and livestock is an
“Animal Unit” (AU) basis, in which AU =
.001 x body weight.

When cattle are moved to fresh feed, they will ignore the
major grazing periods of predawn and sundown.

4
Table 1. Animal unit values (AU) for different kinds and classes of livestock and wildlife. The standard
for this guide is based on forage intake of a spring calving cow (1,000 pound average milking ability)
and her calf less than four months old. (These AUs do not apply for billing on federal grazing permits.)

Number of
Animals to
Kind/Class of Animal AU = 1 AU
Cow (1,000 pound and calf ) spring calving above average 1.00 1.0
milking ability, first 3 to 4 months postpartum
Cow (1,000 pound) nonlactating 0.90 1.1
Calf (spring calving, 3 to 4 months postpartum to weaning) 0.30 3.3
Replacement heifers (18 to 24 months) 1.00 1.0
Yearling cattle (long 12 to 17 months) 0.75 1.4
Yearling cattle (short 7 to 12 months) 0.50 2.0
Young bulls (12 to 24 months) 1.20 0.8
Bulls (24 to 60 months) 1.50 0.6
Yearling horses 0.75 1.3
Two-year-old horses 1.00 1.0
Mature horses 1.25 0.8
Mature lactating ewe (150 pound) and lamb (less than 2 months old) 0.20 5.0
Mature nonlactating ewe (150 pound) 0.18 5.5
Lamb (2 months to weaning) 0.06 16.7
Lamb (weaned to yearling) 0.12 8.3
Lamb (yearling) 0.15 6.6
Ram 0.25 4.0
Goat (mature) 0.15 6.6
Kid (yearling) 0.10 10.0
White-tailed deer 0.15 6.6
Mule deer 0.20 5.0
Antelope 0.20 5.0
Bison (cow) 0.90 1.1
Bison (bull) 1.50 0.66
Elk 0.60 1.7
Moose 1.00 1.0
Bighorn 0.20 5.0
Mountain goat 0.15 6.6
Blacktailed jackrabbit 0.016 62.0
Whitetailed jackrabbit 0.02 48.0
Columbian ground squirrel 0.003 385.0
Prairie dogs 0.004 256.0

5
 Factors Affecting Selectivity
80

70 DM-1
Understanding selectivity for
60
D-1
plant type and habitat assists
50 DM-2
producers when developing
Percent

40

30
D-2
range management strategies,
20 CP-2
which include setting carrying
10 CP-1
0
capacities, determining appro-
March April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
priate monitoring methods, pre-
dicting plant and animal re-
Figure 4. Seasonal trends in nutrient concentrations of crude protein sponses to management, and lo-
(CP), apparent digestibility (D), and daily dry matter intake (D1, D2) of
bluebunch wheatgrass (1) and Idaho fescue (2) in south-central Oregon. cating range improvements. Fac-
tors that limit habitat selection,
such as natural barriers, slopes,
20
Forage Early-Feb./Mar. and distance to water or fencing,
Late-May/June can reduce quality and quantity,
15
resulting in decreased animal
performance and perhaps less
10
than desirable forage utilization
levels. Eventually, carrying ca-
5
pacity will be reduced. Major
factors that influence selectivity
0
Ju ne Se pt. D ec. Ma rch Ju ne
are:
Month
• Quantity, quality, and
Figure 5. Average percent of crude protein present in forage and forage availability
needed in diets of early and late calving cows grazing shortgrass native
range near Cheyenne, Wyoming. Forage energy levels and requirements • Plant maturity
follow similar profiles.
Other factors, however, do affect
habitat selection and become
important in local situations.

Topography
The effects of slope lengths and
steepness are well recognized as
limitations to grazing, but to-
pography also affects where wa-
ter and accompanying attractive
vegetation are located.

A sample of this native forage indicates the combined quality of the

entire plant. Cattle carefully select the parts they actually graze.

6
Topography also dictates where: Insects
• Winter snow accumulates or blows Cattle and other large herbivores go to ex-
away with corresponding dormant sea- tremes to avoid flies, mosquitos, and other
son habitat use annoying insects. Often, they search for
windy locations. Cattle may bunch to avoid
• Snow melts in spring, providing tem- mosquitoes and horn flies. When heel flies
porary water sources and high mois- pursue a herd, cattle may move into habi-
ture vegetation (animals use areas far- tats or bordering allotments they would not
ther from permanent water) normally use.
• Certain exposures green up earlier in
the spring because of wind and solar Animal Class and Social Behavior
energy (these areas act like magnets for Steers or spayed heifers normally distribute
all grazing animals) themselves more effectively than cows trav-
eling with young calves. Also, these year-
Water lings are more likely to use a habitat not
Whether or not cattle graze away from wa- frequented by cows and calves.
ter is influenced by distance and topogra- When cattle are familiar with an area, they
phy. However, breed and learned behavior do not have to spend much time locating
also play a role in grazing habits. When preferred areas. They have expectations for
snow melts and succulent spring feed is certain locations and can remember re-
available, the grazing distance may increase, cently depleted places. Inexperienced cattle
or cattle will decrease time spent at the wa- may scatter themselves more extensively
ter source. Certain cattle are conditioned to and may not perform as well as those who
use snow as a water source–as horses and know the landscape. Mixing new cattle
sheep commonly do. Desert cattle may wa- with those already moved to preferred areas
ter at intervals and travel longer distances facilitates the learned grazing behavior.
to preferred habitats.
Grazing Systems and Range
Cover Improvements
Like all animals, cattle naturally seek areas A rotation system is typically accompanied
that provide a thermal-neutral or comfort- by fencing and water development, both of
able environment such as shade in the sum- which may play a role in changing habitat
mer and protection from the wind during selection and past distribution patterns.
cold weather. These locations change sea- Meanwhile, animal performance decreases
sonally, daily, and hourly as the weather, while cattle bunch against a new fence or
temperature, and wind direction changes. become adjusted to a new water source.
Professional range managers often impose
these changes for vegetation improvement
without much thought about how these
actions will affect the livestock.

7
 Increasing herd density by cross fencing
may not change forage or habitat prefer-
ences within the pasture, but it will force
cattle to use less-preferred areas. Producers
may use this method as a management
strategy to make use of underused grazing
areas. Nevertheless, close attention to time
control is necessary. Planned grazing pro-
grams (holistic management) go one step
further than time control by imposing
planned utilization levels.

Vegetative Manipulation
Prescribed burns are one example of vegetative manipula-
Altering a plant community type or remov-
tion. Depending upon how much manpower is required,
which fire control measures are employed, and whether it is ing decadent plant material may affect
spring or fall, prescribed burns may cost between $2.40 to habitat selection by cattle, sheep, and wild-
$4 per acre. life. These changes include brush control,
reseeding, planned grazing by herbivores
and horses, and other practices that im-
prove forage availability, leaf-to-stem ratio,
or total production (biomass).

Vegetative management also can be detrimental to range

health. The vegetation in this national park changed from
tall grasses to Russian thistle or tumbleweeds when cattle
grazing was removed.

8
Chapter 2
Cattle and Riparian Management
R
iparian zones and associated stream channels are
related to erosion and deposition cycles. A
stream’s basic function is to remove water and
sediment from its drainage basin. As sediment is subse-
quently deposited, a process of bank building occurs,
changing plant communities. Different bank building a. Bare ground
stages, from bare banks to overhanging banks (late seral
stage), may occur in any particular reach of stream. The
BLM manual, Riparian Area Management Process for
Assessing Proper Functioning Condition, indicates that the
late seral conditions where bank building has occurred
are the ideal definition of a properly functioning stream,
but the publication does not address the erosive pro- b. Early seral
cesses that have enabled this stage to occur. Figure 1
shows five stages in channel evolution, any one of which
could be defined as properly functioning at a specific
time in the cyclic process.
In smaller and mature stream channels, the annual flow
does not include several tributaries, so overhanging
banks may form. In larger streams, where the majority c. Mid-seral
of flow is contributed by tributaries, the width and
depth of the channels will adjust to high flow condi-
tions. In situations like these, well-vegetated banks
round off into the larger channels where low flow will
become isolated between banks. Overhanging banks do
not usually develop, except on the outside of bends.

Stubble Height and Sediment Deposition d. Late seral

Streambank vegetation increases channel roughness,
which dissipates stream energy and causes sediment
deposition. Streambank vegetation also protects banks
by slowing the erosion process. The management
objective is to determine how much stubble height is
needed to effectively trap sediment while maintaining
plant health. Tall grass causes flow resistance to decrease
as it lays over, and flow velocity and channel depth
increase. The vegetation effectively acts like a shingle e. Proper functioning condition
that allows sediment to pass over.
Research conducted in Wyoming during a four-year Figure 1. Channel evolution.
period did not show any difference in the amount of

9
 sediment deposited when vegetation was level, and the sediment source. Under
clipped to 1 inch, 3 inches, 6 inches, or left certain conditions, deposits will build on
unclipped. However, sediment deposits bare point bars. Succeeding vegetation
decreased at levels above stream flow. stabilizes the deposit and allows channels to
Annual deposits varied from less than .5 move through the sequence. Stored sedi-
inch to 2.4 inches. ment eventually is removed by channel
meandering and slope adjustment when it
United States Forest Service research
exceeds the system’s capacity to hold it in
showed that flexible vegetation, such as
place. Headcuts are a form of slope adjust-
Kentucky bluegrass, trapped more sedi-
ment related to changes in water elevation
ment at ½-inch than at 3- or 8-inch
due to blown out beaver dams or lower
heights. Rigid vegetation, such as grazed
water in an area where a tributary unloads.
coyote willow, trapped less sediment than
bluegrass; although less sediment was lost
Plant Composition and Soil Water
by subsequent flushing, flexible vegetation
still resulted in a higher net gain. Managers recognize and judge riparian area
conditions partly because of plant species
Differences in the heights or rigidity of composition. Plant composition will
vegetation may be insignificant when change with channel succession, as shown
compared with channel characteristics, flow in Figure 2. The late seral composition of

Degraded Sedge

Sedge
Kentucky bluegrass Tufted hairgrass
Mature
___________

Water table
......................
Kentucky bluegrass Tufted hairgrass
Sedge

Kentucky bluegrass
Tufted hairgrass

Figure 2. Plant and channel succession. A hypothetical sequence illustrating channel and
plant succession, assuming erosion is a cyclic process.

10
upland plants may surprise managers, but

ass
observations confirm that as the soil surface

ass

ass
blu ss

dge ss
egr

egr
egr
moves farther away from the water table

cky gra

Se rgra
blu

blu
ntu air
due to bank building, water-loving species

hai
cky

cky
K e fted h

fted
ntu
are replaced by those more resistant to drier

ntu
dge
Tu
Ke

Tu

Ke
Se
conditions.
Plant species will be affected both by soils’
Water table
drainage characteristics and their relative
position to channels or to the water table.
Plant stubble height standards may have to Figure 3. Hypothetical relationship between channel
be altered as plant composition changes configuration and plant succession.
due to channel succession or alteration.
Figure 3 shows a hypothetical relationship
between a channel configuration and
certain plant species.
Plants respond differently to a declining
water table, depending on whether it is
seasonal or long-term. Kentucky bluegrass
is more aggressive than Nebraska sedge or
tufted hairgrass about growing roots to
keep up with a declining water table. Figure
4 shows the relative root depths and
weights at a point of maximum water table
depth where decline was at 4 centimeters
per day (all plants died at the maximum Beaver activity can dramatically change the water table and
the vegetation associated with moisture availability. These
root depth). interactions should be monitored and recorded.

Figure 4.

Maximum root depth Total root length Weight

(cm) (cm) (grams)
Kentucky bluegrass 31 330 147
Tufted hairgrass 20 183 70
Nebraska sedge 11 189 118
Note: Root weights shown are those in the top 8 inches of soil. They reduce rapidly after this depth.

11
 Figure 5. Muddy Creek study area: grazed July 18 and19, 1996 (75 head of steers).

Grazed height
Cell P.P.
no. no. Species July 18-19 August 19 October 2 Recovery Habitat

1 1 Nebraska sedge 4.5 in 4.5 in 5.0 in Wet channel

1 2 Beaked sedge 12.5 in 13.0 in 13.0 in Wet channel

1 3 Bluegrass and sedge 8.5 in 9.0 in 10.0 in Moist

1 4 Beaked sedge 10.75 in 13.0 in 10.5 in Moist

Beaked/Nebraska Wet (in

1 5 4.0 in 8.75 in 6.5 in
sedge water)

1 6 Nebraska sedge 6.5 in 6.0 in 6.5 in Moist

1 7 Nebraska sedge 5.0 in 4.0 in 5.5 in Dry

± 7.4 in 7.8 in 8.1 in .7 in

1 Cage Nebraska sedge 24 in 24 in 26 in

Summary: 1. Average grazed height = 7.4 inches

2. Time in cell = 23 hours
3. Recovery noted is most likely due to measuring errors

Soil Water Summary cattle often graze near the end of the rapid
Soil water supply limits plant growth, growth period (July 18 in Figure 5). Al-
especially in late summer, even in riparian though water is available, the plants are
zones. Pay attention to grazing timing maturing, and nutrients are being funneled
because compensatory growth may not into reserves. Note: Root reserves are a
occur at certain elevations, slopes, and myth, carbohydrate reserves are stored
aspects. Regrowth in areas of lush growth primarily in plant crowns.
where grazing has been limited or stubble
height standards are over 5 inches is ham- Stubble Height and Plant Health
pered by too little sun, which is vital for When rangeland managers use residual
photosynthesis. See Figure 5 for a summary stubble height as a grazing management
of regrowth at the Muddy Creek study area. tool, a logical question is how much
stubble height is required to maintain
Figure 6 shows relative periods of growth
healthy forage plants? Unfortunately, the
for upland and riparian zones. Due to the
answer to this question is complex, and
extended period of rapid growth found in
reliable research that specifically addresses
riparian areas, plants should have more
this question is virtually nonexistent. The
time to recover from grazing. However,
capability of plants to withstand and

12
 Water supply limited Water supply not limited
Light not limited Light not limited
Temperature not limited Temperature not limited

Upland Riparian zone

Plant growth

Plant growth
w th
ro wth
gro p id g
p id Ra
Ra
Time Time
Spring Early Summer/ Spring Summer Fall
summer Fall
Figure 6. Upland and riparian cool season grasses growing curve.

recover from defoliation (grazing) is highly 2, 4, or 6 inches of stubble height. Al-

variable and depends upon available water, though these guidelines may provide for
nutrients, and sunlight. Plant response to regrowth and recovery after grazing, plant
defoliation also fluctuates among individual health was not the primary consideration in
species. Despite the variability in plant developing these prescriptions. In fact,
responses to grazing due to growing condi- most stubble height standards were devel-
tions or species adaptations, it is generally oped to optimize sediment entrapment or
accepted that the most critical factor in a reduce streambank damage; little consider-
plant’s recovery from defoliation is the ation to the physiological requirements of
presence of adequate photosynthetic plants was given. However, experience
material (green plant material) after graz- indicates that 2 to 4 inches of residual plant
ing. Although plants may use stored carbo- material should provide adequate photo-
hydrates to initiate regrowth after defolia-
tion, regrowth largely depends upon
photosynthetic energy produced from
remaining green plant material. Conse-
quently, the objective of grazing manage-
ment during the growing season is to leave
adequate green leaf material after grazing to
make regrowth possible and allow forage
plants to recover.
We are now back to our original inquiry–
how much residual stubble is adequate?
Recently developed prescriptions for
No seasonal plant recovery was measured at this location
grazing management often suggest having grazed in mid-July.

