Unit - 4

Electrical conduction in metals and semiconductors

Metals are good electrical and thermal conductors. The outermost electrons in an atom
are loosely bound and are readily shared with other atoms to form metallic bond. Some of these
valence electrons are free to move within the physical dimensions of the metal. These free
electrons are called conduction electrons because they are responsible for electrical and thermal
conduction in metals.

Classical free electron theory (Drude-Lorentz theory):

 Assumption of classical free electron theory:

1. Metals contain a large number of free electrons which move freely through the entire
volume of the metal.
2. The free electrons are treated as equivalent to molecules of an ideal gas and thus obey the
laws of kinetic theory of gases. The kinetic energy associated with the each electron at a
temperature T is given by
1 2 3
𝑚𝑣𝑡ℎ = 𝑘𝑇
2 2
where k is the Boltzmann’s constant and vth is the thermal velocity of free electrons.
3. The electric potential due to positive ionic cores is considered to be constant inside the
metal.
4. The Coulomb repulsion between the free electrons is considered to be negligible.
5. Electric current flows in a metal in the presence of an external electric field due to drift
velocity of the free electrons in a direction opposite to the applied field.

Definitions of some terminology:

 Mean collision time (τ): The average time taken between two consecutive collisions of
an electron with the lattice points (ionic cores) is called mean collision time. It is given
by 𝜏 = 𝜆⁄𝑣𝑡ℎ ; where λ is the mean free path.

 Mean free path (λ) : The average distance travelled by the conduction electrons between
two successive collisions is known as mean free path. 𝜆 = 𝜏𝑣𝑡ℎ .

1
  Relaxation time (τr): The time required for the average velocity of the conduction
electrons to exponentially decay to 1/e times its value just when the electric field is
turned off, is called relaxation time.

Note: If the probability of scattering is same in all directions, then the scattering is called

isotropic. For isotropic scattering, relaxation time is same as mean collision time

(i.e.  r   ).

 Current density (J) : is the current per unit area of cross section of an imaginary plane
held normal to the direction of current in a current carrying conductor. If I is the current,
A is the area of cross section then current density 𝐽 = 𝐼⁄𝐴; unit A/m2

 Electric field (E): It is the potential drop/unit length of a conductor. If L is the length of
a conductor of uniform cross section and V is the potential difference between its two
ends, then electric field, 𝐸 = 𝑉⁄𝐿.

 Drift velocity (vd): The constant average velocity of free electrons in the steady state in
an applied electric field is called the drift velocity vd.
If no electric field is applied, the free electrons in a conductor move in random
directions. Since the motion is completely random, average velocity in any direction is
zero. When an electric field is established, the electrons experience a force F = -eE due
to which they move in opposite direction to the applied field. These electrons undergo
frequent collisions with positive ions. In each such collision, direction of motion of
electrons undergoes random changes. As a result, the electrons are subjected to a very
slow directional motion called drift motion and the constant average velocity of this
motion is called drift velocity (vd).

 Expression for drift velocity:

In the presence of an electric field, the conduction electron acquires a constant velocity
called the drift velocity in the steady state.
If m is the mass of the electron, vd the drift velocity, τ the mean collision time, then the
resistive force ‘Fr’ offered for the motion of electrons is

2
 vd
Fr  m


If E the strength of the applied field, then the driving force acting on the electron is,

F = eE

In steady state, the force due to applied field is balanced by the resistive force.

i.e. Fr = F

vd
(or) m  eE


 e 
 vd    E
m

 Mobility of electrons (µ): The magnitude of the drift velocity acquired by the electrons in
𝑣𝑑
unit electric field is called the mobility of electrons, 𝜇 = ; unit: m2V-1s-1.
𝐸

 e 
   
m
Mobility is a measure of the ease with which the free electrons can drift in the conductor.

 Expression for electrical conductivity based on classical free electron theory:

Consider a conductor of uniform area of cross section ‘A’ subjected to an electric field E
and carrying current I. Let ‘vd ’ be the drift velocity of electrons. Now consider an imaginary
plane at ‘X’ normal to the current direction. The electrons which are at X at a certain instant
will travel a distance ‘vd’ in unit time. Thus the electrons are sweeping a volume ‘vd .A’ in the
conductor in unit time.

