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GROUND GRANULATED BLAST-FURNACE SLAG

Ever since the implementation of DM Circular 202 in 2014, GGBS has become the major
subject matter for discussion in every concrete conference and seminar. The circular had been
updated in 2016 and later has been replaced with DM Circular 225 in 2018. In fact, GGBS
was in use in Dubai since the beginning of 21st century and has been included as a mandatory
supplementary cementitious material in Trakhees Specification for projects under Dubai
World, Ports, Customs and Free Zone Corporation.

GGBS is a supplementary cementitious material and is a by-product from the blast furnace
used to make iron metal. Iron is the fourth most abundant element in the earth crust, making
up approximately 5% of the total. However, mining of iron (as oxides) is only economically
viable where substantial concentration has occurred, and only then it can be referred to as
iron ore. Metallic iron is extracted from ion ores like Magnetite (Fe3O4), Haematite (Fe2O3),
Goethite (FeO(OH)), Limonite (FeO(OH).nH2O), and Siderite (FeCO3). Any iron ore with
more than 60% iron content can be directly fed into the blast furnace, hence they are called
direct shipping ore (natural ore).

Iron ore industry is one of the mega industries in the modern economic world. The global
iron ore market will remain well supplied up until 2027. Supply growth is expected to be
primarily driven by India and Brazil, where the world's top iron ore miner, is set to expand
output with its new mine. Globally, iron ore production in 2017 increased by 20 million
metric tons from that of 2016, following an increase of 30 million in 2016 from that of 2015.
The top five major iron ore producers in 2017 were,

1. Australia - 880 million metric ton

2. Brazil - 440 million metric tons
3. China - 340 million metric tons
4. India - 190 million metric tons
5. Russia - 100 million metric tons

But the top five steel producing countries (and hence, slag producing countries) in the world
in 2017 were,

1. China - 831.7 million metric tons.

2. Japan - 104.7 million metric tons
3. India - 101.4 million metric tons
4. U.S. - 81.6 million metric tons
5. Russia - 71.3 million metric tons

Despite its dependence on iron ore and coal imports, Japan accounts for 105.15 million
metric tons in 2015, 104.8 in 2016 and 104.7 in 2017 and maintains the second position.

Blast Furnace

The blast furnace is a huge, steel stack lined with refractory brick, used to chemically reduce
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and physically convert iron oxides into liquid iron called 'hot metal'. Blast furnaces are used
continuously and are only shut down when their brick lining needs replacing.

The blast furnaces have grown considerably in size, shape, and technology during the 20th
century. In the early days of 20th century, blast furnace had a hearth diameter of 4 to 5 meters
and was producing around 100,000 tons of hot metal per year, mostly from lump ore and
coke. At the end of 20th century, the biggest blast furnace had between 14 and 15 meters
hearth diameter and was producing 3 to 4 million tons per year.

Charging The Blast Furnace

After processing, the iron ore is blended with coke (purified coal used as fuel and reductant),
limestone (used as flux) and goes to the blast furnace. The mixture enters at the top of the
blast furnace. At the bottom of the furnace, very hot compressed air is blown or blasted in
through nozzles called tuyeres. The temperature at the bottom reaches up to 1650oC.

The iron ore generally consists of iron and oxygen atoms bonded together. Direct reduction
method is used in the blast furnace to remove the oxygen atom and to free the iron metal. As
the oxygen-iron bond is very strong, high amount of energy is required for the reduction
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process with a stronger elemental bond. Carbon is used to break the oxygen- iron bond,
because carbon can make the bond with oxygen at a higher temperature and the carbon-
oxygen bond is stronger than oxygen- iron bond. Hence, iron ore is powdered with coke, and
burnt in the blast furnace.

The coke burns in the presence of hot air. The oxygen in the air reacts with carbon in the coke
to form carbon monoxide. The carbon monoxide reacts (reduces) with the iron ore to form
pure iron and carbon dioxide.

The reaction is not as simple as explained. It goes through different stages as detailed below.

2C + O2 → 2CO

3Fe2O3 + CO → 3Fe3O4 + CO2

Fe3O4 + CO → 3FeO + CO2

FeO + CO → Fe + CO2

Other than iron and oxygen, the iron ore often contains gangue materials (even after
beneficiation) mainly composed of silica (SiO2), alumina (Al2O3). The limestone breaks
down into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. The calcium oxide then reacts with impurities
present in the iron ore to form slag.