13
 synthetic material, so plants can regrow. It height in sedge. No research indicates that
is imperative to recognize that stubble 50 percent of plant stubble weight is not
height (and utilization) is simply a short- sufficient to maintain plant health. Studies
term monitoring/management tool, and conducted in Wyoming maintained ripar-
that no prescriptions or guidelines will ian plants at 1, 3, and 6 inches and
work with every plant community in all unclipped over four growing seasons. Above-
situations. The overall goal of grazing ground production was used as the indica-
management is to maintain or progress tor of plant health. Below-ground biomass
toward management objectives. Stubble also was measured, and results showed no
height measurements offer no evidence of difference in weight due to stubble height.
performance in reaching this goal. The best Apparently, no root damage occurred.
recommendations for appropriate stubble
No herbage yield difference was found
height are to establish realistic plant com-
between the 1 inch and unclipped treat-
munity objectives and to let animals graze
ments, but both produced more than the 3-
at a stubble height that promotes the
or 6-inch treatments. These studies have
attainment or maintenance of the plant
low reliability, as the removal was mechani-
community that meets these objectives.
cal and did not include either positive or
Figure 7 illustrates the difference between negative impacts due to hoof imprinting or
species when above-ground weight is used animal disturbances. Also, the effect on
as the criteria. The difference exists due to individual species was not observed. Even if
growth form and whether the plant mass is a 1-inch stubble height may appeal to a
concentrated near the ground, as in blue- plant’s production efforts, it still may not
grass and tufted hairgrass, or more evenly be adequate for public acceptance.
distributed from the crown to greatest

Figure 7. Illustrated height of remaining vegetation when 50 percent of the above-ground total weight
is removed for three 18-inch high, grass-like cool-season plants.

14
Stubble Height and Bank Stability Service provides some guidelines for moni-
Research indicates that maintaining shorter toring that can help prevent damage to wet
stubble heights may actually increase soils and channel banks.
sediment deposits and above-ground bio- • Pay attention to the stubble height
mass production without damaging the of the most palatable species as it
health of grass-like plants in riparian approaches 3 inches.
locations. However, as livestock graze to
short stubble heights, hoof imprinting on • Greenline vegetation is often the
soft, wet soils may damage channel banks least desirable and the last used.
and force animals to eat other desirable • When the stubble height moves
plants such as willows. from less than 1 to 3 inches, de-
Two distinct areas along channels are the pending upon the grass species, be
sections directly adjacent to water (the prepared to move cattle.
greenline), where vegetation may be com- • Keep track of the most palatable
posed of tall sedges and rushes, and the grass species’ greenness, and when
transition zone to upland, where bluegrass the grass dries, expect animals to
and hairgrass may dominate. By monitor- seek greener vegetation.
ing the greenline vegetation stubble
heights, it should be possible to predict Note: For additional information, refer to:
when bank damage will occur. However, as Stubble Height and Function of Riparian
channels mature with bank building Communities by Quentin D. Skinner,
processes, it becomes more difficult to University of Wyoming.
define these two areas, and monitoring
stubble heights may need to be done
differently. Small, mature headwater
streams with overhanging banks are likely
to be impacted by animals, stream dynam-
ics, and ice. Under mature conditions,
banks usually are built up with softer soils,
while vegetation may provide minimal
protection as root masses are confined
primarily to the top 6 inches. Bank condi-
tions vary seasonally, and they also are
affected by drought or above-normal
precipitation. Therefore, stubble height
standards need to be adjusted to coincide
with a variety of soil conditions. Research “Greenline” vegetation, or vegetation next to the channel,
conducted by the United States Forest may be the last used. Monitor its use and be ready to move
cattle before bank damage occurs.

15
16
Chapter 3
Cattle Nutrition
Figure 1. Ruminant animal digestive system.

The Ruminant Digestive Tract Ruminants tear or rip forage, which ex-
The diagram above depicts a ruminant plains why grass and forage plants may be
animal’s digestive system. Although rumi- pulled up when wet pastures are grazed in
nant animals are often described as having early spring. They ingest forage, chew, sali-
four separate stomachs, they actually have vate, and use their tongues to form a bolus
one stomach comprising four separate com- (a package of food) before swallowing. The
partments. The primary difference between bolus is much easier to swallow than indi-
the digestive tracts of nonruminant animals vidual blades of grass. The forage moves
(pigs, dogs, and others) and digestive sys- down the esophagus into the rumen where
tems found in ruminants (cattle, sheep, elk, it is mixed with rumen fluid and previously
and deer) is that ruminant parts from the ingested feed. Rumen contents are continu-
mouth to anus (tube) have become special- ally mixed and churned by muscle contrac-
ized for digesting high-fiber diets. This spe- tions of the rumen wall. This mixing helps
cialization or modification of digestive sys- ensure optimal feed digestion. In this case,
tems separates animal species. digestion may be a misnomer, as the in-
gested forage is actually fermented by bil-
Rumen and Reticulum lions of microorganisms (bacteria and pro-
No actual division between the rumen and tozoa) in rumen fluid. These microorgan-
reticulum exists. An average 1,000-pound isms reduce cellulose and other compounds
range cow can hold 45 to 65 gallons of di- in the fibrous portion of feed to com-
gesting material (250 pounds of feed, saliva, pounds, such as glucose, that the microf-
and water) in the rumen and reticulum. lora can use for their own growth and me-
tabolism. However, during microbial fer-
Ruminants have no upper incisors, so when mentation volatile fatty acids (VFA) are
grazing, they pin the forage between their produced as by-products of fiber digestion
lower incisors and hard palates, located on (fermentation). Ruminant animals then
the front part of their upper jaws, where use these by-products as part of their daily
upper incisors are found in other animals. nutrients for growth and production.

17
 VFAs are the major energy source used by change when the diet is shifted from grass
ruminants at the cellular level for body to legumes or from forage to grain. There-
maintenance, growth, and production. The fore, an adaptation period is needed when
enzyme cellulase reduces cellulose, a com- ruminant animals’ diets are changed. For-
plex compound in the fibrous portion of age and fiber digestion may be dramatically
plants, to glucose, a simple sugar, that can altered when using other feeds high in
be used by microflora or the animal. This soluble energy or protein in the form of
enzyme is found only in the microbial supplements. Typically, rumen microflora
world and is not produced by any known require diets containing a minimum of 6 to
mammalian system. 7 percent crude protein (CP) to ensure op-
timal microbial growth and optimal fiber
In the rumen, the longer, bulkier material
digestion. In cases where diet CP levels
finds its way to the top of the rumen where
drop below 6 percent, a corresponding
it is regurgitated as the cud and rechewed.
drop in fiber digestion occurs, resulting in
Remastication (cud chewing) is very impor-
reduced animal performance (weight loss).
tant because it helps reduce feed particle
Supplemental protein eliminates this prob-
size, providing a greater surface area for mi-
lem. If ruminants are fed easily digested
crobial fermentation when the material is
carbohydrates, such as cereal grains, one of
swallowed again. More saliva is added dur-
two situations results. Ruminants fed an
ing cud chewing than was added during
appropriate grain level balanced with CP
initial feed ingestion. Saliva is critical to the
may experience enhanced microbial activ-
system’s health because it is high in sodium
ity, resulting in an increase in fiber digest-
bicarbonate, which acts as a buffer to help
ibility and a subsequent increase in animal
maintain the ruminal pH at approximately
performance. Ruminants fed too much
6.5, the optimal pH for microbial activity
grain will experience a change in the rumen
in a forage-fed ruminant animal.
microfloral population, resulting in re-
Rumen pH maintenance is critical because duced fiber digestion decrease and a corre-
a decrease or increase in pH will kill all or sponding weight loss.
some rumen microflora. If this occurs, ru-
The reticulum, like the rumen, serves as an
minants lose their ability to digest the fiber
area for fiber fermentation and nutrient ab-
in feeds, leading to their death due to star-
sorption. It is the lowest part of the stom-
vation. Maintaining the rumen pH is ac-
ach complex and, as a result, is where all
complished through the saliva’s buffering
heavy items accumulate. Ingested rocks,
action and continual VFA’s absorbency
nails, and wire all find their way into the
through the rumen wall into the blood
reticulum and settle there. However, during
stream. VFAs are the major energy source
normal reticular contraction one or more of
for the animal’s cellular metabolism.
these sharp objects may penetrate the re-
The rumen is an open ecosystem–every- ticular wall, allowing the rumen fluid to
thing that can, does live there. Microflora leak into the animal’s abdominal cavity. In
species reflect a ruminant animal’s current more pronounced cases of “hardware dis-
diet. It takes approximately 14 to 21 days ease,” the sharp object also may penetrate
for the rumen microbial population to the diaphragm and embed itself in the
heart, resulting in immediate death.

18
Omasum that in the rumen occurs. In a herbaceous
The third stomach compartment found in animal, such as a horse, without a rumen,
ruminant animals is the omasum. Containing reticulum, or omasum, the cecum is criti-
a series of muscular bands that help grind and cally important; in others, like cattle, it is
dry ingested food via muscle contractions be- not. All animals maintain a population of
fore it moves into the abomasum, the oma- microflora in their large intestines and, as a
sum absorbs digested end products, as well as result, the pH is approximately 6.5. No en-
continues fiber digestion. zymes of mammalian origin are produced
or excreted in the large intestine. Large
Abomasum amounts of water are absorbed from the
Gastric and hydrolytic digestion take place large intestine.
in the abomasum (true stomach) and It takes food approximately 12 hours to pass
throughout the remainder of the ruminant through a nonruminant digestive tract. (This
digestive tract. In the abomasum, the in- also is true for a horse if the cecum is by-
gested food, (chyme), containing complex passed.) However, it is common to find vary-
compounds, such as proteins, fats, and car- ing portions of a meal in the rumen 96 hours
bohydrates, is mixed with mammalian di- after consumption. Rumen fill helps regulate
gestive enzymes and hydrochloric acid intake; therefore, material must pass out of
(HCL). The enzymes and HCL reduce the the full rumen before the ruminant animal
food nutrients (proteins, fats, and carbohy- can graze more. Plant maturity plays a major
drates) to amino acids, fatty acids, and role in rumen turnover time. Immature,
simple sugars (glucose) that are absorbed high-quality forage moves out of the rumen
into the blood steam and used by the ani- quickly, while mature plants—high in fiber—
mal for maintenance and production. stay in the rumen for extended periods.
When ingested food leaves the omasum, it
is at a pH of approximately 6.5. In the abo- Feed Components
masum, this pH is quickly changed to 2.5 Feedstuff composition, such as water, carbo-
by the HCL. This low pH is necessary for hydrate, protein, and fat, helps determine
enzymes to function properly. how cattle perform. Figure 2 illustrates how
feed is broken down into its component
Small Intestines parts in a laboratory procedure called proxi-
The small intestine joins the abomasum at mate analysis. When feeds are submitted to a
the pylorus. Enzymatic and chemical diges- laboratory for chemical analysis, this proce-
tion and nutrient absorption continue in the dure is commonly used. The producer or a
small intestine where the pH remains at 2.5. consultant must interpret the results and de-
vise a suitable ration for the animals and the
Large Intestine situation in question.
The large intestine is the last part of rumi-
Thousands of chemical analyses have been
nant animals’ digestive systems. It absorbs
performed on commonly used feeds, with
products missed earlier. The first part of the
the averages for various qualities within the
large intestine is a structure called the
same feed type compiled in standardized
cecum, in which fiber digestion similar to
feed analysis tables. These tables contain

19
 Feed
+)))))))))))))))))2))))))))))))))))))))))))),
W ater Dry matter
+)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))2))))))))))))))),
Organic matter Ash(minerals)
+))))))))))))))))))))))2))))))))))))))))))))))))))))),
Nitrogenous Non-nitrogenous
substances substances
+)))2))))))))))))))), +)))))))))2))))))))))))))),
True Nonprotein Carbohydrates Fats
protein nitrogenous +))))2)))))))))))))))))))))),
substances Soluble Cellulose
carbohydrates (NFE) fiber, etc.

Figure 2. Food components.

sound information and are often more reli- from a specific area. An analysis of a native
able than analysis of a single feed sample plant or plants gathered in the field to
that may not represent a valid value for the simulate the diet of grazing cattle leaves
feed due to improper sampling techniques room for doubt because cattle are very se-
and/or errors. Standardized feed tables are lective and may be eating only certain high-
frequently sample composites from across quality plants or plant parts rather than the
the country and, therefore, may tend to un- plant material composites typically col-
der- or overestimate the actual value of feed lected for lab analysis. Analysis of harvested
crops, such as hay, is worth the expense, as
nutrients vary according to geographic lo-
cation and management practices such as
fertilization, irrigation, and plant maturity
at harvest.

Water
The water content of feeds causes great
variation in their nutritive value; this is espe-
cially true of farm or feedlot rations where
high-moisture silage is often fed. However,
water content also influences cattle perfor-
mance under range conditions when cattle
are turned onto spring grass. During the
rapid-growth period in early spring, grazed
native forage contains 75 to 90 percent wa-
This producer is gathering hay ter. If a lactating cow requires 27 pounds of
samples from different sections within dry matter per day, she will need to graze be-
the stack to ensure analysis is based tween 108 and 270 pounds of grass, de-
upon a representative composite pending upon its water content, to meet her
sample.
dry matter requirement. In this case, the cow
is only consuming 27 pounds of dry matter

20
along with 81 to 243 pounds of water, or large amounts of saline in another pasture
approximately 10 to 30 gallons. The cow during a normal pasture rotation can create
can adjust the amount of water she drinks problems. Developing alternate water
daily to reflect the moisture content of the sources is one way to alleviate this problem.
feed. Thirty gallons is above the cow’s daily Cattle returned to high-quality water recover
water requirements, while 10 to 12 gallons is rapidly from the ill effects of salts. The ni-
closer to what she will actually drink. It trate content of water is seldom a problem
would be impossible for the cow to find, unless combined with high-nitrate content
graze, and digest 270 pounds of spring for- feeds. This problem occurs primarily during
age in a 24-hour period. For this reason, in- drought or winter periods when harvested
corporating early maturing, cool-season feeds, such as hays, are being fed and water
grasses, such as crested wheatgrass, into a may be limited (i.e., freezing).
grazing scheme may be a valuable tool to in-
Most waters are alkaline with pH values of
crease the dry matter of early spring forage.
7.0 to 8.0. Although little is known about
Water quality also can affect adequate con- the effects of higher alkalinity, water with a
sumption. Factors affecting the water quality pH of 10 or higher must be viewed as sus-
livestock consume include total dissolved pect and a possible hazard to animals.
solids, hardness, sulfates, nitrates, and so-
Total dissolved solids (TDS) consist of in-
dium. Salinity often can be a problem, as
organic and organic materials. When a wa-
water is a good solvent and may contain dis-
ter sample is submitted for analysis, results
solved inorganic salts. Various salts may af-
are generally reported in parts per million
fect grazing animals, and young animals are
(PPM) or the megaliter of the tested solids.
more susceptible to the effects of these salts
Several different references report safe lev-
than more mature animals. Hot weather
els. A typical composite water sample
naturally increases water consumption;
analysis is shown below. It does not involve
therefore, changing cattle from high-quality
abrupt changes in content.
water in one pasture to water containing

Substance Can tolerate in PPM or Megaliter Danger in PPM

Total dissolved solids 7,000 or less 7,000 or more
Sodium or salt 3,000 or less 3,000 or more
Nitrates as N 200 to 300 300 or more
Alkali (hardness) 1,000 or less Unknown
Note: Alkaline water may or may not be saline. Some alkaline waters are referred to as hard water because they
contain calcium, iron, and magnesium but not sodium.

For water testing, write or call: Wyoming Analytical Laboratory

1660 Harrison Street
Laramie, WY 82070
Phone: (307) 742-7995
Note: Testing requires 1 gallon of water in a clean container. The cost is $60. Do not wash the container with any
soap before collecting the water sample because soap frequently leaves a residue that may alter analytical results.

21
 meat, milk, and wool. Without microflora
in the rumen, reticulum, and omasum this
use of fibrous materials in plants by animals
would not be possible.