I A I

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 If ‘n’ is the number of electrons per unit volume, then the number of electrons in volume
‘vd .A’ = n.(vd .A)

(or) the number of electrons crossing any cross-section in unit time = n. (vd . A)

If ‘e’ is the charge on an electron, then the quantity of charge crossing any section per
second = e.(n.vd .A)

The quantity of charge crossing any section per second is the same as the current.

 I = n e A vd

𝑒𝜏
But 𝑣𝑑 = ( 𝑚 ) 𝐸

eτ ne2 τ
 I = ne (m) EA = ( ) EA
m

I ne2 τ
(or) (A) = J = ( ) E ........(1)
m

By Ohm’s law, J = E ........(2)

where ‘’ is electrical conductivity of the conductor.

From equations (1) and (2), we get

𝐧𝐞𝟐 𝛕
𝛔=
𝐦

𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏 𝑒𝜏
Note: 𝜎= = 𝑛𝑒 ( 𝑚 ) = 𝑛𝑒𝜇
𝑚

 Drawbacks of classical free electron theory:

1. Specific heat: In classical free electron theory, the electrons are treated equivalent to
the molecules of ideal gas.
3
Molar specific heat of gas at constant volume is 𝐶𝑣 = 2 𝑅.

Hence the same must apply for free electrons in the metal also.
But experimentally it is found that the specific heat of a metal is 𝐶𝑣 = 10−4 𝑅𝑇.

4
 Thus, the experimental value of specific heat is much lower than the theoretical value.
Also, Cv is proportional to temperature where as the theory predicts that Cv is
independent of temperature.

2. Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity: According to classical free

1 2 3 2
electron theory, 𝑚𝑣𝑡ℎ = 2 𝑘𝑇 => 𝑣𝑡ℎ ∝ 𝑇 (or) 𝑣𝑡ℎ ∝ √𝑇
2
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏 𝜆
Also, 𝜎 = and 𝜏=
𝑚 𝑣𝑡ℎ

𝑛𝑒 2 𝜆
 𝜎 = 𝑚𝑣
𝑡ℎ

1
=> 𝜎∝
√𝑇

But, It was experimentally observed that for metals, the electrical conductivity is

inversely proportional to temperature.

1

T

From this, it is clear that the prediction of classical free electron theory is not agreeing
with the experimental observation.

3. Dependence of electrical conductivity on electron concentration (n) : From classical

free electron theory, the conductivity is given by
ne2 τ
σ= where ‘n’ is the free electron concentration.
m

From the above equation, we see that  n

The electron concentration for trivalent aluminium is 18.06 × 1028 /m3 which is
much higher than that of monovalent copper (8.45 x 1028 /m3 ). But copper has higher
conductivity than that of aluminium. Hence, 𝜎 ∝ 𝑛 does not always hold good.

4. The large variation in mean free path also could not be explained by classical theory.
It has been found that the predicted mean free path is about one order (ten times) less
compared to that of experimental value.

5
Quantum free electron theory (Sommerfeld theory):
Assumptions of quantum free electron theory:
1. The energy values of the free electrons are quantised.
2. The filling up of free electrons in the discrete energy levels happens in accordance with
Pauli’s exclusion principle.
3. The distribution of energy among the free electrons is according to Fermi-Dirac statistics.
4. The electrons travel in a constant potential inside a metal but stay confined within the
boundaries.
5. The attraction between the electrons and the lattice ions and the repulsion between the
electrons themselves are neglected.

 Comparison of assumptions:

Classical Free electron theory Quantum Free electron theory

1 Energy of the conduction electron is Energy is quantised, 𝐸 = 𝑛2 ℎ2
continuous 8𝑚𝑎2
2 There is no restriction on the number of Pauli’s exclusion principle is applicable.
electrons possessing a given energy. Hence only two electrons with opposite
spin states can have the same energy.
3 The energy distribution among the free The distribution of energy among the free
electrons obeys Maxwell-Boltzmann electrons is according to Fermi-Dirac
statistics.
statistics.
.
4 The electric potential due to ionic cores inside The electric potential due to ionic cores
the metal is considered to be a constant. inside the metal is considered to be a
constant.
5 The mutual repulsion between the electrons The mutual repulsion between the
and the force of attraction between the electrons and the force of attraction
electrons and ions are neglected. between the electrons and ions are
neglected.

