Final exam review- Winter 2010

Review for Final Exam:

z Phase diagrams z Weight fraction calculation
z Temperature z Inverse lever rule
z weight % z Tie line
z Solidus line z Composition of phases at
z Liquidus line ends
z S
Solvus line z Alloy composition in middle
z components z Eutectic reaction
z isomorphus „ Unique point on phase
z eutectic diagram
z Solubility - Hume Rothery „ 3 phases in equilibrium
Rules „ Liquid = alpha + beta
z <15% difference in size
z Same crystal structure z Eutectic solid has same
z Similar electronegativity
electronegati it composition as eutectic
z Valence liquid
z single phase (1 composition)
z Eutectic solid consists of 2
z two phase region
(composition of each phase is separate phases
different) z Layered or divorced types
z Core microstructures z Occurs at 1 temperature

z There can only be 1 proeutectic phase on a binary equilibrium

diagram
z Precipitation hardening
z Limited solubility
z Decreasing solid solubility with temperature
z Composition less than maximum solid solubility

Steels
z Iron has 3 phases
z ferrite (BCC) at room temperature
z austenite (FCC)at elevated temperatures
z delta ferrite (BCC) at temperatures just below melting
z Steel (Fe + C)
z Small amounts of other alloying elements
z Manganese for solid solution strengthening
z Silicon for fluidity during casting and solid solution strengthening
z Impurities are S, P < 0.05 %

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Final exam review- Winter 2010

z Eutectoid reaction @ 0.77 wt.% carbon

z Pearlite = layered mix of ferrite and cementite
z Hypoeutectoid steels: C < 0.77 wt.%
„ Pearlite and proeutectoid ferrite
z Hypereutectoid steels: C > 0.77 wt.%
„ Pearlite and proeutectoid cementite
z Ferrite = soft and ductile
z Pearlite = strong and wear resistant
z Cementite = Fe3C = iron carbide; strong, hard, brittle
z AISI/SAE classification system for steel
„ 1st two digits = alloying information
„ final 2 (or 3) digits = 1/100’s of percent carbon
„ 1080 steel = plain carbon steel with 0.80 wt. % carbon
z Annealing thoroughly softens the steels
„ Furnace cool similar to equilibrium
„ 10-40°C above the A3 temperature
„ Coarse pearlite layers
„ Equilibrium amounts of phases
„ Lowest strength and hardness; Highest ductility

z Normalizing thoroughly homogenizes the composition of the steel

„ Air cool = nonequilibrium
„ 55-85°C above the A3 temperature
„ finer pearlite layers
„ More strength and less ductility than annealed condition
z Quenching of steel
„ Austenite transforms to hard, strong,g brittle martensite
„ BCT structure
„ Hardness of martensite increases with carbon content
z Tempering of quenched steel
„ Reheat martensite to 550-650°C
„ Carbon diffuses out of martensite to form cementite
„ Less carbon in martensite = slight loss in strength and hardness
but increases in ductility and toughness
z Hardenability increases as
„ Carbon increases
„ Alloying increases
„ Tool steels get their strength from tempered martensite and
alloy carbides

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Final exam review- Winter 2010

z Cast irons: 2-4 wt.% C; 1-3 wt.% Si

z Gray cast iron
„ flakes of graphite
„ Machineable
„ Vibration damping
z White Cast Iron
„ Cementite
C i andd pearlite
li
„ Extremely hard
„ Wear resistance
Corrosion, Toughness, Fatigue, Creep
z Stainless steel
„ Ferritic, austenitic, martensitic
„ 12wt.% Cr forms protective oxide layer
„ austenitic
t iti = 18Cr-8Ni;
18C 8Ni nickel
i k l stabilizes
t bili austenite
t it tto llow
temperatures
z Nickel alloys
z corrosion and oxidation resistance
z Ni-Cu resistant to salt water corrosion
„ Superalloys - high temperature strength and oxidation
resistance for gas turbine applications

z Corrosion triangle
z Types of corrosion
„ Uniform; galvanic; Crevice
z Toughness = energy absorbed before fracture
„ ASTM E23 Charpy and Izod Impact Toughness tests
z Crystal structure effect on toughness
„ BCC shows ductile to brittle transition with decreasing
temperature
z FCC = generally ductile
z HCP = generally brittle some effect of temperature
z Toughness test results
z Upper shelf energy
z Lower shelf energy
z DBTT
z Factors affecting DBTT in steel
„ Carbon content (DBTT ↓ as carbon ↓)
„ Grain size: Decreasing the grain size lowers the DBTT
„ Alloying

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Final exam review- Winter 2010

z Fatigue failure
„ cyclic stress
„ failure below UTS and yield strength
z Stages: crack initiation, crack propagation, catastrophic failure
z Striations and beachmarks
z Fatigue Stresses
„ Mean
„ Range - determines fatigue life
„ Amplitude
„ Ratio
z Fatigue life decreases as the stress range (or stress amplitude)
increases
z Fatigue strength, fatigue life, fatigue endurance limit
z Design against fatigue: Avoid sharp corners, Move holes away
from stress areas,, Smoot surfaces preferred,
p , Surface
compressive stress
z Creep characteristics: T > 0.4 Tm, constant stress
z Creep curve
„ Instantaneous deformation; Primary or transient creep; Steady
state region; Tertiary creep before failure
z Creep mechanisms: Grain boundary sliding; Dislocation climb
z Effect of temperature and stress