Protein
Proteins are complex compounds com-
posed of various amino acids. These amino
acids contain 16 percent nitrogen in addi-
tion to carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. In
laboratory feed evaluations, the crude pro-
tein content is estimated by measuring the
feed’s nitrogen concentration, then multi-
The quality of livestock water can change as the season
progresses, and due to mineral concentration and palatabil-
plying it by 6.25. Adequate levels of pro-
ity, animal production may be affected. tein are important for growth, reproduc-
tion, and lactation in animals. Without ad-
Carbohydrates equate protein, these productive functions
are reduced or stopped completely.
Carbohydrates supply most of cattle’s en-
ergy needs and make up 65 to 75 percent High-quality alfalfa hay is an excellent pro-
of the dry weight of grains, forages, and tein source when compared with grains
roughage. Carbohydrates include com- such as corn, sorghum, barley, or oats. Oil
pounds such as sugars, starch, cellulose, and seed meals that include cottonseed meal,
other related substances. Two commonly soybean meal, and canola meal are excellent
used substances detected in typical feed protein sources to use in a supplementation
analysis to evaluate carbohydrate content of program for range cattle. Overfeeding pro-
feed are crude fiber and nitrogen-free ex- tein is very costly, especially if the protein is
tract. Feed digestibility generally decreases purchased as a supplement. If excess pro-
as crude fiber content increases. In actively tein is in a home-raised feed, such as alfalfa,
growing grass, forage, or high-quality hay, blend lower quality protein hay with it. Ex-
the crude fiber is lower, so digestibility is cess dietary protein in ruminant animals is
higher. However, as plants mature, crude broken down and used as an energy source.
fiber content increases and digestibility de- This process is, however, very inefficient.
clines. Cattle maintained under range forage con-
ditions should only be fed protein supple-
Microorganisms in the rumen (10 billion
ments containing natural proteins. Non-
per gram of contents) digest or break down
protein nitrogen (NPN) compounds, such
cellulose, the major carbohydrate in the
as urea and ammonia, are frequently placed
crude fiber portion of plants, into products
in protein supplements fed to ruminants to
ruminant animals can use. This symbiotic
reduce the cost of supplementation. NPN
relationship between ruminant animals and
products, however, do not provide for the
the rumen microflora allows otherwise un-
level of performance under range forage
marketable fibrous materials to be con-
conditions that result from all-natural pro-
verted into useful products such as red

22
tein supplements. In some cases, feeding percent protein to optimize forage diges-
supplements containing NPN compound tion. The rest of the dietary protein is di-
to forage-fed ruminants may result in toxic- gested lower down the system, without the
ity and death. losses that occur when protein is broken
down by the microbes, reformed into mi-
Protein digestion in ruminants is compli-
crobial protein, and then broken down
cated and often an inefficient process. Di-
again by the animal.
etary protein is ingested into the rumen,
where the microflora break it down and use
Fats and Oils
the nitrogen portion to synthesize micro-
bial protein, which forms microbial cells Fat is determined in the proximate analysis
within the microbes. As feed material and procedure using an ether extraction. Fat
rumen fluid move through the rumen, provides approximately 2.25 times the
reticulum, and omasum to the lower diges- amount of energy per unit of weight when
tive tract, several microbial cells are carried compared with carbohydrates or proteins.
with them. These cells are digested in the The fat content in roughage is low; there-
abomasum and small intestine. As a result, fore, fat in range beef cattle diets may be
microbial protein fragments and amino ac- minor when compared with feedlot situa-
ids are used by ruminant animals for pro- tions where large amounts of grain and oil-
tein synthesis. Every time a protein is bro- seed meals are used in rations along with
ken down and re-formed, energy is re- added amounts of supplemental fats. El-
quired. The rumen microorganisms take evating the fat content in feeds reduces
poor-quality protein, break it down into dust, while increasing palatability and ac-
elemental nitrogen, then rebuild high-qual- ceptability to range livestock.
ity microbial protein from this nitrogen; Adding fat helps bind cube and pellet in-
however, this process requires energy. Cer- gredients together to make them harder
tain proteins, such as those found in blood and more stable during handling and feed-
meal and feather meal (bypass proteins), ing. However, care must be taken to ensure
may escape microbial break down in the the supplement is not too hard for the ani-
rumen and are digested in the abomasum mals to eat or that the level of fat is high
and small intestine. enough to create a rancid feed.
Technology has perfected ways to protect
high-quality proteins, such as those found Minerals
in soybean meal, from breaking down by Minerals are critical for skeletal develop-
the rumen microbes. Bypass proteins pro- ment, digestion, metabolic processes, re-
vide an effective method for improving per- production, growth, and lactation.
formance of those animals maintained on Research has shown that seven major and
low-protein feeds. To ensure optimal forage six trace minerals are required daily for nor-
digestion, the rumen microflora must be mal health and well-being of grazing ani-
provided 6 to 7 percent protein in the con- mals. These minerals are not synthesized by
sumed feed. When using bypass protein, the animals and must be provided in their
make sure the rumen microflora get 6 to 7 daily diets. Calcium and phosphorus are

23
 two of the most important minerals ani- vitamin A in their livers. If they have been
mals require on a daily basis. Ninety-nine on green feed for an extended period, ani-
percent of calcium is localized in animals’ mals should have adequate vitamin A.
bones and teeth, while 80 percent of phos- However, if animals are maintained on
phorus is found in their skeletons. The re- dried, bleached feed for extended periods,
maining 20 percent of phosphorus is found vitamin A supplementation may be war-
in the soft tissues where it plays a major ranted.
role in cell metabolism. Generally, rough-
age and forages are high in calcium, but Energy Calculation
low in phosphorus, while grains tend to be The amount of energy feed provides is cal-
high in phosphorus and low in calcium. culated from a feed analysis as follows and
Therefore, range cattle generally exhibit ad- is represented as Total Digestible Nutrients
equate intakes of calcium, while their phos- (TDN):
phorus intakes are low and should be
supplemented to ensure optimal perfor- Starches and sugars (NFE) x
mance. Phosphorus is bitter and unpalat- Digestibility (50 percent ±) = X percent
able when fed by itself. Therefore, mix Crude fiber x digestibility = X percent
phosphorus sources with salt. Animals will
Protein x digestibility = X percent
get the phosphorus while consuming salt,
which provides them sodium and chloride. Fats x 2.25 x digestibility = X percent
Phosphorus supplementation has been Total = TDN
shown to increase reproductive efficiency
Digestibility is based on actual animal feed-
and milk production in forage-fed cattle.
ing trials. In contrast, the laboratory values
The lack of trace minerals is frequently an
determined are actually averages of the
area problem. Cobalt, copper, and zinc are
chemical data collected. Therefore, deter-
sometimes deficient in feedlot rations. The
mining the energy content of a feed
trace element copper can be extremely toxic
(TDN) actually becomes an estimated
at high levels; yet, under some range situa-
value as a result of the arithmetic process.
tions, supplementation has improved cattle
performance. Examples of feed analysis on two different
feeds are provided and illustrate the differ-
Vitamins ences between forages and grains. Make
Vitamins are generally grouped according note of the energy values, the fiber content,
to their regulatory functions and are not and the calcium content of each. Grain is
necessarily chemically related. Vitamins often viewed as a supplement for a protein
help animals digest and absorb nutrients. deficiency in a diet. The observed differ-
Vitamin A is commonly provided by injec- ences shown between the forage and corn
tion or through supplementation, and ani- dismisses this practice as unacceptable.
mals can store up to a six-month supply of

24
25
 Figure 3. The phosphorous content of native forage declines rapidly in upland species as the season
progresses. Although the phosphorous level in riparian plants is more constant, it is less than the
cow’s requirement.

26
Chapter 4
Nutritional Requirements and Production
T
he daily energy, crude protein, and cisely because there is more control of the
mineral requirements for beef animals’ daily feeding programs. Table 1
cattle have been researched for shows the daily requirements of beef cows
many years and, with small revisions, have as determined by the National Research
been published often. Rations for cattle in Council (NRC) under more or less con-
the feedlot can be determined more pre- trolled situations.

Table 1. Nutritional requirements for beef cows (NRC).

CP TDN
Weight Gain, lb. Daily ADF, lb. lb. Percent of ration lbs. Percent of ration

Mature cow - (middle third of pregnancy–25 percent of fetal weight)

1,000 0 20 1.3 6.5 8.8 44
1,100 0 22 1.4 6.5 9.7 44
1,200 0 23 1.4 6.5 10.0 44
Mature cow - (last third of pregnancy–70 percent of fetal growth occur here)
1,000 .9 22.0 1.6 7.2 10.5 48
1,100 .9 23.5 1.6 7.0 11.2 48
1,200 .9 25.0 1.7 7.0 11.8 48
Cows nursing calves (average milk production 12 lbs./day)
1,000 0 23-25 2.0 8.8 12.6 56
1,100 0 25-28 2.0 8.3 13.5 56
1,200 0 27-30 2.1 8.2 14.3 56
Pregnant yearling heifers (last third of pregnancy)
700 1.4* 18 1.4 8.0 9.5 54
750 1.4 19 1.5 8.0 10.0 54
800 1.4 20 1.5 8.0 10.5 54
850 1.4 21 1.6 8.0 10.8 54
*Body weight gain only. Total gain with fetus is about 1.4 pounds. This provides for approximately a .4
pound gain for the heifer herself and a 1 pound per day for the fetus and products of conception. This
weight gain will help ensure the heifer milks well and breeds back for her second calf.
Note: ADF = Air Dry Feed, 90 percent dry matter or as fed; CP = Crude Protein; TDN = Total Digest-
ible Nutrients (an estimate of energy needs)

27
 Seasonal requirements for cows
for TDN (energy)
16

15

14 Weaning
13
Calving
12

11

10

Last 1a/3 of
9

8 pregnancy
7
Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov.

Cow requirements Provided by native range

Graph 1. Other nutrients follow a similar trend.

As cows approach calving, energy and ent levels more closely match the pregnant
protein requirements increase. After calving, cow’s needs, may provide an acceptable
the increased nutrient demand associated alternative to large supplemental feed bills.
with lactation can cause requirements to Later calving means potentially lighter calves
increase to approximately 78 percent for at weaning; however, this is offset by less
protein and 17 percent for energy. This labor at calving, fewer calf losses and sick
increase is shown as TDN (energy) in Graph calves, and less harvested feed needed for
1 for cows calving in March and early April cows. Current research suggests that feed
(solid line). The dotted line indicates the saved by later calving increases the net return
amount of TDN provided by native range. from $23 to $29 per cow per year. These
values do not include the savings from less
In January, native range forage provides
labor, less veterinarian expenses, and lower
slightly less than 8 pounds of TDN daily to
calf death rates. A savings of $25 translates
the grazing pregnant cow whose require-
to $5 per hundredweight at market for a
ment is approximately 9 pounds. By the
500-pound calf.
time cows are turned out on spring grass in
May, their TDN needs have increased to 13 Nutritional regimes provided during
pounds per day, while the grazed forage is precalving and postcalving directly affect
only able to provide approximately 7.5 the cow herd’s rebreeding efficiency. Fol-
pounds of this need. This deficiency must lowing calving, there is an 82-day window
be made up by feeding a supplement or during which the cow must lactate (peak
harvested forage. If hay has a value of $85 milk production in beef cattle typically
per ton, the cost of eliminating this defi- occurs 60 days postcalving) and rebreed.
ciency can be quite high. First estrus typically occurs 35 to 40 days
after calving. If nutrients are adequate, this
Moving the calving period to later in the
leaves approximately 42 days, or two
spring or early summer, when forage nutri-

28
estrous periods (21 days per period), for the determine the winter nutrition level cows
cow to get pregnant (if she is to maintain a need. This method allows cows to be sorted
yearly calving interval). In situations where into groups that have similar nutritional
nutrients are limited during this time, needs during the upcoming winter period.
many cows, especially the younger (2 to 4
The effect of either low- or high-energy levels
year olds), will show up as short breds or
pre- and postcalving is shown in Table 3.
opens at fall pregnancy testing. Many
studies have been conducted on various A cow’s condition score at the beginning of
nutrition levels pre- and postcalving. All winter has other ramifications. Practical
studies have shown essentially the same experience has demonstrated that a cow with
results; if nutrients are to be limited, this a condition score of 5 at the beginning of
should happen before the last 90 days winter requires approximately 50 percent
before calving. The results of research that less feed than one with a fall condition score
limited nutrients prior to calving are of 3.5. The higher scoring cow will more
presented in Table 2. aggressively forage for standing crop forage
or windrowed hay on its own, digging
The fall scoring of cow condition on a scale
through the snow if necessary, while the
of 1 (thin) to 9 (fat) is a practical method to

Table 2. Effects of precalving energy levels (first calf heifers).

Pre-calving
TDN level
5.7 lb. 8.8 lb.
(Moderate) (NRC Recommended)
Weight change, pound -13 80
Days to first estrus after calving1 52 51
Estrus at 40 days, percent 26 41
Calf birth weight, pound 63 67
Assisted births, percent 28 27
Calves alive at birth, percent 90 97
Weaning weight, pound 325 354
1
Estrus - period of male receptivity. Estrous cycle - period from the end of one estrus period to the start of
another. Averages 18 to 21 days in cattle.

Table 3. Nutrition effects on weight gains and reproductive performance of heifers.

Nutritional level Weight gain Conceiving Cows

Before lbs. After lbs of heifer first service pregnant
calving TDN calving TDN (pound) (percent) (percent)

Low 4.5 Moderate 8.0 1.10 51 80

Low 4.5 High 16.0 2.16 71 91
High 9.1 Low 4.5 -.50 42 68
High 9.1 Moderate 8.0 .65 63 77
High 9.1 High 16.0 1.75 62 87

29
 Table 4. Feed composition tables.

Feed Air dry roughage (Assume 90 percent D.M.)

CP TDN
percent percent
Alfalfa – early bloom 16.5 51.3
– mid-bloom 15.4 50.0
– full-bloom 14.3 48.0
Brome grass hay – early 14.0 50.0
– mature 6.0 48.0
– early growing 21.0 74.0
Alfalfa-brome mix – first cut 13.5 49.0
Meadow hay (mixed) – early cut 8.3 47.0
Oat hay with some grain 8.1 53.6
Sweet clover hay – mid-bloom 14.0 50.0
Timothy – mid-bloom 7.5 50.0
Crested wheat grass – fullbloom 4.5 30.0
Mature range 4.1 34.0
Kentucky bluegrass (early fresh) 17.4 72.0
Native grasses (early fresh) 9.0-11.0 64.0-74.0
Grains (other low protein concentrates)
Barley, grain 11.6 74.0
Corn number 2 8.9 81.0
Ground ear corn 8.1 78.0
Oats, grain 11.9 68.0
Wheat, grain 12.7 78.0
3-way mix (corn, oats, and barley) 9.0 72.0
70 X 30 pellet (alfalfa and corn) 13.02 57.0
80 X 20 cube (alfalfa and corn) 14.1 56.0

CP TDN
High protein supplements
Cottonseed meal (solvent process) 42.0 73.0
Soybean meal (solvent process) 46.0 72.0
Commercial mix 20 percent (all natural) 20.0 66.0
Commercial mix 32 percent (all natural) 32.0 64.0
Commercial mix 50 percent (all natural) 55.0 64.0

Note: The TDN of commercial mixes varies according to the base and filler materials used.