Limestone calcining - CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

Lime acting as flux - CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3 (slag)

Separating Iron from Slag

The melted iron sinks to the bottom of the furnace. The molten slag is lighter than iron and
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hence floats on top. Iron and slag are drawn off separately from the bottom of the furnace.
The slag consists of limestone flux, ash, and impurities from coke (like sulfur), and impurities
from iron ore. Approximately 290 kg of slag is generated for each 1000kg of pig iron. When
it is ejected from the blast furnace, the slag is molten at a temperature of approximately
1500oC.

Air-cooled slag- The molten slag flows into a cooling yard, where it is cooled slowly by
natural cooling and by spraying with water. This result in a crystalline, rock-like slag called
air-cooled slag. This is used as aggregates for road construction or concrete and in railways.

Granulated slag- The molten slag is cooled rapidly by jets of pressurized water, resulting in a
vitreous, granulated slag (with little or no crystalline structure- amorphous). This process
results in the formation of sand size fragments or grains. When crushed or milled to very fine
cement sized particles, ground granular blast furnace slag (GGBFS or GGBS) has
cementitious properties, which make a suitable partial replacement for Portland Cement.

Expanded slag- It is produced by treating the molten slag with controlled quantities of water,
usually less than that used for granulation. The product is more vesicular and lighter in
weight.

Pelletized slag- If the molten slag is cooled and solidified with water and air quenched in a
spinning drum, pellets, rather than solid mass can be produced.

Hot Gases

The hot gases produced in the chemical reaction are drawn off at the top and routed to a gas
cleaning facility, where they are cleaned, separated and sent back into the furnace.

The many chemical by-products of coke are almost toxic, but they are commercially useful.
As mentioned before, coke is a solid residue from distillation (progressive heating in an air-
free environment) of a coal blending, in a series of thin furnaces called coke oven. The
distillation process generates many products like-

1. Ammonia- which is used in a vast number of products.

2. Phenol- which is used to make plastics, cutting oils and antiseptics
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3. Cresol- which goes into herbicides, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, and

photographic chemicals
4. Toluene- which is an ingredient in many complex chemical products such
as solvents and explosives.

Chemistry of Slag

Chemically blast furnace slag is a mixture of lime, silica, alumina, and magnesia, that is the
same as Portland Cement, but in different proportion. The chemical composition of slag
varies considerably depending on the composition of the raw materials used in the iron
production process.

1. The composition of iron ore and the impurities present in it (depends on the
location of excavation).
2. The purity of coke and coal combination, and the impurities present in it.
3. The fuels used to fire up the gases.
4. The composition of flux (limestone).
5. The proportion of raw materials required for efficient furnace operation.

Along with pure limestone (CaCO3), some Forsterite (Mg2SiO4- the magnesium-rich end
member in the olivine family) is used as the flux in pig iron production. In some cases,
Dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2) also used along with other flux material. Greater variations in the
composition of slag may be found between sources where different raw materials are used as
detailed above.

If the slag is cooled slowly in the air, it does not react with water at ordinary temperature. The
method of cooling and the glass (the amorphous) content determines the activity index of the
slag. Above all, the cementitious and pozzolanic properties depend on the degree of fineness
in grinding. Hence, in a nutshell, the magnitude of cementitious reaction depends on

1. The chemical composition of slag.

2. Glass content, and
3. The fineness of slag.
4. The temperature during the early hydration phase.
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Chemical analysis of blast furnace slag usually shows that four major oxides (lime, silica,
alumina, and magnesia), which make up about 95% of the total. On an average, the chemical
composition of slag can be summarized as given below in percentage:

The cementitious property of slag (in amorphous state) is in latent form. It shall be activated
by physical and chemical methods. Grinding to high fineness is the physical method to
activate the hydraulic property of slag. In concrete, the cementitious property of slag will not
be activated until the pH of the reaction environment reaches to high alkalinity. The Portland
cement has to react first with water to elevate the pH of the medium to high alkalinity so that
the slag will be activated.

History of Slag Cement

The combinations of ground slag and lime were the earliest types of cement made from slag.
Its earliest use was documented in 1774 when it was combined with slaked lime and used as a
mortar. Although authorities do not agree on the date of the first use, it seems certain that the
properties of slag cement were being studied in France prior to 1800, were used in Germany
as early as 1822, and were in commercial production in the 1860s. Slag cement production
began in the U.S. In 1896. A detailed account on the history of slag can be found in ACI
233R.

Use of Slag and Slag Cement

The term slag simply means air-cooled slag, granulated slag or expanded slag. But the term
slag cement is reserved for finely ground granulated blast furnace slag. The slag and slag
cement is used in the production of cement and concrete in two basic ways.
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Another major use of slag is in the manufacture of super sulfated cement (SSC), which
consisting of granulated slag mixed with 10 to 15% hard- burned gypsum (or anhydrite) and a
few percents of Portland cement (as alkaline media). The strength properties of super sulfated
cement are similar to those of Portland cement, but it has an increased resistance to many
forms of chemical attack.