6
Density of Energy States:
“It is defined as the number of available energy states per unit volume per unit energy
range centered at a given energy E”.
It is denoted by g(E). It is a continuous function and the product g(E)dE gives the
number of states in the energy interval dE at E.

 Expression for Density of States:

We know the allowed energy for a particle confined in one dimensional box are given by,
n2 h 2
E= ...................(1) where n=1,2,3,…….
8ma2
‘a’ is length over which the particle is free to move in one dimension.
Considering the free electrons in a metal as a particles in 3-dimensional box, the energy
of the free electrons can be written as,
ℎ2
𝐸 = 8𝑚𝑎2 (𝑛𝑥2 + 𝑛𝑦2 + 𝑛𝑧2 ) ………….(2)

where nx, ny, nz are +ve integers greater than zero. m --- mass of the electron.

ℎ2
Let 𝐸0 = 8𝑚𝑎2 and 𝑅 2 = 𝑛𝑥2 + 𝑛𝑦2 + 𝑛𝑧2

Then eqn (2) becomes, 𝐸 = 𝐸0 𝑅 2 .....................(3)

If we take a coordinate system with nx, ny and nz along three mutually perpendicular axes,

then each set of values consisting of three integers can be represented as a point in the

system. For a very large number of such sets of values we get a spherical distribution

of points in the plot.

Since the values of nx, ny and nz are restricted to be positive, there is only one octant of

the sphere of radius ‘R’ where in each point corresponds to only positive values of nx,

ny and nz.

Hence, we have the number of allowed energy values upto an energy E = number of

points in the octant of sphere radius ‘R.’

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 ny
dR

R
nx

nz

If we consider a small energy range between E and E+dE, then the number of allowed

energy values in the energy range E and E+dE

= number of points in the space between the two octants of radii R and R+dR.

= (volume of space between the octants of radii R and (R+dR) × (Number of points per

unit volume)

1 
=  4R 2 dR   1  R 2 dR
1
8  2

Now each energy value is applicable to two energy states, one for an electron, with spin

up and other for spin down.

1
Thus, the number of allowed energy states in the range E and E+dE = 2. R 2 dR
2

i.e. 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = R 2 dR ..................(4)

8
 𝑑𝐸
Now, differentiating eqn.(3) we have 𝑑𝐸 = 2𝐸0 𝑅𝑑𝑅 𝑜𝑟 𝑅 𝑑𝑅 = 2𝐸
0

1⁄
𝐸 2
also eqn(3) can be rewritten as 𝑅 = (𝐸 )
0

Substituting these in (4), we get

1⁄
E 2 dE π 1⁄
g(E)dE = π ( ) = 3⁄ E 2 dE
E 0 2E0 2E0 2

h2
Here, E0 =
8ma2
3
π (8ma2 ) ⁄2 1⁄
 g(E)dE = 3 E 2 dE
2 (h2 ) ⁄2

On simplifying this, we get

3
8√2πa3 m ⁄2 1⁄
g(E)dE = E 2 dE
h3

a3 represents the volume of solid. If we consider the solid to be of unit volume, i.e, a3=1, then

𝟑⁄
𝟖√𝟐𝛑𝐦 𝟐 𝟏⁄
𝐠(𝐄)𝐝𝐄 = 𝐄 𝟐 𝐝𝐄
𝐡𝟑
This equation represents the density of states.

𝟏⁄
Thus, 𝒈(𝑬) ∝ 𝑬 𝟐

A plot of g(E) Vs E is as shown. The shape of the curve is a parabola

g(E)

9
  Fermi energy: The Energy corresponding to the highest occupied level at absolute zero

temperature (i.e. 0 K) is called Fermi Energy and the energy level is referred to as

Fermi level. It is denoted by EF.