30
lower scoring cow becomes dependent on needs for a given production stage, there is
supplemental feed and is a less efficient no assurance that a cow will be able to eat
forager. This results, in part, to less back fat that much feed if it is poor quality. If fed
on the condition score 3.5 cow and subse- high-quality feed, a cow can easily meet her
quently greater stress for this cow as tem- needs with smaller amounts of feed; there-
peratures fall to zero and below. fore, she may still appear hungry and
discontented. In these cases straw or poor-
Table 4 lists the average crude protein and
quality grass may be fed to ease the cow’s
TDN content for common feeds.
desire to eat. Producers must work dili-
gently to ensure that the cow’s nutrient
Factors Contributing to Hay
level is met, the cow is satisfied, and no
Consumption
feed nutrients are wasted. Ordinarily, daily
The amount of hay a cow will actually consumption by a beef cow varies between
consume depends upon its size, condition, 1.5 to 3 percent of body weight, depending
production stage, and milking ability, as upon her production stage. Table 5 shows
well as availability of supplemental feed, estimated consumption rates for several
hay digestibility, and environmental condi- hays of various qualities.
tions. High-quality roughages, such as
alfalfa hay, pass through the digestive tract Data in Table 6 illustrate that meadow hay
faster than dormant cured range forage or with less than 4 percent crude protein
straw. Although the NRC requirements content and associated TDN values is
provide daily feed levels to meet energy marginal for meeting the nutritional

Table 5. Roughage capacity of beef cows (900 to 1,100 pounds).

Class of Dry matter As fed

Roughage type cattle intake intake
percent pounds

Low-quality roughages Dry cows 1.5 17-18

(dry grass, straw, etc.) Lactating cows 2.0 23-24
Average-quality hays Dry cows 2.0 22-24
(meadow, native grass, etc.) Lactating cows 2.3 25-28
High-quality forages Dry cows 2.5 28-30
(alfalfa hay) Lactating cows 3.3 30-32
Green pasture forage Dry cows 2.5 80-100
Lactating cows 2.7 100-110

Note: Hay nutrient quality varies not only between types but also within types, depending
upon the hay’s stage of maturity at harvest. Producers realize that as a hay crop matures, its
nutrition level decreases.

31
 requirements of a cow during the last Hay quality is not the only factor affecting
trimester of pregnancy. There is no room cattle nutrient intake. The average environ-
for cheating on daily amounts fed, as this is mental temperature also influences feed
all the cow can consume. With the excep- intake and its digestibility. Table 7 shows
tion of hays containing 5.5 and 5.8 percent the effect of seasonal temperatures on total
CP, hays fed at 22 pounds per day fail to feed intake and its digestibility relative to
meet the CP needs of the rumen microf- an average daily temperature of 65 degrees
lora, which impacts fiber digestion and Fahrenheit. Shelter was available to the
subsequent animal performance. cattle in this study.

Table 6. Crude protein and total digestible nutrient content of meadow hay (Nebraska data).

Protein content TDN Pounds TDN provided by Percent of TDN

(percent) (percent) by the hay for last trimester requirement (NRC)
22 lbs. hay of pregnancy* provided by the hay
3.01 41 9.0 86
3.20 45 9.9 94
3.93 47 10.3 98
4.0 50 11.0 101
4.2 50 11.0 101
4.6 53 11.7 111
4.7 53 11.7 111
5.5 52 11.4 108
5.8 56 12.3 117
* 1,000 pound cow

Table 7. Effect of temperature on feed intake and its digestibility by cattle.

Total Feed intake

Month feed intake Digestibility relative to 65 degrees
(pounds) (percent) (percent)
July 20.4 69.9 100
August 20.6 69.5 101
September 21.2 68.3 104
October 21.9 67.0 108
November 23.1 64.7 114
December 24.1 63.1 119
January 24.6 62.1 121
February 24.0 63.2 118
March 23.3 64.3 115
April 22.0 66.6 108
May 21.1 68.3 104
June 20.7 69.2 102

32
Graphs 2, 3, 4, and 5 show a cow’s requirements for the middle and last trimesters of preg-
nancy and lactation.

1100 lb cow in middle trimester of pregnancy

14
13
12 11.7 11.7
11.4
Pounds TDN and crude protein

11 11
11 10.5
9.7 lb
10
9 TDN
9
required
8
7
6
5
4 3.6
2.8
3
1.8 1.8 1.6
1.4 lb
2 1.5
0.86 protein
1
required
0
Average-quality alfalfa 22 lb Brome mid bloom 22 lb Timothy full bloom 21 lb
Good-qualify alfalfa 22 lb Oat hay/grain 22 lb Timothy mid bloom 22 lb Range grass mature
Air dry basis

Daily nutrient intake: TDN (energy) Crude protein

Graph 2.

1100 lb cow in last trimester of pregnancy

14
13 12.6
12 11.7 11.7 11.7
12 11
11
10 lb
Pounds TDN and crude protein

10 9.5
TDN
9
required
8
7
6
5
4 3.8 3.6
3
3
1.9 1.7 1.6
1.6 lb
2 protein
0.9
1 required
0
Average-quality alfalfa 22 lb Brome mid bloom 22 lb Timothy full bloom 21 lb
Good-quality alfalfa 22 lb Oat hay/grain 22 lb Timothy mid bloom 22 lb Range grass mature
Air dry basis

Daily nutrient intake: TDN (energy) Crude protein

Graph 3.

1100 lb cow nursing calf (average milker)

14
13 12.6
12
12 11.7 11.7 11.7
11
11
13.5 lb
Pounds TDN and crude protein

10 9.5
9
TDN
8
required
7
6
5
3.8 3.6
4
3
3
2
1.9 1.7 1.6 2.0 lb
0.9 protein
1
required
0
Average-quality alfalfa 22 lb Brome mid bloom 22 lb Timothy full bloom 21 lb
Good-quality alfalfa 22 lb Oat hay/grain 22 lb Timothy mid bloom 22 lb Range grass mature
Air dry basis

Daily nutrient intake: TDN (energy) Crude protein

Graph 4.

33
 Pregnant yearling heifers
Last trimester of pregnancy and gaining 1.4 pounds per day
14
13
12
10 lb

Pounds TDN and crude protein

11 10
10 9.7 9.5 9.5 9.5
9
TDN
9 required
8 7.3
7
6
5
4 3.1 2.9
3 2.5
2 1.5 1.4
1.5 lb
1.3
1 0.7 protein
0 required
Average-quality alfalfa 22 lb Brome mid bloom 22 lb Timothy full bloom 21 lb
Good-qualify alfalfa 22 lb Oat hay/grain 22 lb Timothy mid bloom 22 lb Range grass mature
Air dry basis

Daily nutrient intake: TDN (energy) Crude protein

Graph 5.

These graphs serve as a rule of thumb a heifer should weigh 65 percent of her
reference. High-quality hays are not likely mature weight by the onset of her first
to be deficient in TDN or protein, while breeding season. In addition, the heifer
late-cut or low-quality roughage often should demonstrate estrus 45 days prior to
provides an inadequate level of TDN and/or the beginning of the breeding season. This
protein for pregnant cows and growing young female is still growing and, there-
heifers. After calving, all hay becomes fore, requires a nutritional regime following
marginal for energy and some hay becomes calving over and above that needed for just
marginal for protein unless a cow’s intake maintenance and lactation. Failure to meet
increases. Some energy supplementation all of her nutritional needs can result in her
may be required for growing heifers but can failure to breed for her second calf in a
be accomplished only with high-quality timely manner. Producers often face the
hay containing adequate protein. An problem of an inordinate number of open
effective management practice is to save the (nonbred) cows among their second calf
best hay for postcalving or for young heifers because nutritional requirements
growing animals. were not met at the correct time. Research
has shown heifers that first calve as 2 year
An important part of breeding herd man-
olds raise one more calf during their life-
agement is to grow replacement heifers so
times than cows that first calve as 3 year
they attain puberty and breed in a way that
olds. Table 8 shows average ages and
allows them to fit into the cow herd easily.
weights at which various crossbred cattle
Puberty varies between breeds and is a
reached puberty.
function of both age and weight. Typically,

34
Table 8. Age and weight at puberty for crossbred heifers of different breed types.

Age (days) Weight (pounds)

Jersey cross 308 518
Gelbvieh cross 326 626
Brown Swiss cross 332 615
Pinzgauer cross 334 611
Red Poll cross 337 580
Tarentaise cross 349 622
South Devon cross 350 639
Hereford-Angus cross 357 622
Maine-Anjou cross 357 622
Simmental cross 358 666
Limousin cross 384 679
Chianina cross 384 699
Charolais cross 384 699
Sahiwal cross 414 642
Brahman cross 429 712
Note: These weights represent 65 percent of the estimated mature weight of the cow.

Growing Heifer Calves for Spring a) 0.93 pounds per day gain by May 8
Breeding (205-day growing period)
The following scenario assumes: b) 0.82 pounds per day gain by June 5
1. Crossbred Hereford-Angus heifer calves (233-day growing period)
are weaned on October 15 at 450 c) 0.65 pounds per day gain by
pounds. The weaning method deter- August 5 (294-day growing period)
mines a shrink before calves stabilize
and adapt. Assume a 15-pound loss Considering the effects of cold weather,
(shrink), for a net weight of 435 storms, and other factors, a target weight
pounds. gain of about 1 pound per day is reasonable
for the May 8 breeding date compared with
2. Plan to begin calving near (assume a 0.82 pound per day for the March 15
283 day gestation period) calving date. In contrast, May calving
a) February 15–begin breeding May 8 requires the heifer to gain considerably less
weight per day during the winter growing
b) March 15–begin breeding June 5 period prior to August breeding.
c) May 15 - begin breeding August 5 If a calf weighs 450 pounds at the begin-
3. Reach weights of 625 pounds or more ning of the feeding period and the desired
before the above dates, which equals weight 100 days later is 650 pounds, then
190 pounds of gain or the average weight of this calf halfway
through the feeding period should be 550

35
 Table 9. Requirements for growing heifers (air dry or as fed basis).

Weight Daily gain ADF-BW CP TDN

(pounds) (pounds) (pounds) (percent) (pounds) (percent of ration) (pounds) (percent of ration)

Heifer calves - medium frame

300 1.0 9.0 3.0 .91 10 5.0 56
350 1.0 10.0 2.8 .96 9.6 5.6 56
400 1.0 11.0 2.7 1.01 9.2 6.2 56
450 1.0 12.0 2.6 1.06 8.8 6.7 56
500 1.0 13.0 2.6 1.11 8.5 7.3 56
550 1.0 14.0 2.5 1.15 8.2 7.8 56
600 1.0 15.0 2.5 1.20 8.0 8.4 56
Heifer calves - medium frame
350 1.5 10.2 2.9 1.12 10.9 6.3 62
400 1.5 11.3 2.8 1.17 10.3 7.0 62
450 1.5 12.4 2.7 1.21 9.7 7.7 62
500 1.5 13.4 2.7 1.25 9.3 8.3 62
550 1.5 14.4 2.6 1.28 8.8 9.0 62
600 1.5 15.3 2.6 1.32 8.6 9.5 62
650 1.5 16.3 2.5 1.36 8.3 10.0 62
700 1.5 17.2 2.5 1.40 8.1 10.7 62
Heifer calves - large frame (and yearlings)
350 1.5 10.9 3.1 1.18 10.7 6.3 58
400 1.5 12.1 3.0 1.23 10.0 7.0 58
450 1.5 13.2 2.9 1.27 9.6 7.6 58
500 1.5 14.3 2.9 1.32 9.2 8.3 58
550 1.5 15.4 2.8 1.36 8.8 9.0 58
600 1.5 16.4 2.7 1.41 8.6 9.5 58
650 1.5 17.4 2.7 1.45 8.3 10.0 58
700 1.5 18.4 2.6 1.50 8.1 10.7 58
Heifer calves - large frame (and yearlings)
350 1.0 10.5 3.0 1.00 9.5 5.6 53
400 1.5 11.6 2.9 1.06 9.1 6.1 53
450 1.0 12.7 2.8 1.11 8.7 6.7 53
500 1.0 13.7 2.7 1.16 8.5 7.3 53
550 1.0 14.7 2.7 1.20 8.1 7.8 53
600 1.0 15.6 2.6 1.25 8.0 8.3 53
650 1.0 16.6 2.6 1.30 7.8 8.8 53
700 1.0 17.6 2.5 1.34 7.6 9.3 53

ADF = Air Dry Feed, 90 percent dry matter or as fed, CP = Crude Protein,
Percent BW = Daily feed as a percent of body weight

36
pounds. The total period gain is 200 Rule of thumb guides for relative amounts of
pounds in 100 days or 2 pounds per day, hay and grain in a ration are presented as two
so, in this example, the ration would be different scenarios in sets 1 and 2. One ration
based on a 550-pound calf gaining 2.0 uses high-quality hay while the other uses
pounds per day. Rations are based on the fair- to poor-quality hay. The second ration
calf ’s production level, as well as her body requires a protein supplement in addition to
weight. Rations for growing calves are grain to meet the calf’s nutritional needs.
based on the desired rate of gain and their
As the calf grows, the daily feed consump-
body weight halfway through the feeding
tion will increase, and the hay to grain ratio
period. The amount of feed a calf may be
will remain similar, but the amount of feed
expected to consume daily is shown in
consumed daily as a percent of body weight
table 10.
will decrease.

Table 10. Growing calves – medium frame (adjust up .1 percent for larger frame).

Weight (pound) BW (percent) Daily as fed consumption (pound)

(includes some waste)
300 3.10 9.5
350 3.00 10.5
400 2.90 11.5
450 2.80 12.5
500 2.70 13.5
550 2.65 14.5
600 2.60 15.5
650 2.50 16.5
700 2.45 17.5

Set 1. Estimated roughage and grain ration for calves to gain at various rates.

450-pound calves fed high-quality hay

Hay - 50 percent TDN and 15.4 percent crude protein
Grain - 78 percent TDN and 9.0 percent crude protein
As fed Requirement
Daily feed Average Crude Percent of ration
gain per day TDN protein Roughage Grain Grain
(pounds) (pounds) (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent) (lb)
.0 12-13 48 7.2 100 0 0
.50 50 8.6 100 0 0
.75 52 8.7 90 10 1-2
1.00 54 9.0 80 20 2-3
1.50 57 10.0 75 25 3
1.75 59 10.4 70 30 4
2.00 61 10.8 65 35 4-5
Note: No protein deficiency occurs in these rations at 2 pounds per day gain.

37
 Set 2. Estimated roughage and grain ration for calves to gain at various rates.

450-pound calves fed fair- to poor-quality hay

Hay - 42 percent TDN and 5 percent crude protein
Grain - 78 percent TDN and 10 percent crude protein
32 percent all
As fed Requirement natural CP
Daily feed Average Crude Percent of ration supplement
gain per day TDN protein Roughage Grain Grain required
(pounds) (pounds) (percent) (percent) (percent) (percent) (pounds) (pounds per day)

.0 12-13 48 7.2 85 15 2.0 .50

.50 50 8.6 75 25 3.0 1.00
.75 52 8.7 70 30 3.5 1.25
1.00 54 9.0 65 35 4.5 1.25
1.50 57 10.0 60 40 5.0 1.50

Wintering calves depend upon the appropriate ratio of energy (grain) to the protein level to gain
weight.

38
Chapter 5
Supplementation and Substitution
L
ivestock supplementation should not mon practice in winter range areas to
be confused with substitution. In supplement the dormant grass with corn.
either case, additional feed is pro- These trials were designed to evaluate the
vided, but the circumstances that prompt practice’s effectiveness. Based on how much
each procedure are very different. Unfortu- corn was fed, clearly substitution was tak-
nately, the valuable practice of supplement- ing place. The corn merely replaced the for-
ing dietary nutrient deficiencies in livestock age in these diets and met no dietary defi-
rations receives incorrect interpretations. ciency.
Substitution can be defined as putting or Substituting corn for range grass during the
using in place of another or taking the winter proved nonbeneficial. The levels fed
place of something. If no native forage re- were sufficient to change the rumen micro-
mains and hay is being fed, the hay serves bial population to one favoring starchy car-
as a nutritional substitute. Supplementation bohydrate digestion, while reducing the
is defined as something that completes or microorganisms that digest the low-quality
makes an addition to something. If suffi- fiber present in the range forage. The result
cient native forage is available but is in dor- was a decreased digestibility of the grazed
mancy or is poor quality and a commercial native range forage.
product is being fed, the commercial prod-
The cattle grazing only range forage per-
uct is a nutritional supplement designed to
formed better than those receiving 8.5
correct a deficiency in the forage.
pounds of corn plus the range forage. The
The following research information illus- most limiting nutrient in the range forage
trates the difference between supplementa- diet was protein. This deficiency is not ad-
tion and substitution. These studies were dressed by feeding a high carbohydrate feed
conducted with cows grazing dormant na- such as grain.
tive winter range forage. It is often com-

Table 1. Results of feeding corn to cattle grazing native winter range.