M.S.Rao and U. Bhandare had studied the use of granulated slag as a replacement of sand in
concrete. They have reported a positive impact on workability, compressive strength, and
durability.

Specifications

The first specification for slag cement in the U.S. was prepared by the Corps of Engineers in
1902 and covered Pozzolan cement, made by 'grinding together without subsequent
calcination granulated blast furnace slag with slaked lime'. The major specifications for slag
currently referred in the industry are,

1) ASTM C989, Standard Specification for Slag Cement.

2) ASTM C595, Standard Specification for Blended Cement.
3) AASHTO M302, Standard Specification for Slag Cement.
4) CSA A3001, Cementitious Materials for Use in Concrete.(Canadian)
5) ACI 233R, Slag Cement in Concrete and Mortar.
6) BS 6699, Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag for Use with Portland Cement.
7) BS 4246, High slag blast furnace cement.
8) BS EN 15167-1, Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag for Use in Concrete, Mortar,
and Grout- Part-1: Definitions, specifications, and conformity criteria.
9) BS EN 15167-2, Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag for Use in Concrete, Mortar,
and Grout- Part- 2: Conformity evaluation.
10) BS EN 197-1, Cement- Part 1: Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for
common cement.
11) IS 455, Portland Slag Cement- Specification. (Indian)
12) GB/T 18046, Ground Granulated Blast furnace Slag used for Cement and Concrete
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(Chinese)
13) JIS A 6206, Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag for Concrete (Japanese)
14) AS3582.2, Supplementary Cementitious Materials for Use With Portland and Blended
Cement, Part 2- Slag- Ground granulated iron blast- furnace. (Australian)
15) AS3972, General Purpose Blended Cements. (Australian)

Classification of Slag

ASTM C989 classifies GGBS into three grades according to its performance in the slag
activity test. The three grades are

1. Grade 80
2. Grade 100, and
3. Grade 120

Slag activity is evaluated by determining the compressive strength of Portland cement mortar
and the corresponding mortars made with the same mass of a blend that is 50% slag cement
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and 50% Portland cement by mass. The w/c ratio is not specified instead, the consistency is
specified as-'sufficient water shall be used in each batch to produce a flow of 110 ± 5%'. Slag
activity is determined by the following formula,

Slag activity index, % = (SP/P) x 100

Where,

SP = average compressive strength of slag- cement reference mortar cubes designated

age.

P = average compressive strength of reference cement mortar cubes at designated age.

The limits on 7 days slag activity index has been removed in the latest version of the standard
and is only required to be reported for information purpose only.

BS EN 15167-1 specifies the w/c ratio for the slag activity index test as 0.50 and does not
classify slag into different grades or classes but requires the slag activity index at 7 days and
at 28 days shall not be less than 45% and 70% respectively.

The activity index gives no direct information on the strength contribution of GGBS in
concrete, nor is the use of the GGBS limited to the mixing ratio used in the activity test.

Merits and Demerits of Using GGBS in Concrete

Workability- The workability and placeability of concrete containing GGBS were often
reported to be superior to that of concrete not containing GGBS. This is true when the w/c
ratio is high and slag replacement level is low. Most of the research works had been done at
higher w/c ratio levels. As the w/c ratio goes below 0.38, and the replacement level goes
above 50%, the concrete mixture tends to be sticky, where cohesion reaches to adhesion.
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Compressive strength- Concrete strengths at 1, 3 and even 7 days may tend to be lower using
slag cement- Portland cement combinations, particularly at low temperatures or at high slag
cement percentages (ASTM C989). Higher grade slag can be used in higher percentages, but
trial mixes shall be conducted to ensure the results under job conditions.

Adiabatic core temperature rise- The heat of hydration of GGBS concrete is less compared to
conventional mixes and is calculated to be 9oC for every 100 kg of GGBS. Hence, a higher
proportion of GGBS is recommended for thick raft foundations.

Setting time- An increase in setting time can be expected when GGBS is used as a
replacement. The degree to which the time of setting is affected is dependent on,

1. The proportion of GGBS in the mix

2. The initial temperature of concrete and curing
3. w/c ratio of the mix
4. Type of admixture used and its dosage
5. Type of cement used (OPC/SRC)

SRC has low C3A content in comparison with OPC and hence higher setting time. So a blend
of GGBS and SRC coupled with the in-built retarding effect of admixture often results in a
longer setting time of concrete mixes. Most of the Consultants in Dubai do not allow
combinations of GGBS and SRC.