 Fermi Factor (or) Fermi-Dirac distribution Function {f(E)} : It gives the probability
of occupancy of a given energy level by the electrons at thermal equilibrium.
1
f(E) = (E−EF )
where k is the Boltzmann constant.
+ 1
e kT

Variation of Fermi factor with temperature:

1. Probability of occupancy for 𝐸 < 𝐸𝐹 at T=0K: In this case, (E-EF) is –ve.

1 1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 = 1+𝑒 −∞ = 1+0 = 1
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

i.e. f (E) =1 for 𝐸 < 𝐸𝐹 , This means all the energy levels below the Fermi level are

occupied.

2. Probability of occupancy for 𝐸 > 𝐸𝐹 at T=0K:

In this case, (E-EF) is +ve.

1 1 1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 = = = =0
1 + 𝑒∞ 1 + ∞ ∞
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

i.e, f(E) =0 for 𝐸 > 𝐸𝐹 . This means, all the energy levels above Fermi level are empty.

3. Probability of occupancy at ordinary temperature; E=EF at T>0K:

1 1 1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = 𝐸−𝐸𝐹 = 1+𝑒 0 = 1+1 = 2 = 0.5 i.e probability of occupation is 50%.
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

At ordinary temperatures, though the value of probability remains one for E<<E F, it starts

decreasing from one as the value of the E becomes closer to EF and becomes ½ at E=EF . Further

for E>EF, the probability value falls off to zero rapidly.

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 T  0K
1.0

f(E)
0.5 T  0K

0
EF
E
 Fermi Dirac distribution:

If N(E)dE is the number of those electrons which possess energy only in the range E and
E+dE, then the number of electrons occupy the energy levels in an energy range dE is,
N(E)dE = g(E)dE × f(E).
where f(E) is the fermi factor.
A plot of N(E)dE Vs E, represents the actual distribution of electrons among the available

states. The distribution is known as Fermi-Dirac distribution.

T=0K
N(E) T>0K
T>>0K

E EF
In the plot, at T= 0 K, N(E) increases with E up to E=EF. For all values of E > EF, N(E)

=0. At ordinary temperatures (T > 0K), there are slight variations in N(E) for energy values

near the Fermi energy one either side of it. Thus, the electrons which possess energy quite

lower than EF, and quite higher than EF are unaffected at ordinary temperatures.

11
 Fermi energy (EF) at T=0K
Let EF0 be the maximum energy the electron can possess at T=0K, and n be the number

of free electrons/unit volume.

‘n’ can be obtained by integrating N(E)dE in the limit E=0 to EF0.

𝐹0 𝐸 𝐸
i.e. 𝑛 = ∫𝐸=0 𝑁(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = ∫0 𝐹0 𝑔(𝐸)𝑓(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 ,

3
8√2𝜋𝑚 ⁄2 1⁄
where 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = 𝐸 2 𝑑𝐸 and at T=0K,.
ℎ3

For E<EF, f(E)=1

3
8√2𝜋𝑚 ⁄2 𝐸𝐹0 1⁄
Hence 𝑛 = ∫0 𝐸 2 𝑑𝐸
ℎ3

3
8√2𝜋𝑚 ⁄2 2 3⁄ 𝐸𝐹0
= ℎ3
[3 𝐸 2]
0

3 3⁄
8√2𝜋𝑚 ⁄2 2
= 𝐸 2
ℎ3 3 𝐹0

3 3 3⁄
𝜋 82 ⁄2 𝑚 ⁄2
𝑛= 𝐸𝐹02
3 ℎ3

3⁄ ℎ3 3𝑛
 𝐸𝐹02 = 3
(8𝑚) ⁄2 𝜋

𝟐⁄
𝐡𝟐 𝟑𝐧 𝟑
(or) 𝐄𝐅𝟎 = (𝛑)
𝟖𝐦

2⁄
2⁄ ℎ2 3 3
This can be written as 𝐸𝐹0 = 𝐵𝑛 3 where 𝐵 = 8𝑚 (𝜋) =5.85×10-38 Jm2.