Frequency Winter Pregnancy

Supplement of feeding gain rate
(lbs.) (%)
Trial 1.
3.5 pounds ear corn daily -121 ***
3.0 pounds shelled corn plus 1 pound of 40%
crude protein supplement daily - 40 ***
Trial 2.
6.5 pounds grain (9.4% crude protein) twice weekly -5 68
1.8 pounds grain (9.4% crude protein) daily 23 94
Trial 3. (Following calving)
8.5 pounds corn (after calving) daily *** 78
Native range only *** *** 94

39
 Table 2 illustrates the effect on winter may need to be fed supplements daily, as
weight gains of 600-pound yearling heifers, their nutrient demands are much higher.
resulting from varying the frequency of
Protein supplementation also stimulates in-
feeding protein supplements (cake).
take and digestibility of low-quality forage.
Table 3 illustrates the effects of frequency Feeding protein supplements to cows graz-
of supplementation feeding on percent calf ing on native winter range is a more effective
crop and calf weaning weights (supplement practice than feeding similar cows grain.
- 21 pounds of cottonseed cake per head
Other trials have shown that when all or a
weekly).
substantial part of the daily ration consists of
These results demonstrate that the feeding harvested hay, with a moderate protein con-
frequency of supplements to correct a pro- tent (7 percent or higher), the addition of
tein deficiency can be effectively manipu- corn or other grain (energy supplement) to
lated to fit various management practices the ration may be beneficial. However, the
and labor availability. Some benefit may level of grain fed should not exceed 0.25
actually accrue with less frequent feeding percent of the cow’s body weight or 2.5
because rather than wait on daily delivery, pounds for a 1,000-pound cow. In this case,
the cattle move out and graze a more exten- the grain becomes a supplement, as it is al-
sive area. Feeding larger amounts less fre- lowing an excess of protein in the ration to
quently also allows timid cattle to consume balance the energy in the grain. Graph 1 il-
their share. During calving, however, cows lustrates these important dietary concepts.

Table 2. Weight gains of yearling heifers, as affected by frequency of feeding protein supplementation
during the wintering period.

Supplement type Amount and frequency Pounds gained

40 percent cake 1 pound daily 79
40 percent cake 7 pounds weekly 79
Alfalfa hay 4 pounds daily 97
Alfalfa hay 28 pounds weekly 78

Table 3. Effect of frequency of protein supplementation on production.

Amount and frequency Calves weaned Calf weaning weight

of supplementation* (percent) (pounds)
3 pounds daily 81 445
7 pounds, 3 times weekly 86 437
10.5 pounds, 2 times weekly 89 450
*21 pounds of cottonseed cake fed per week per cow

40
Graph 1. Effect on cattle gains when level of dietary protein varies.

Relative Value of Feeds for feed tag, no guarantee is made for the en-
Supplementation ergy value. This happens because the carrier
Graph 2 presents the relative total digest- used in the supplement may range from
ible nutrient (TDN) content of various poor-quality forage to high-quality grains.
feeds. TDN is an estimate of a feed’s energy To determine the supplement’s approxi-
value and includes carbohydrates, fat, and mate energy value, check the ingredient
protein. Graph 3 shows the relative crude list. The ingredients shown on the tag gen-
protein (CP) concentration of the same erally are listed in descending order of their
feeds on an “as fed” basis. Although miner- percent concentration in the supplement,
als and vitamins are important or even but this may change depending upon their
critical to animal performance in some situ- availability and cost. Feed tag listings are
ations, energy and/or protein is most likely controlled by state laws, and the nutrient
needed in the greatest concentration in a
supplementation program to balance a spe-
cific ration deficiency.
The values shown in Graphs 2 and 3, taken
from the National Research Council’s pub-
lication Nutrient Requirements of Beef
Cattle, average several samples. Local ad-
justment has been made where appropriate.
Note that in Graph 2, a variation occurs in
the energy value of the commercial supple-
ment (cake). Although the protein content,
in this case 32 percent, is guaranteed on the
Grass hay without protein supplementation will support
only limited cattle weight gains. See Graph 1.

41
 Relative energy (TDN) values found in commonly fed feeds
(Air dry basis or as-fed).
90

81
78
72 76
7

65

54 55
49 50
48
43
36 40

18

0
Alfalfa Meadow Dry Corn Ground Commercial
Alfalfa Alfalfa X Wheatgrass Barley cake
(average) Hay range ear
(good) brome Timothy, corn (protein type)
(first cut) Garrison,
(mature)

Graph 2. Relative energy (TDN) values found in commonly fed feeds (air dry basis or as-fed).

Relative crude protein values found in commonly fed feeds

(Air dry basis or as-fed).
35

32
30

25

20

17
15
14
13
10 11
9
8 8
5
4 4

0
Alfalfa Meadow Dry Corn Ground Commercial
Alfalfa Alfalfa X Wheatgrass Barley cake
(average) Hay range ear
(good) brome Timothy, corn (protein type)
(first cut) Garrison,
(mature)

Graph 3. Relative crude protein values found in commonly fed feeds (air dry basis or as-fed).

percentages listed on the guaranteed analy- marketed as high energy when in reality they
sis must be equal to or greater than the nu- are actually low-protein products. Good-
trient percentages contained in the feeds. quality alfalfa may contain 16 percent or
more crude protein and may be a less expen-
A wide range of commercially prepared feeds
sive supplementation method than a com-
is available. Many feed mills make supple-
mercially prepared product, depending upon
ments ranging from 10 to 40 percent crude
what nutrient is being supplemented.
protein and higher. Some supplements are

42
 Tag 1.

12% ENERGY CAKE

Fee d Com pany, USA

GUARANTEED ANALYSIS
CRUDE PR OTEIN, min................. 12.0%
CRUDE FAT , min..........................
3.0%
CRUDE FIBER, max......................8.0%
CALCIUM (Ca), min......................2.0%
CALCIUM (Ca), max..................... 3.0%
PHOSPHORUS (P), min................. 0.7%
SALT (NaCl), min..........................
1.0%
SALT (NaCl), max.........................
2.0%
VITAMIN A, min.................
20,000 IU/lb
VITAMIN D, min.................
2,000 IU/lb
Alfalfa hay may be a better choice for a protein supplement
INGREDIENTS
Grain products, processed grain by-products,
than concentrate pellets or cubes.
plant protein products, cane molasses, calcium
carbonate, monocalcium phosphate, dicalcium -
phosphate, salt, bentonite, vitamin A acetate,
Selecting Supplements
D-activated animal sterol (source of vitamin Supplements can be valued in several ways.
D3), iron sulfate, copper sulfate, cobalt
carbonate, zinc oxide, manganous oxide, The cost per ton is seldom an accurate in-
ethylenediamine dihydriodide, sodium selenite. dicator of the actual feeding value received.
See back of tag for feeding directions.
The cost per pound of actual nutrient pro-
Net weight shown on bag or bulk invoice. vided by the supplement is a better method
of pricing. However, convenience, storage,
and other management aspects also are
Tag 2. considerations that must be evaluated when
purchasing a supplement. When a protein
32% RANGELAND CAKE supplement is needed and various options
Fee d Com pany, USA are available, determine the cost per pound
of actual crude protein provided in each
GUARANTEED AN ALYSIS supplement by using this formula: cost per
CRUDE PR OTEIN, min..................32.0%
CRUDE FAT, min...........................1.0%
ton ÷ (20 x CP percent) = the cost per
CRUDE FIBER, max.......................12.0% pound of protein in the supplement.
CALCIUM (Ca ), min ......................2.0%
CALCIUM (Ca ), ma x .....................3.0% 1. Alfalfa hay at $85 per ton and contains
PHOSPHORUS (P), min ..................1.1% 16 percent CP
SALT (NaC1), min .........................1.0%
SALT (NaC1), ma x ........................2.0%
$85÷(20 x 0.16) = $0.265 (26.5¢) per
VITAMIN A., m in ..............40,00 0 IU/lb pound of crude protein
VITAMIN D., min ................4,00 0 IU/lb
INGREDIENTS 2. Commercial cake at 32 percent CP at
Plant protein products, processed grain by- $230 per ton
products, grain products, cane molasses, calcium
carbonate, monocalcium phosphate, diacalcium $230÷(20 x .32) = $0.36 (36¢) per
phosphate, salt, bentonite, vitamin A acetate, D- pound of crude protein
activated animal sterol (source of vitamin D3),
iron sulfate, copper sulfate, cobalt carbonate, zinc 3. Cottonseed meal at 42 percent CP at
oxide, manganous oxide, ethylenediamine
dihydriodide, sodium selenite. $320 per ton
$320÷(20 x .42) = $0.38 (38¢) per
pound of crude protein

43
 In this case, alfalfa hay appears to provide bloom stage of maturity, contains 15.5 per-
the most economical source of protein. If cent crude protein and 50 percent TDN
some energy also is needed in the ration, it (energy). The cost per ton for this hay is
may be necessary to make the same calcula- $85 delivered to the ranch. Now, other
tions for the energy value of the three feeds feeds may be compared, on a nutrient and
in question. Balance this with the protein cost per ton basis, to this alfalfa hay.
value to arrive at a final decision.
Actual costs per ton will vary according to
Table 4 presents several examples of how the hay market and demand versus avail-
nutritional value of different feeds can be ability. As an example of comparing costs of
compared. supplementation, assume that a 450-pound
To evaluate feeds on their combined pro- heifer is expected to gain 1 pound per day
tein and energy values, it is convenient if a on a ration of 12 pounds of timothy hay
common base value can be selected against with 7.5 percent protein and 50 percent
which other feeds can be compared. Alfalfa TDN (energy). The requirements call for
was selected as the principal feed (Table 4). 1.06 pounds protein per day. The ration
Based on an air-dry feed condition, or an as supplies 12 X .075 or 0.9 pounds protein.
fed state, the alfalfa, harvested at the mid- The amount of supplement required to

Table 4. Combined values for selected feeds.

Nutrition and value Combined Values per ton of

of mid-bloom alfalfa nutrition feed compared with
Feed Protein, % TDN, % and value, % mid-bloom alfalfa
Mid-bloom alfalfa 100 100 100 $85
Late-cut alfalfa 93 96 94 $80
Early-cut alfalfa 107 102 104 $88
Mature crested wheatgrass 29 60 44 $37
Alfalfa X grass mix 87 98 92 $78
Oat hay 52 107 79 $67
Mid-bloom sweet clover 90 100 95 $81
Early-cut brome grass hay 90 100 95 $81
Early-cut meadow hay 53 94 73 $62

Table 5. Correcting a protein deficiency in the Timothy hay ration.

Increase made
Protein per pound over Pounds Cost per Total
supplement Timothy hay needed pound cost
Alfalfa hay @ 15.5% .08 2 $.265 $.53
Commercial mix 32% .24 .67 $.36 $.24
Cottonseed meal 42% .34 .47 $.38 $.18
Note that as the protein level in a supplement increases, the cost per pound decreases, although the cost per ton
is much different. This is just one way to look at the cost of supplementation.

44
meet this deficiency is calculated by increase cal periods, such as late pregnancy or early
needed divided by increase made. Using al- lactation, is to postpone calving until the
falfa hay as an example, the increase made needed nutrients are available at a lower
per pound of hay is .155 – .075, or .08 cost in actively growing spring/summer
pound increase (see Feed Composition range forage (see Table 6 for nutritional val-
Tables). The increase needed is 1.06 – .9 = ues of growing forage).
.16 pound protein. So, .16 ÷ .08 = 2 pounds
alfalfa. Nonprotein Nitrogen
Proof: Urea, biuret, ammonia, and ammoniated
10 pounds Timothy @ .075 = .75 pounds products are examples of materials referred
to as nonprotein (NPN) compounds. They
2 pounds Alfalfa @ .155 = .31 pounds supply elemental nitrogen to rumen micro-
1.06 pounds protein flora, upon ruminal digestion. This type of
elemental nitrogen is the preferred source
The TDN supplied by this ration to meet 1 of nitrogen for many of the rumen mi-
pound daily gain is marginal. Table 5 shows crobes for cell growth and production. The
amounts needed to meet protein require- rumen microflora combine this nitrogen
ments based on four supplements. with a soluble carbohydrate to form micro-
When protein is being supplemented, those bial protein in the form of microbial body
feeds with the highest percent CP may be cells. NPN compounds must be fed with a
the cheapest. However, alfalfa also provides source of very soluble carbohydrate such as
additional energy and other benefits. The grain or molasses. The carbohydrate mate-
arithmetic used here gives a ball park esti- rial binds with the NPN nitrogen and
mate but illustrates that, before a supple- holds it in the rumen until the rumen mi-
ment is selected, nutritional value, feeding croflora (bugs) can convert it into microbial
ease, and availability must be considered. cells. If adequate soluble carbohydrates are
unavailable in the rumen, the NPN nitro-
Feed Composition and Feed Analysis gen is absorbed across the rumen wall,
picked up by the blood, and excreted by
Table 6 shows the percent CP and TDN
the kidneys. In cases where animals con-
contained in some selected feeds. These val-
sume large amounts of NPN nitrogen or
ues represent averages taken from many
when the absorbed blood levels of NPN
samples. When samples of homegrown
nitrogen exceed the kidneys’ ability to re-
feeds are collected and submitted to a labo-
move it, toxicity can result. NPN products
ratory for analysis, the values can be substi-
are cheap when compared with natural pro-
tuted for these book values. Several samples
teins (plant or animal protein). Therefore,
must be taken from the entire feed resource
NPN compounds are frequently included
(i.e., hay pile) and then combined to
in protein supplements in an attempt to
achieve any degree of certainty. Differences
reduce the cost of the supplement; some-
can exist between different samples ob-
times it works and sometimes it does not. If
tained from a single bale of hay.
an adequate level of soluble carbohydrate is
An alternative to feeding expensive supple- not present in the rumen when this NPN
ments during an animal’s nutritional criti- supplement is consumed, up to one-third

45
 Table 6. Feed Composition Tables.

Feed Assume 90 percent dry matter as fed basis

CP percent TDN percent

Forages
Alfalfa – early bloom 16.5 51.3
– mid-bloom 15.4 50.0
– full-bloom 14.3 48.0
Brome grass hay – early bloom 14.0 52.0
– mature 6.0 53.0
– early growing 21.0 74.0
Alfalfa brome mix – first cut 13.5 49.0
Meadow hay (mixed) – early cut 8.3 47.0
Oat hay with some grain 8.1 53.6
Mid-bloom sweet clover hay 14.0 50.0
Mid-bloom timothy 7.5 50.0
Full-bloom crested wheat grass 4.5 30.0
Mature native range 4.1 43.0
Kentucky bluegrass – early, fresh 17.4 72.0
Native range grasses – early, fresh 9.0-11.0 64.0-74.0
Grains and other low protein concentrates
Barley, grain 11.6 74.0
Corn grain #2 8.9 81.0
Ground ear corn 8.1 78.0
Oats, grain 11.9 68.0
Wheat, grain 12.7 78.0
Three-way mix (corn, oats, and barley) 9.0 72.0
70 x 30 pellet (alfalfa, corn) 13.2 57.0
80 x 20 cube (alfalfa, corn) 14.1 56.0
High-protein supplements
Cottonseed meal (solvent extract) 42.0 73.0
Soybean meal (solvent extract) 46.0 72.0
Commercial mix (20 percent) 20.0 66.0
Commercial mix (32 percent) 32.0 64.0
Commercial mix (50 percent) 55.0 64.0

Note: The TDN values of commercial mixes vary according to the base feeds and other materials used.