Ceramics
z Physical Properties
„ Ionic, covalent bonds
„ High melting point
„ Insulators
„ Chemically inert
„ Hard, brittle
„ Point defects in ceramics: Schottky defect: cation vacancy +
anion vacancy, Frenkel defect: cation vacancy + cation
interstitial
z Industry sector
„ Silicates
„ Refractories
„ Amorphous

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Final exam review- Winter 2010

Mechanical Properties of Ceramics

z Brittle fracture (Lack of dislocation motion)
„ Ceramics have few slip systems
‹ Dislocation motion would require like charged ions to pass over
each other
zMModulus
d l off R
Rupture
t
z Ceramics are better in compression than tension
„ Strength characterized by rupture modulus
„ Test conducted in bending, Modulus of Rupture

z ρ = Crack tip radius can be atomically sharp

„ Stress concentration at a crack: σm ≅ 2σ (c / ρ)½
„ Failure of structural materials with pre-existing flaws
z Fracture toughness:
„ Critical value of stress intensity at crack tip to cause
catastrophic failure under uniaxial loading: KIC=Yσ√πa

Mechanical Properties of Ceramics

z Thermal Shock: Fracture of a material as a result of
a temperature change
„ Thermall stress:
Th t E ΔT
s = EαΔT
„ Fracture on Heating & Cooling: Expansion on heating,
Contraction on cooling
„ Thermal shock is best avoided by materials with higher k
and lower α
z Creep
„ Primary mechanism for crystalline ceramics
‹ Adjacent
Adj t grains
i slide
lid pastt eachh other
th along
l grain
i boundaries
b d i
‹ Dislocation motion within the grains is difficult due to charge
neutrality requirements
„ Glasses have their own mechanism
‹ Viscous flow

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Final exam review- Winter 2010

Glass
z GLASS (amorphous-noncrystalline structure)
„ Network formers (SiO2, GeO2, B2O3, P2O5, As2O3): Form
oxide polyhedra with low coordination numbers
„ Network modifiers (Na2O, K2O, CaO, MgO, BaO, PbO,
ZnO): Break up continuity of silica network make glass
easier to form but more chemically reactive
„ Intermediates (Al2O3, TiO2, ZrO2)
z Glass versus Crystalline Solid
„ Glass transition temperature: Tg
„ Vi
Viscosity
it η = ηo e + Q / RT
z Tempered Glass: Surface residual stresses are in
compression

Polymers
Physical Properties
„ Lightweight
„ Insulators
„ Easy to flow
„ Low stiffness
„ Soften or decompose with temp
„ Corrosion resistant (not solvent)
z Polymerization:
„ Addition and condensation
z Bifunctional, Polyfunctional
Bifunctional
z Linear, branched, cross-linked, network
z Vulcanized rubber, oxidized rubber
z Degree of Polymerization MW polymer
n=
MWmer

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Final exam review- Winter 2010

Polymers
z Homopolymer and Copolymers
z Thermoplastic vs. thermosetting
z Stereoisomerism in Thermoplastics
z Polymer Crystallization Model
z Monomers: PE, PVC, PP, PS
z Types of Polyethylene
z Glass transition temperature
z Polymer Additives: Plasticizers,
Plasticizers fillers,
fillers colorants,
colorants
stabilizers, reinforcement,..
z Moulding: Injection, Blow, Compression
z Polymers:
„ exhibit a viscoelastic modulus, E = E(t)

Deformation in Polymers
z Effect of structure on E(t):
„ linear crystalline,
„ High crosslinking,
„ light crosslinking,
„ linear
li amorphous
h
z Effect of Temperature and Time on E(t)
z Regions of the viscoelastic modulus and behaviour in the
regions
z Deformation: Elastic strain, unkinking, viscous flow
z Matching Regions & Mechanisms:
„ Glassy region of E(t): Brittle solid, Elastic strain mechanism
„ Leathery region of E(t): Viscoelastic solid, Elastic strain,
U ki ki off molecules
Unkinking l l
„ Rubbery region of E(t): ………………………….
„ Viscous flow region of E(t): ………………………..
„ Strain recovery in each region

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Final exam review- Winter 2010

Deformation in Polymers
z Stress Relaxation: Under a constant strain the stress level
decrease with time
−t
s = soe τ

z Stress relaxation time: Stress relaxation time exhibits an

Arrhenius relationship
−Q
1
= Ce RT
τ
z Tensile Testing of Polymers:
„ Polystyrene Vs Polyethylene
„ Necking in Polymers

z Characteristics of Elastomers (Rubber Bands)

z E(t) for an Elastomer

Composites
z Multi-phase materials

z Fibers: glass, carbon, Kevlar (High strength along fiber)

z Concrete is made of: water, cement, air, fine and coarse aggregates
z Factors affecting compressive strength
z Prestressed (pretensioned) concrete
z Honeycomb Structures
z Properties depend on: Individual phases, Relative amounts of the
phases, Geometry of the dispersed phase, Shape, Size, Distribution,
and Orientation
z Mechanical properties
„ Isostress loading
„ Isostrain loading

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