Formwork stripping time- High-level replacement of GGBS will affect the striking time of
formwork, especially vertical, due to

1. The delayed setting, as detailed earlier

2. Delay in early strength gain.
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Bleeding and Segregation- These properties depend on the fineness of GGBS. When GGBS
is finer than Portland cement and is substituted on equal or higher- mass basis, bleeding is
reduced.

Modulus of elasticity- No improvement on the modulus of elasticity has been reported yet
with GGBS concrete.

Creep and shrinkage- Conflicting reports are available on the effect of GGBS on creep and
shrinkage strain. Majority of the researchers reported a positive effect on creep and shrinkage
strain when GGBS was used in the concrete mix.

Colour- As GGBS is white or considerably lighter in color, the concrete mix with GGBS will
produce a lighter color in concrete after curing. The degree of lightness of color depends
mainly on the proportion of GGBS replacement and the type of cement used. After curing, a
blue or bluish-green color may be noticed in GGBS concrete due to a minimal amount of FeS
and MnS formed during the hydration process of GGBS. With exposure to air for a period of
time (3 to 5 days), FeS and MnS will change to FeSO4 and MnSO4 and then the blue color
will disappear.

Permeability- Permeability of concrete decrease with increase in GGBS content. The pore
spaces in concrete are filled with free lime released by the hydration process of Portland
cement. GGBS hydrates react with the free lime (pozzolanic reaction) to form additional
calcium- silicate- hydrate, which fills the pores. Hence permeability is greatly reduced.

Sulfate resistance- GGBS in concrete improves the sulfate resistance of concrete but depend
on,

1. Permeability, as detailed above

2. C3A content in the cement, the lower the better
3. Alumina content of GGBS, the lower the better
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BS 5328-2 limits the alumina content of GGBS by stating,'where the alumina content of
GGBS exceeds 14%, the C3A content of Portland cement shall not exceed 10%.

Chloride resistance- GGBS improves the chloride resistance of concrete, and the studies have
shown that,

1. The chloride binding capacity increases with an increase in GGBS content

2. Above 50% of replacement, chloride binding capacity has been found to increase by 5
times

Corrosion resistance- Slag reduces the pH of pore solution but this is minimal and does not
have a negative impact on the passivity layer of steel. GGBS reduces the permeability of
concrete and hence the steel will have better protection against corrosion.

Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR)- GGBS is known to reduce the potential expansion of concrete
due to alkali-silica reaction. It is reported that where GGBS is used in percentages from 40 to
65% of total cementitious material, expansion was virtually eliminated.

Environmental Benefits

Portland cement and traditional concrete are environmentally hazardous materials for the
following reasons-

1. Raw materials for cement (limestone and others) are mined from quarries, which
deplete our natural resources and upsetting ecosystem.
2. Cement production consumes extremely intensive energy (from fossil fuel)
3. Releases high quantity of CO2 making it the third-ranking producer of CO2 emission.
4. Cement production is increased approximately by 5% a year.
5. Aggregate materials (sand and stone) for concrete are mined from quarries, which
deplete our natural resources and upsetting ecosystem.

The concept of green concrete includes the use of any industrial waste material as at least one
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of its components, or its production process does not lead to environmental destruction.
Green concrete was first developed in Denmark by Dr. WG in 1998. Cement and concrete
have an important role to play in enabling Denmark to fulfill its obligation, agreed at the
Kyoto conference, to reduce the total CO2 emission by 21% compared to the 1990 level
before 2021.

Slag is an industrial by-product- created from blast furnace slag, otherwise destined for
disposal. The energy, emission and raw materials required to produce slag cement is a
fraction of that needed for traditional Portland cement. Replacing a portion of Portland
cement with slag cement- typically between 30 to 70%- significantly lowers the
environmental impact of concrete.

An Ecopoint is the unit of measurement of the environmental impact of a unit product or

material. The Ecopoint score is a single score obtained from the combined results of a life
cycle assessment against the 13 impact categories identified in the BRE Environmental
Profile methodology. The lower the Ecopoint score, the better the result.

Concrete made with GGBS have high solar reflectance, almost 20% increase in reflection of
sunlight. This will reduce the heat island effect in urban developments, as well as having
other beneficial effects like reduced need for artificial lighting at night.

In summary, considering the material properties and its environmental benefits, GGBS can
safely and comfortably be used within a replacement range of 25 to 50 % by weight of total
cementitious material. Higher proportions shall be individually tested under site conditions
before use in the structure.

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