46
or more of the NPN nitrogen (protein Tag 3.
equivalence) can be lost to the animal via
NPN nitrogen excretion in the urine. This 32% WESTERN C AKE
problem is common when NPN contain- Feed Company US A
ing supplements are fed to ruminant ani-
mals maintained on forage diets. The GUARANTEED ANALYSIS
CRUDE PROT EIN, min................. .32.0%
amount of NPN included in the supple- *This includes n ot more than 9 % eq uivalent
ment must be listed in the ingredient por- protein from n on-protein nitrogen.
tion of the feed tag. NPN containing CRUDE FAT , min......................... 1.0%
CRUDE FIBER, max.................... 12.0%
supplements will kill non-ruminant ani- CALCIU M (Ca), min ................... 2.0%
mals, such as horses, so as these feeds are CALCIU M (Ca), max ................... 3.0%
PHOSPHORUS (P), min .............. 1.1%
used, extreme care must be employed to
SA LT (N aCl), min ........................ 1.0%
ensure that only the ruminants receive the SA LT (N aCl), max........................ 2.0%
NPN feed. For instance, Tag 3 for a 32- VITAM IN A, min................. 40,000 IU /lb
VITAM IN D, min................. 4,000 IU /lb
percent CP supplement contains 9 percent IN GRED IENT S
equivalent protein from NPN, which Plant protein prod ucts, processed grain by-prod-
equals 28 percent of the total protein or 3.2 ucts, grain pro ducts, urea, cane molasses, calcium
carbonate, mon ocalciu m ph osphate, d iacalcium
pounds of urea per 100 pounds of supple- pho sphate, salt, ben tonite, vitamin A acetate, D-
ment. Liquid supplements made with mo- activated animal sterol (sou rce of vitamin D3),
Iro n sul fate, copper sulfate, cobalt carbonate, zinc
lasses may contain up to 99 percent of their oxide, manganous oxide, ethylen ediamine
protein equivalent from NPN sources. dihyd riodide, sodium selenite.

See back o f tag for feed ing d irections.

How efficiently the NPN is converted to
microbial protein in the rumen depends Net weight shown on bag or bulk invoice.
upon several factors. The amount of energy

Table 7. Guides for NPN use.

Percent use
Ration type Dry supplement Liquid supplement
Weathered grass 0 to 25 50
Crop residues
Poor-quality hay
Medium-quality hay 40 to 60 80
Silages
Summer pasture
High-energy rations 90 to100 90 to 10
WARNING
.13-.23 gram urea per body weight pounds = toxicity
.45-.68 gram urea per body weight pounds = lethal/death

47
 the ration contains and the quality of the Guidelines for NPN Use
roughage consumed are primary factors. The table on page 47 demonstrates the per-
NPN may perform as well as natural pro- cent of nonprotein nitrogen (NPN) that
teins in rations high in grains, such as feed- can be used with various feed types. Rumi-
lot finishing diets, but very poorly in high- nant animals on range grass or poor-
roughage winter diets. Efficient NPN con- quality hay use from 0 to 25 percent of the
version depends upon microbial fermenta- NPN included in a dry supplement or up
tion rates in the rumen and the availability to 50 percent of that present in a liquid
of soluble carbohydrates. Grains are a supplement. (This is due to the molasses
highly fermentable, soluble carbohydrate base providing a soluble carbohydrate in
source, while roughages ferment slowly and the liquid supplement.)
provide little soluble carbohydrate. Urea, an
NPN product, is highly toxic. The danger The table below shows another method of
of urea poisoning is present when it is estimating NPN use based on the protein
placed in rations that do not ferment content of the base feeds and indicates
quickly. there is a maximum limit.

Table 8. Upper limit for NPN use.

Percent CP in Percent TDN in ration dry matter

DM before
NPN 55 to 60 60 to 65 65 to 70 70 to 75 75 to 80 80 to 85
(Percent CP after NPN addition )
8 No 10.0 10.5 10.9 11.2 11.4
9 No 10.4 10.9 11.3 11.6 11.8
10 No 10.8 11.3 11.7 12.0 12.2
11 No 11.2 11.7 12.1 12.4 12.6
12 No No 12.1 12.5 12.8 13.0

48
Chapter 6
Environmental Effects on Feed Intake
and Production
F
eed intake in beef cattle is affected by zone (TNZ) is the temperature range in
temperature, precipitation, wind, which animals experience maximum perfor-
mud, and other factors. Animal ac- mance with minimal nutritional supple-
climatization or susceptibility to stress also ments and no thermal stress. As the tem-
are factors that may influence intake. The perature drops below the lower end of TNZ
duration of adverse conditions is important of the animals, they become cold and must
to know to determine at which point more expend energy to maintain body tempera-
serious effects on animal condition and ture, referred to as the lower critical tem-
performance will occur. perature (see Tables 1 and 2). Windchill,
precipitation, and other factors influence the
Temperature actual effective temperature. These elements
The thermal environment is among the im- are interactive, so separating their individual
portant factors in cattle performance. Gener- influences is impossible. However, if only
ally, as temperatures decline, the cattle’s en- temperature and windchill are being consid-
ergy flow is affected. The thermoneutral ered, a useful guide to estimate temperatures
has been developed (see Table 3).

Table 1. Estimated lower critical temperatures for beef cattle.

Coat description Temperature (Lower critical temperature)

Summer coat or wet 59 degrees Fahrenheit
Fall coat 42 degrees Fahrenheit
Winter coat 32 degrees Fahrenheit
Heavy winter 18 degrees Fahrenheit

Table 2. Temperature effects on feed intake rate, maintenance energy

requirement, and energy retained as product (gain).

49
 Table 3. Effective environmental temperatures for cattle with winter hair coats and exposed to winds
of different velocities.

Wind
speed Temperature (degrees Fahrenheit)
(mph) -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
Calm -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
5 -16 -11 -6 -1 3 8 13 18
10 -21 -16 -11 -6 -1 3 8 13
15 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 4 9
20 -30 -25 -20 -15 -10 5 0 4
25 -37 -32 -27 -22 -17 -12 -7 -2
30 -46 -41 -36 -31 -27 -21 -16 -11

If other environmental factors do not influ- for short periods, but prolonged cold (three
ence animals, the windchill factor can be to four days) requires that energy available
considered the effective environmental to the body be adjusted, either by breaking
temperature. To reach the lower critical down muscle tissue or by increasing supple-
temperature of approximately 18 degrees mental energy in the diet. Cattle prepare
Fahrenheit (cows with heavy winter coats), for this additional, predictable energy drain
the ambient temperature should be 25 de- during cold weather by increasing rumen
grees Fahrenheit with a wind speed of 5 mobility and the rate at which material
miles per hour. moves through the digestive tract. Increase
feed (energy), such as TDN 1 percent, for
Adjusting Rations for Cold Stress each degree the temperature drops below
The major effect of cold is an increased en- the lower critical temperature (LCT). For
ergy requirement. Cattle in good condition example, the LCT for cows with heavy
may meet their increased energy demands winter coats is 18 degrees Fahrenheit. If the
effective temperature is 6 degrees Fahren-
heit, there is a 12-degree difference; there-
fore, a TDN increase of 12 percent is called
for. Assuming cows weigh 1,000 pounds
and are consuming 20 pounds of (45 per-
cent TDN) grass hay, the ration’s energy
needs to be increased 12 percent, which
equals 2.16 pounds of additional hay or
22.16 pounds of hay daily (see Table 4).
Little evidence supports the concept that
other nutrients, such as protein, minerals,
and vitamins, are affected by cold stress to
This windbreak structure located at Miracle Mile in Carbon
County, Wyoming, provides protection from cold winds,
the extent that energy is.
raising the effective temperature of cattle behind the wind-
break.

50
Effect of Cold Temperatures on corresponding decrease in total forage in-
Grazing Behavior take. Animals then experience increased
Cattle grazing winter range forage as their stress due to a dietary energy deficiency.
sole source of nutrients exhibit behavior dif- Table 5 shows the relationship between ef-
ferent from cattle wintered on average- to fective temperature (ambient temperature
high-quality harvested forage. A positive cor- plus windchill) and hours spent grazing.
relation exists between ambient temperature Table 6 illustrates how the energy defi-
and grazing time. As the temperature drops, ciency may increase as the effective tem-
less time is spent grazing, which results in a

Table 4. Roughage capacity of beef cows (900 to 1,100 pounds).

Class of Dry matter As fed

Roughage type cattle capacity capacity
percent of body weight pounds
Low-quality roughage dry cows 1.5 17-18
(dry grass, straw, etc.) wet cows 2.0 23-24
Average-quality hays dry cows 2.0 22-24
(meadow, native, etc.) wet cows 2.3 25-28
High-quality forages dry cows 2.5 28-30
Alfalfa hay wet cows 2.7 30-32

Table 5. Daily grazing time of cows at various air temperatures and wind velocities.

Average daily wind Minimum daily air temperature degrees Fahrenheit

velocity (miles per hour) 40 20 0 -20 -40
Grazing time (hour per day)
0 9.8 8.4 7.1 5.7 4.3
10 9.1 7.7 6.4 5.0 3.6
20 8.4 7.0 5.7 4.3 2.9

Table 6. Intake and digestibility of grazed range forage during the winter.

Intake Intake Temperature

pounds pounds per 100 Digestibility degrees
per day pounds of body weight percent Fahrenheit
25.5 2.3 55.4 5
26.2 2.4 59.6 4
20.9 1.9 55.9 10
19.1 1.7 52.5 -22
15.0 1.3 38.2 -17
19.1 1.7 43.0 32
16.9 1.5 36.5 15

51
 ken. Forage has more carbon bonds to
break than grain; therefore, supplementa-
tion during very cold periods is more effec-
tive if higher quality forages, such as alfalfa,
are fed rather than grains.

Seasonal Effect on Intake

Season or day length effects on feed intake
are less understood than temperature stress.
Certain studies have indicated that dry
matter intake (forage adjusted to zero water
content) increased 0.32 percent per hour as
Cold temperatures affect cattle behavior and production. day length increased. Considering the
change from an arbitrary 12 hours of light
peratures decrease and grazed forage intake per day, voluntary intake would be 1.5 to
and digestibility decline. 2.0 percent greater in July and 1.5 to 2.0
percent lower in January in the northern
The grazing activity is a major energy ex- hemisphere. As with weather stress, other
penditure for range cattle. Energy require- factors such as forage availability and qual-
ments for grazing may be 40 percent ity, production in pounds per acre, grazing
greater than for similar confined cattle. Sev- management, and animal production status
eral variables are involved in this increase— will influence daily feed intake.
the availability of natural windbreaks and
sheltered bedding areas, forage location, Effect of Heat
quality and availability, topography of the
Not only heat, but accompanying humid-
grazed area, and distance to water.
ity, leads to daytime heat stress. A 1995
Attempting to supplement energy deficien- heat wave in the central United States cost
cies of poor-quality, mature range forage (3 the cattle industry $28 million in deaths
to 8 percent protein and 28 to 40 percent and performance loss. Using a temperature
TDN) with grain or other low-protein humidity index (THI), scientists have
supplements is generally ineffective and can found strong links between animal losses
be detrimental to animals. In this case, the and three or more successive 24-hour peri-
rumen microbial population is altered, as a ods with daytime THI scores of more than
result of adding grain to the diet, from a 83 and nighttime scores of 74. Reducing
population of microflora that digest fiber to total ration amounts, changing ration types
one in which the microorganisms digest (more grain and less forage), or changing
grain. The result is reduced fiber digestion, feeding times during periods of high THI
which increases the dietary energy defi- are alternatives that might be considered.
ciency of the animal, as well as decreasing
In high desert areas, such as western Wyo-
the animal’s ability to keep warm during
ming, reaching a critical THI may be a
cold weather. During digestion, energy is
moot point.
liberated every time a carbon bond is bro-

52
Chapter 7
Marketing Cattle
A
n important dilemma cattle producers
face is how to market cattle for
optimal return investments. The
market is fickle, and predicting what turn it
might take is difficult because several factors
affect prices. An example of the effect corn
prices have on cattle prices is shown in Figure 1.
The market is affected by both long-term and
seasonal cycles or patterns. The most easily
recognized long-term influence is the cattle
cycle, which reflects inventory and, inversely,
the price received by producers.
However, seasonal patterns also affect prices,
Figure 1. Impact corn price has on the price of feeder
and the highs and lows are fairly predictable cattle.
during a twelve-month period. These seasonal
patterns are related to cattle availability and
marketing trends.

The Cattle Cycle

95
Historically, the full cattle cycle has been
approximately 10 years, with inventories of 90

cattle on farms and ranches increasing for six 85

years and decreasing for approximately four
80
years. However, variations have been ob-
served, such as the liquidation during the 75

1980s, that lasted eight years. 70

Producers expand inventories in response to 65

profits and then liquidate in response to losses
60
or prices near the break-even point. Calf 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 7 7.5 8 8.5 9
marketing falls behind the increase in herd Weight in hundredweights
numbers, as it takes about two to three years
to get a cow into production. High numbers Figure 2. Steer weight relationship to price per hundred-
will lag three to five years behind the price weight pounds.
peak.
Figure 3 shows the cattle cycle from 1930
projected to 1999. The trend from 1930 was
for each succeeding peak to be higher than
the preceding one until the 1979 to 1990
cycle when a record high was never estab-
lished.

53
 United States cattle inventory
1930 to 1999
140,000

120,000
Thousand head

100,000

80,000

60,000

40,000
1930 1945 1960 1975 1990 2005

Figure 3.

Seasonal Price Changes

The seasonal variation in prices received for
slaughter cows (culls) and feeder cattle is
predictable and useful when making annual
marketing decisions (see Figure 5). Cull cow
prices are lowest in November, the tradi-
tional time spring-born calves are weaned
and cull cows are sent to market. The cost of
wintering these cows and selling them in
February or March may offer producers an
option to increase net returns.
As weights increase, the price of feeder cattle
declines. However, Figure 6 illustrates how
the price of feeder steers steadily declines in
Figure 4. Impact of feeder cattle supplies on the market
price. the fall when market numbers are large. The
prices begin to recover in the spring when
The profitable period in the cycle will cattle availability is less, reaching a peak
increase its length before significant liqui- when grass cattle demand is highest.
dation occurs. When producers have had
more profit, it takes longer for the money Marketing Strategies
to run out. A current factor that lengthens
Producers have several options when selling
the cycle is the dramatic increase in beef
cattle. However, the objective is clear—sell
exports, which play a minor role in sup-
at the highest competitive price while
porting prices.
holding marketing costs to a minimum.

54
Traditional techniques have long been tions have not been adhered to by some
established and continue to be valid when consigners who felt their cattle were supe-
they serve the needs of producers. These rior and worth more money than others.
include: Lessons learned from earlier attempts have
been implemented in successful pools.
• Auction yards – Torrington and
Feedlot operators prefer lots of 100 to 250
Riverton, Wyoming; Fort Collins,
cattle grouped by sex, weight, and breed. A
Colorado; and Billings, Montana
pool may assemble several lots from among
• Private treaty transactions (forward
the cattle consigned to the pool. Because of
contracts for fall delivery at agreed
the costs and time spent sorting and
upon price and weight)
handling mixed cattle, those already sorted
• Order buyers and country dealers
into desirable groupings should demand a
Due to the cost of maintaining buyers and higher price from buyers.
the various livestock available at local
auctions, competition for cattle has de- 110
clined while the associated marketing costs
to the seller have risen. As a result, several 105

innovative marketing methods have been

100
introduced.
Percent

95

Pooling
90
Grouping cattle from several producers to
sell them in larger lots is more attractive to 85

buyers. However, attempts to sell cattle this J F M A M J J A S O N D

Month
way have failed due to a lack of confidence
by both sellers and buyers concerning Figure 5. Slaughter cows’ commercial monthly average
price as a percentage of annual average price.
grading methods and subsequent sorting
into uniform lots. Also, pooling specifica-

110

105

100

95

90
J F M A M J J A S O N D

Choice 400 to 500 pounds Choice 600 to 700 pounds

Figure 6. Feeder steers monthly average prices as a percentage of annual average price.

55
 Video Auctions • The producer can increase profits when
A recent variation of the pooling method is above average performance in the
video auctions. The auction company feedlot is expected.
enforces the rules strictly. • The producer can manipulate the
This system operates in the following way: breeding program when feedlot perfor-
mance and carcass data are available.
• The auction company produces a two-
to three-minute video tape showing a Some disadvantages include:
representative group of cattle from • Cash flow delay
those that will be offered for sale. For
example, costs for filming might be $3 • Increased financial risks such as changes
per head sold, plus a $6 commission fee in interest and taxes
on the total sale. There is some refund • Loss of management control
on “no-sale.”
• On sale day, the videos are broadcast via Feed and Yardage Costs
satellite to several geographical areas. Yardage covers operations and overhead
• Buyers are allowed to preview each lot, costs to the feedlot, which may be charged
and bids are taken during the two- to separately from feed or added as a mark up.
three-minute showing. Buyers must When comparing ration costs between
register and are assigned a number. custom feedlots, using feed on a dry matter
They may bid on site or by telephone. basis is necessary, because feedlots often
• Ownership is transferred at a location charge for water content in a seemingly
selected by the seller based on condi- cheaper ration.
tions stated at sale time. These condi-
Because of the risks involved in retaining
tions include delivery dates, shrink,
ownership beyond weaning (death loss,
weighing conditions, and a health
veterinary costs, interest, and poor feedlot
program.
performance), it is imperative that a plan
Both the pooling method and video auctions for risk management be implemented. This
may be combined when producers do not plan may include locking in the selling
have enough cattle to make attractive lots. price by purchasing forward contracts,
forming a partnership with the feedlot
Retained Ownership and Custom during the feeding period, or selling the
Feeding cattle at some point during the feeding
With this approach, producers retain period. Calves that weigh 600 pounds or
ownership through part or all of the finish- more at weaning are good candidates for a
ing period. With increased availability of 100- to 150-day feeding period, while
marketing information via computer those weighing less may be backgrounded
agricultural networks, this method has (low-energy growing ration) or run as
become a popular marketing strategy. stockers on pasture (see Table 1 for an
example of a custom feeding worksheet).
Some advantages to retained ownership are:

56
 Table 1. Cost and returns of custom feeding. Cost per head

Example Input

1 Cattle value at weaning (650 pounds at 80 cents) $520

2 Finished cattle value (1,200 pounds at 70 cents) $840

3 Feed, medicin e, and yardage costs + interest on feed and yardage $262.50
($1.50 per day x 175 days)

4 Opportunity costs (cattle value placed in feed lot times 8 percent, $19.95
÷ 365 x 175 days) ($565.50 x.8) x (175 + 365)

5 Death loss (2 percent) ($9 per h ead for each 1 percent) $18

6 Marketi ng and trucking costs ($1.50 check off and brand $11.30
inspection, $10 trucki ng)

7 Total return 2 minus (1 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6) $8.25

$840 mi nus ($520 + $262.50 + $19.95 + $18 + $11.30)

Marketing Costs
The total cost of marketing can be high if Note: These comparisons are for 600- to
transportation, shrink, and commissions 800- pound yearling feeder steers with
are considered. The cost to both buyer and adjustments made for transaction costs
seller can be 8 to 10 percent of the cattle’s associated with the auction. Without
value. For instance, the marketing costs on adjustment, prices at regional markets are
an 850-pound steer selling for 70 cents per slightly higher than those for video markets
pound would be 850 x .70 = $595 x .09% (see Table 2).
= $53.55.

Table 2. Cost comparison by method.

Auction Major buyers Price received per Commissions and

attending hundredweight (cwt) by deductions
video over a regional
auction market

Video 30 --- 2 percent of sale +

$1.50 per head

Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 15 $.95 per cwt $7.34 per head

Greeley, Colorado 15 $ 3.36 per cwt 2 percent of sale +

$1.50 per head

Dodge City, Kansas 20 $ 1.48 per cwt $7.20 per head

57
Table 3. Selling cattle (Net prices after allowing for shrinkage–prices, per hundredweight).

Offer per Offer per

hundred- Percent shrink hundred- Percent shrink
weight 2% 3% 4% 6% 8% weight 2% 3% 4% 6% 8%

$ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $ $
90.00 88.20 87.30 86.40 84.60 82.80 57.00 55.86 55.29 54.72 53.58 52.44
89.00 87.22 86.33 85.44 83.66 81.88 56.00 54.88 54.32 53.76 52.64 51.52
88.00 86.24 854.36 84.48 82.72 80.98 55.00 53.90 53.35 52.80 51.70 50.60
87.00 85.26 84.39 83.52 81.78 80.04 54.00 52.92 52.38 51.84 50.76 49.68
86.00 84.28 83.42 82.56 80.84 79.12 53.00 51.94 51.41 50.88 49.82 48.76
85.00 83.30 82.45 81.60 79.90 78.20 52.00 50.96 50.44 49.92 48.88 47.84
84.00 82.32 81.48 80.64 78.96 77.28 51.00 49.98 49.47 48.96 47.94 46.92
83.00 81.34 80.51 79.68 78.02 76.36 50.00 49.00 48.50 48.00 47.00 46.00
82.00 80.36 79.4 78.72 77.08 75.44
49.00 48.02 47.53 47.04 46.06 45.08
81.00 79.38 78.57 77.76 76.24 74.52
48.00 47.04 46.56 46.08 45.12 44.16
80.00 78.40 77.60 76.80 75.20 73.60
47.00 46.06 45.59 45.12 44.18 43.24
79.00 77.42 76.63 75.84 74.26 62.68 46.00 45.08 44.62 44.16 43.24 42.32
78.00 76.44 75.66 74.88 73.32 71.76 45.00 44.10 43.65 43.20 42.30 41.40
77.00 75.46 74.69 73.92 72.38 70.84 44.00 43.12 42.68 42.24 41.36 40.48
76.00 74.48 73.72 72.96 71.44 69.92 43.00 42.14 41.71 41.28 40.42 39.56
75.00 73.50 72.75 72.00 70.50 69.00 42.00 41.16 40.74 40.32 39.48 38.64
74.00 72.52 71.78 71.04 69.56 68.08 41.00 40.18 39.77 39.36 38.54 37.72
73.00 71.54 70.81 70.08 68.62 67.16 40.00 39.20 38.80 38.40 37.60 36.80
72.00 70.56 69.84 69.12 67.68 66.24
39.00 38.22 37.83 37.44 36.66 35.88
71.00 69.58 68.87 68.16 66.74 65.32
38.00 37.24 36.86 36.48 35.72 34.96
70.00 68.60 67.90 67.20 65.80 64.40
37.00 36.26 35.89 35.52 34.78 34.04
69.00 67.62 66.93 66.24 64.86 63.48 36.00 35.28 34.92 34.56 33.84 33.12
68.00 66.64 65.96 65.28 63.92 62.56 35.00 34.30 33.95 33.60 32.90 32.20
67.00 65.66 64.99 64.32 62.98 61.64 34.00 33.32 32.98 32.64 31.96 31.28
66.00 64.68 64.02 63.36 62.04 60.72 33.00 32.34 32.01 31.68 31.02 30.36
65.00 63.70 63.05 62.40 61.10 59.80 32.00 31.36 31.04 30.72 30.08 29.44
64.00 62.72 62.08 61.44 60.16 58.88 31.00 30.38 30.07 29.76 29.14 28.52
63.00 61.74 61.11 60.48 59.22 57.96 30.00 29.40 29.10 28.80 28.20 27.60
62.00 60.76 60.14 59.52 58.28 57.04
29.00 28.42 28.13 27.84 27.26 26.68
61.00 59.78 59.17 58.56 57.34 56.12
28.00 27.44 27.16 26.88 26.32 25.76
60.00 58.80 58.20 57.60 56.40 55.20
27.00 26.44 26.19 25.92 25.38 24.84
59.00 57.82 57.23 56.64 55.46 54.28 26.00 25.48 25.22 24.96 24.44 23.92
58.00 56.84 56.26 55.68 54.52 53.36

58
Shrinkage in Cattle closely related to animals’ mortality and
The price received per pound by the seller morbidity when they reach their final
is affected by the cattle’s actual scale destination. Both excretory and tissue
weights. Several factors influence actual shrink may occur simultaneously after an
weights that fit into one major category extended period of hauling or standing
referred to as shrink. For instance, if the without food and water. Table 4 shows
buyer offers $75 per hundredweight (cwt.), some estimated shrink losses, which are
and the cattle shrink 3 percent during based on research.
standing and handling, the actual price The greatest amount of shrink occurs
received on an 850-pound steer is $72.75, a during standing and hauling; this loss is
difference of $19. intestinal tract fill, after which tissue loss
Table 3 shows the net price received as begins. Excretory shrink, however, will vary
opposed to the buyer’s offer (or a range of according to the type of feed cattle have
offers) with shrinkages from 2 to 8 percent. eaten. Cattle consuming grass or wet feed
shrink approximately 4 percent after an
Three types of shrink are common. They overnight stand, while those on concen-
are pencil, excretory shrink or loss of trates (grain) shrink approximately 2.5 to 3
intestinal tract fill, and tissue shrink, which percent. Range cattle shrink more than
is an actual loss of body weight from the feedlot cattle because they are less accus-
cells. Pencil shrink is deducted by the buyer tomed to confinement. Stress and handling
at the time of delivery and is an arbitrary techniques (rough handling) can greatly
value agreed upon by both the buyer and increase shrink levels.
the seller. Pencil shrink is subtracted from
the scale weight of the cattle. Excretory Cattle being hauled will shrink approxi-
shrink is urination and the loss of material mately .6 percent per 100 miles in transit.
from the intestinal tract. Excretory shrink is Cattle should not be overfilled before
generally easy to recover once animals weighing and transit, because cattle buyers
arrive at their final destination. Tissue can easily detect this and may insist on a
shrink is actual weight loss from the body price discount or an arbitrary pencil shrink.
cells and is the most serious from a health Buyers are not going to pay 80 cents per
standpoint and the most difficult to re- pound for gut fill. Transportation regula-
cover. The magnitude of tissue shrink is tions allow scale weights of 50,000 pounds
of live animal weight. This equals approxi-
mately 70 head of 700-pound yearlings or
Table 4. Shrinkage losses of cattle. 110 head of 450-pound calves.

Conditions Percent shrink Once cattle arrive at a destination and are

returned to feed, considerable time elapses
8 hour dry-lot stand 3.3
before original shipping weights are re-
16 hour dry-lot stand 6.2
gained (see Table 5).
24 hour dry-lot stand 6.6
8 hours in truck transit 5.5
16 hours in truck transit 7.9
24 hours in truck transit 8.9

59
 Table 5. Amount of time that passes before original shipping weights are regained.

Original
weight Number of days to
Cattle type pounds Miles in transit Percent shrink regain original weight
Yearling 675 660 9.2 16
Calves 500 660 9.5 13

Producers who make one or two shipments Contract for sale made on April 1. Delivery to
a year are at a disadvantage when bargain- ranch on May 15 at 650 pounds. Estimated
ing with buyers whose livelihood depends delivery weight and date is September 15 at
upon being able to estimate shrinkage and 850 pounds with a 3 percent pencil shrink.
make offers. Procedures may differ among (Approximately 875 pounds on scale minus
buyers, sellers, and states and may include 25 pounds of pencil shrink to compensate for
holding cattle overnight with an early feed and water or intestinal tract fill.) Price
morning weight and/or a pencil shrink on delivery weights at $80 per cwt. or 80¢
from the actual scale weights. per pound. A $4 per cwt. or 4¢ per pound
slide if weights exceed 850 pounds shrunk,
Selling on the Slide with a 10-pound window or grace over 850
Using a price slide agreed upon between pounds. Generally no slide is given if animals
the seller and the buyer adds flexibility for are lighter than the agreed upon weights.
both parties. Basically, it is a provision by On the delivery date, the shrunk weights
which the delivery price is adjusted for averaged 880 pounds, or 30 pounds more
differences in the estimated delivery than the contract agreement. The 10-pound
weights due to weather conditions, forage grace allows the slide of $4 per hundredweight
quantity and quality, and unforseen factors. to apply to an extra 20 pounds. Therefore,
The seller and buyer only can estimate implementing the slide reduces the $80 per
delivery weights when a contract is made hundredweight bid. (20 pounds x 0.04 =
well ahead of the shipping date, causing 0.80 per cwt.) The seller then receives $80 per
reluctance on the buyer’s part to pay top hundredweight - 0.80 or $79.20 per 100
dollar. Using the price slide increases the pounds for the cattle.
buyer’s confidence when offering a bid.
Buyers purchasing yearling cattle destined Slides differ according to conditions and
to go directly for finishing in a feedlot agreements. The window above estimated
consider several factors when offering a bid, weights may vary from 5 to 10 pounds.
and the cost of feedlot gain is an important The increments may break at 15 to 25
factor. The following excerpt is an example pounds, rather than on a per pound basis;
of how the slide might be employed in an some slides may add $1 per hundredweight
actual contract situation. for additional weights, rather than penalize.
The added incentive for additional weight
is based on what the buyer estimates his
cost of gain will be in the feedlot. If the

60
Table 6. Price slides for cattle of various weights and classes.

Weight Price spread

(pounds) (slides)
400 to 525 $10/cwt
525 to 600 $7 to $8/cwt
600 to 675 $5/cwt
675 to 750 $4/cwt
750 + $3 to $4/cwt
Steers ————
Heifers $8 to $12/cwt less

cost of the grass gain is less than feedlot Very Good – Offerings or supplies are
costs, he may offer incentive for the extra being rapidly absorbed.
pounds.
Good – Buyers are confident that
Another concern is when cattle weigh less on general market conditions are good and
delivery than expected. Buyers are reluctant trading is more active than normal.
to add a slide on the downside for fear the
Moderate – Average buyers are inter-
cattle may have been misrepresented. The
ested in trading.
seller must insist on some protection in case
of drought or other factors. Light – Demand is below average.
Table 6 shows common price slides for Very Light – Few buyers are interested
various weight cattle. Risk to the buyer is an in trading.
important factor to consider when discuss-
ing price slides. The lighter the delivery FOB
weights, the longer the cattle will be on Free on Board or without charge to the
hand before they reach slaughter weights. buyers for placing goods aboard a carrier at
Delay in cash flow and an increase in the time of shipment.
maintenance cost also is a consideration Market
when cattle must be held for longer periods. A geographical location where buying and
selling occurs and price levels are set.
Livestock Market Terms
Car load Market activity
Average of 25 yearling cattle per deck of a Buying and selling animals. Terms describ-
semi-truck or 125 sheep (50,000 pounds ing market activity are:
maximum loaded weight of animals). Active – Supplies are readily clearing.
Demand Moderate – Supplies are clearing at a
Desire to possess a commodity coupled reasonable rate.
with the willingness and ability to pay.
Slow – Supplies are not readily clearing.
Terms describing demand are:
Inactive – Sales are intermittent.

61
 Pencil shrink Yield grade
An agreed upon deduction from scale Indicates the proportionate amount of
weight when arriving at pay rate, expressed saleable retail cuts that can be obtained
as a percent. from a carcass (USDA 1, 2, 3, 4).

Price trend Hundredweight

Direction in which prices are moving in 100 pounds (cwt.).
relation to trading in the previous reporting
periods. Terms describing price trends are: Feedlot Operations
Higher – Majority of sales are at prices The feedlot or finishing phase of the
measurably higher than the previous livestock industry is not well understood by
trading session. the average layperson. This phase uses
feeder or stocker cattle with weights rang-
Firm – Prices tend to be higher but not ing from 500 pounds or more for cattle
measurably so. that have spent time on pasture. They will
Steady – Prices are unchanged from the be fed to weights of 1,100 pounds or more,
previous trading session. so they will reach USDA carcass grades
Choice or High Select. Oklahoma State
Weak – Prices tend to be lower but not University classifies small feedlots as those
measurably so. that feed 35,000 head or less, and large
Lower – Prices for most sales are mea- feedlots feed more than 35,000. The lots
surably lower than the previous trading rotate their capacities approximately 2.5
session. times per year. Feedlot buyers have become
very attentive to traits associated with
Supply or offering profit. Although feed prices are an impor-
Quantity of a particular item available for tant factor in profit or loss, other items
current trading. Terms describing supply such as rate of gain, health, and feed
are: efficiency cannot be overlooked. An average
steer gains 1.85 pounds per day in the
Heavy – Volume of supplies is above
feedlot. If the lot invests $.25 per day into
average for the market being reported.
yardage costs (with corn at $2.75 per
Moderate – Volume of supplies is bushel), the overhead cost amounts to 20
average for the market being reported. percent of the cost per pound of gain. If
Light – Volume of supplies is below the rate of gain could be increased to 3
average for the market being reported. pounds per day, the overhead costs would
approach 10 percent. Table 7 shows how
Quality grade feedlots rate the importance of various
The grades of Prime, Choice, and Select are traits in the cattle they buy.
assigned by United States Department of
The producer who retains ownership
Agriculture graders and based on factors
through the feedlot phase knows these
related to palatability such as amount and
traits are of equal importance and will
distribution of finish, muscling, and
dictate a breeding program that emphasizes
maturity.

62
them. In the future, properly managed animal eats or drinks. Time spent at the
genetics and cattle packaging by biological feed bunk is a good indication of feed
types will become a more common market- efficiency and rate of gain. This system,
ing tool. Individual cattle identification which is being adopted by commercial
based on feedlot performance may be feedlots, eliminates others used in the past
traced by a passive transponder implanted for research.
in the ear, which will signal when the

Table 7. Importance of feeder cattle traits to survey participant feed lots.

Trait Score
(1 to 10)
Feed efficiency* 9.4
Health 9.4
Misfits 9.1
Price 8.7
Biological type (breed) 8.4
Muscling 8.4
Daily gain 8.2
Frame size 8.2
Weight 6.8
Origin 6.5
Color 4.5
* Pound of feed required per pound of gain. Faster gaining cattle usually will have higher efficiency.

63
64
Chapter 8
Cattle Economics
T
he following information and accompanying budgets have been adapted from those
reported for the western states in 1996. The herd sizes are somewhat smaller than
may be typical for a Wyoming ranch.

Assumptions (cow/calf operation on BLM range)

Cattle class Number Productive life
(years)
Mature cows 275 5
Bulls 11 2
Calves weaned, 90% 247 —
Replacement heifers, retained annually 52 —
Horses 4 —

Cow/Calf Operation on BLM Range of the year. Labor for one hired person is
Seventeen percent of mature cows are valued at $6.75 per hour and includes
culled annually, and 2 percent of the herd is payroll taxes and employee benefits.
lost through death; therefore, 52 replace-
ment heifers are retained. The functional Operating and Return Costs
equipment consists of the usual pickup Tables 2 and 3 show examples of operating
trucks, tractors, and trailers. and return costs; the total represents all
costs included in the analysis.
Management Practices
Cows calve mid-February to mid-April, and Ownership Costs
they winter on private land or are fed hay This category includes equipment deprecia-
from November 1 to April 1. The herd is tion, purchased bulls, interest on retained
maintained on BLM range the remainder cattle, taxes, and insurance.

Table 1. Gross receipts.

Cattle class Weight Head Pri ce Total value Cow value

(n et pounds) count (cents) (dollars) (dollars)

Ste er calves 440 124 .75 $40,920 $148.80

H eifer calves 390 72 .69 19,375 70.46

Cull bulls 1500 5 .40 3,000 10.90

Cull cows 1000 41 35 14,350 52.50

Cull heifers 800 6 .67 3,216 11.70

TO TAL $80,861 $294.00

65
 Table 2 . O perating costs (BL M operation).

Cost item Number of units Cost per unit Total Cost per co w

Hay 174 tons $70.00 $12,146 $44.00

BLM 2,337 AU M’s $1.75 $4,089 $14.87

Private pasture 1,669 AU M’s $10.00 $16,690 $61.00

Salt 5,616 pounds $0.06 $337 $ 1.23

Marketing 275 head $5.90 $1,617 $ 5.90

Vehicles 1-4X4 --- $4,278 $15.60

Hired labor 1,711 hours $6.75 $11,550 $42.00

Interest 10 percent --- $25,949 $ 9.44

Total $69,940.00 $254.00

Income above operating costs $10,921.00 $ 39.70

Table 3. C osts and returns (BL M operation).

Total o wnership costs $34,475 $125.40 per co w

Total costs $ 104,415 $380.00 per co w

Total returns to management -$23,554 - $85.70 per co w

Private Pasture and BLM and For- basis. Compounding the confusion are
est Service Range private pasture rates (owned and/or leased),
Calf weights averaged heavier per cow; feed licensed Federal Animal Unit Months
costs were higher; other costs remained (AUM), and surcharges on unowned cattle.
essentially the same as for the previous Efforts are being made to unravel these
BLM enterprise. Not all cows in the ex- effects and arrive at average costs such as
ample used federal range (see Table 4). those shown in Table 5.

Summer Stockers on BLM Range Comparison of Operating Costs per

Stocker enterprise budgets are difficult to AUM on Public Land Versus Private
interpret and compare because of the Ranch Rangeland
differences in whether they are owned or The costs shown for the public land ranch
taken on a monthly fee or rate-of-gain (see Tables 6 and 7) were updated from

66
USDA agricultural prices published in
1977. The costs of increased demands
currently placed on permittees are not
included but are higher than those in 1977.
No costs for private grazing leases are
shown, as this is a private ranch (no outside
grass). Similarly, no capitalized costs of the
federal permit(s) are included but run from
$6 to $15 per AUM for the purchase price
of the base property. Federal grazing
permits are recognized by the IRS as
production assets and are taxed in estate
settlements. Cost for a Federal AUM varies Costs and profits with stocker or grass cattle vary widely.
annually, so an average cost has been used. Seasonal precipitation, vegetation type, weighing agree-
ments, and cattle prices are influencing factors.

Table 4. C osts and returns for BLM and Forest Service.

Total receipts $71,599 $358.00 per co w

Total o perating costs $72,109 $360.50 per co w

Income above costs -$509 -$2.55 per co w

O wnership costs $23,335 $116.70 per co w

Return to management -$23,844 -$119.00 per co w

Table 5. 1000 Head stocker operation.

Operating costs (3 year average) $75,258.00

Net income (3 year average) $2,980.00

Net per head $2.98 (3-ye ar average)

Note: Average income per head for the three-year period ranged from a loss of $9.95 to a profit of $9.54.
This profit/loss spread is minimal as it is common for the spread to be much wider.

67
 Table 6. Public land ranch asset valuation (1992).

Per cow Total Percent

Livestock $1,252.15 $500,858 27.69

Buildings and improve ments $398.59 $159,435 8.81

Equipment $455.71 $182,286 10.08

Land $2,268.07 $907,228 50.15

Federal permits $93.43 $37,374 2.07

Oth er assets $54.62 $21,849 1.21

T OTAL $4,522.57 $1,809,029 100.00

Source: Publication B-993, University of Wyoming.

Table 7. Operating costs per AUM.

Cost item Public land Private ranch

Lost a nimals $1.82 $1.12

Veterin ary $0.53 $0.53

Moving livestock $1.11 $1.16

Herding $1.86 $0.77

Salt and fe ed $2.09 $3.09

Travel $1.53 $1.19

W ater production $0.27 $0.20

Horse $0.50 $0 .31

Fenc es $0.89 $0.92

W ater management $0.69 $0.55

Development depreciation $0.37 $0.10

Other $0.44 $0.47

Per mit compliance $0.27 ---

Grazing fee $1.75 ---

TOT ALS $14.12 $10.41

68
Chapter 9
Beef Quality and Yield Grades
I
n the United States, the two types of
Percent of boneless,
beef carcass grading are quality and
closely trimmed retail cuts
yield grades. Quality grades indicate
Yield grade from the round, loin, rib, and chuck
taste and tenderness of meat. Yield grades
estimate the percentage of boneless and 1 >52.3 percent
closely trimmed retail cuts obtained from 2 50 to 52.3 percent
the carcass in the form of the round, loin, 3 47.7 to 50 percent
rib, and chuck cuts. 4 45.4 to 47.7 percent
5 <45.5 percent
Quality Grades
USDA beef-quality grades for carcasses are
Prime, Choice, Select, Standard, Commer-
cial, Utility, Cutter, and Canner. These The USDA yield grade is based on four
grades are determined based on the balanc- factors:
ing of maturity and the degree of marbling. 1. Adjusted fat thickness. This is the
Maturity is ranked in five groups: amount of fat measured at the 12th rib.
External fat is the most important yield
Maturity group Age grade factor. As the amount of fat
A 9 to 30 months increases, muscle decreases as a percent
B 30 to 42 months of carcass weight.
C 42 to 72 months 2. Percentage of kidney, heart, and pelvic
D 72 to 96 months (KHP). This is the amount of fat
E more than 96 months deposited around the kidney, heart, and
Fat deposited within the muscle is called pelvic cavity. The weight of the fat is
marbling, which is evaluated in the rib eye based upon the percent of carcass
muscle between the 12th and 13th ribs. The weight. Most carcasses typically have 1
10 USDA degrees of marbling are abun- to 4 percent KHP.
dant, moderately abundant, slightly abun- 3. Rib Eye Area. The rib eye area is
dant, moderate, modest, small, slight, measured in total square inches of
traces, practically devoid, and devoid. muscle, an indicator of carcass mus-
Marbling is important because it has a cling. As the ribeye muscle area in-
direct influence on the juiciness and flavor creases, the retail cut yield increases. An
of the meat when cooked. average range is from 9 to 17 square
inches.
Yield Grades
4. Hot Carcass Weight. This is the weight
The five USDA yield grades range from 1
of the carcass after it has been processed
to 5. Yield grade 1 carcasses have the
prior to being put in the cooler. As the
highest yield of retail cuts and yield grade 5
carcass weight increases, the percentage
carcasses have the lowest. The percentage of
of retail cuts may decrease if a higher
retail cuts is the carcass cutability.
amount of fat is present, reducing the
yield grade.

69
 Yield grades are calculated by using the
following formula:
YG = 2.50 + (2.50 x adjusted fat thickness,
inches)
+ (0.20 x kidney, heart and pelvic fat
percent)
+ (0.0038 x hot carcass weight, pounds)
– (0.32 x rib eye area, square inches)
USDA grading drops the decimals, and yield
grades are presented as whole numbers.

70
Chapter 10
Range Improvements
T
he purpose of range improvements development is the criteria that dictates if it
is to facilitate available forage. is economically feasible. Figure 1 illustrates
However, adequate range develop- how this might apply to water develop-
ments do not mean that adequate range ments when the cost can be estimated and
management automatically follows. The the number of acres needed to support a
number of unused or underused AUMs cow per month (an AUM) is known.
that become available because of a range

Cost of water development in

relation to stocking rate.
3
25 acres per AUM
15 acres per AUM
2.5
Cost/AUM/project life-25 years

2
10 acres per AUM

1.5

1
6 acres per AUM

0.5 2 acres per AUM

0
0 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000 6,000 7,000
Cost of development (dollars)

Figure 1.

Average water consumption rates by different cattle classes need to be known when deter-
mining if a water development is adequate to meet requirements. Guides for daily water
intakes by different classes of animals are listed below.
Cattle class Gallons per day
Cows and calves 15
Dry cows 10 to 12
Yearlings 8 to 9
When yearlings water on alternate days, consumption is reduced to an average of approxi-
mately 6.5 gallons daily. Cattle on lush forage require less. If wildlife also are watering at a
tank or spring development, they will consume additional amounts as indicated below.
Species Gallons per day
Elk 4 to 6
Deer 1 to 2
Antelope 0.5 to 1

71
 This water development improved distribution and made lightly used forage available.

The daily consumption rates estimated for a particular number of animals then can be
matched to a proposed spring development or well. The average daily (24 hour) production
for various rates in gallons per minute is shown in the chart below.
Gallons per minute Gallons per day
0.5 720
1 1,440
1.5 2,160
2 2,880
2.5 3,600
The distance cattle will ordinarily travel to water is another important factor when locating
and establishing water developments.
Rough country 0.15 to .5 mile
Rolling terrain 0.50 to .75 mile
Smooth terrain 0.75 to 1.5 mile
Note: Desert cattle will travel considerably farther on smooth terrain but layover at the water
source for 24 hours or more and not return for up to three days.
Estimates for maintenance costs on water developments range from 5 to 15 percent of the
initial cost over the lifetime of the project.

72
Chapter 11
Brand Descriptions
C
ertain rules and methods are followed when naming or reading brands. Although
all states do not use the exact same terms in their brand books, those generally
accepted in Wyoming are given below.
Brands are read from left to right, top to bottom, and outside to inside. The position of the
brand figures is important when reading the brand. Those illustrated with the letter “F” read
as follows:
.

.
tumbling; crazy; lazy; inverted;

.
.

.
. reversed; . F up and F down.

Several characters, modifications, and attachments that influence naming are used. These
include circles, boxes, triangles, diamonds, rafters, and attachments like wings, legs, or
spikes.
The difference between circles, O’s, and zeroes is sometimes vague. Generally if the character
is round, it is called a circle. If not perfectly round or part of an initial, it is called an O. If
the character is part of a number, it is called by that number. The characters are not read
separately. Examples include: O–N Circle Bar N; DO D.O.; and 30 Thirty.

Parts of circles, boxes, and diamonds often are used. Rules for quarter circles (or half circles)

are: A A called quarter circles; A A reversed quarter circles, the second

character is called “A over Quarter Circle;” and A A A standing quarter circles.

Naming is different if another figure touches the quarter or half circle such as AA
A Hanging or Swinging A, A Rocking A, and A on Quarter Circle.

Boxes and diamonds are broken and used in parts much the same as circles, such as

box, half boxes, open box, diamond,

half diamonds.

The triangle is not broken but often used in combination with another figure.

Triangle and - Triangle E Combined.

73
 Bars and slashes are commonly used with other figures in several combinations such as

A, A , A, A , A A , and others.
Rafters and open As are easily confused. The following two rules, however, usually separate
them.
1. If the angle is more than 90o like , it is a rafter. If less than 90o like
it is open A.

2. If the figure is above the other character, it is called a rafter, like J . If below or to
the side, like J , it is an open A.
Any figure may have certain attachments made that help determine how it is named. Some
of these are:
A flying A, A walking A, A dragging A, and spikes.

Two or more figures are often combined or connected in the brand character. The way this is
done determines what the brand is called. If two or more figures are used together as a single
character, the designation is combined. If two or more figures are separate but hooked

together, the designation is connected. Examples are T or T called T spear combined, or

T or T called T spear connected. Another variation is T spear intersecting T.

Most letter brands are capital letters because they are easier to read but it is common to see

other forms. As an example the capital W may be formed W and called finished, or as
W and called running or script.
Other commonly used figures are: bench, arrow, spear,

broken arrow, + crosses, • dots, and millirons. These are only a

few of many in use.

74