 Fermi velocity (vF): It is the velocity of the electrons which occupy fermi level.
𝟏 𝟐𝑬𝑭
Hence, 𝑬𝑭 = 𝟐 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝑭 or 𝒗𝑭 = √ 𝒎

𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏 𝒏𝒆𝟐 𝝀
According to quantum free electron theory, conductivity, 𝝈 = = 𝒎∗𝒗 ; where m* is the
𝑚 𝑭

effective mass of the electron.

12
 Success of quantum free electron theory:
1. Specific heat at constant volume:
According to quantum free-electron theory, only those electrons occupying energy

levels close the Fermi energy can absorb the heat energy. Such electrons constitute a

very small portion of the total free electrons, thus the specific heat value becomes

very small. Further, it was found that

2k
Cv  RT
EF

Taking typical values of EF=5 eV (for metal EF lies in the range 1 to 10 eV), we get,

2k
 10 4
EF

So Cv  10 4 RT

This is in agreement with the experimentally observed values.

2. Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity:

As per quantum free electron theory, the electrical conductivity for a metal is

ne 2 

m*v F

Also, as per the theory, EF and vF are essentially independent of temperature and λ is

1
inversely proportional to temperature i.e.   .
T

1
Therefore,   .
T

The nature of dependence of λ on T can be analyzed as follows.

We know that the electrons are subjected to scattering by the vibrating ions of the

lattice. If r is the amplitude of vibration, the ions can be considered to present effectively

13
 in a cross section of area πr2. When scattering increases, it results in reduction of mean

1
free path of the electrons.   
r 2

Considering the fact that (i) The energy of vibrating body is proportional to square of
amplitude (ii) The energy of ions is due to thermal energy (iii) The thermal energy is
1
proportional to temperature, we can write, r2  T and  
T
According to quantum free-electron theory,   
1

T
Thus, dependence of conductivity on temperature is correctly explained.

3. Conductivity and electron concentration:

According to quantum free electron theory, only those electrons which occupy energy

states near to EF can participate in conduction all moving with Fermi velocity.

ne2 λ
The electrical conductivity is given by, σ= (v )
m∗ F

λ
Thus, ‘σ’ depends both on ‘n’ and ( ) .
vF


So vd  v F . Therefore, mean collision time  c 
vF

If we compare the case of copper and aluminum, the value of ‘n’ for Al is 2.13 times

higher than that of Cu. But the value of (λ/v F) for Cu is 3.73 times higher than that for

Al. Thus the conductivity of Al is less than that of Cu.

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 Semiconductors:
In semiconductors, both electrons in the conduction band and holes in the valance band are
mobile charge carriers which contribute for electrical conduction.

The density of allowed energy states for electrons in conduction band is given by
3⁄
8√2𝜋(𝑚𝑒∗ ) 2 1⁄
g c (E) dE = (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 ) 2 𝑑𝐸
ℎ3

where, me* is the effective mass of electron and Ec is bottom most energy level of
conduction band.

The figure below shows density of energy states in the conduction band and the density of
energy states in the valence band as a function of energy.

gc(E)

gv(E)

g(E)
.

Expression for Electron Concentration in conduction band at thermal equilibrium.

The density of allowed energy states for electrons in conduction band is given by,
3⁄
8√2𝜋(𝑚𝑒∗ ) 2 1⁄
g c (E) dE = (𝐸 − 𝐸𝑐 ) 2 𝑑𝐸
ℎ3

15
The distribution of electrons in the conduction band (CB) is given by the density of allowed

quantum states times the probability that a state is occupied by an electron.

i.e. n(E) = gc(E) dE × f(E) ------------------(1)

where f(E) is the Fermi-Dirac probability function.

The total electron concentration at thermal equilibrium in the conduction band is then found

by integrating eqn (1) over the entire conduction band energy.

∞
i.e. 𝑛 = ∫𝐸 𝑔𝑐 (𝐸) 𝑑𝐸 × 𝑓(𝐸) ---------------(2)
𝐶

For electrons in the CB, at room temperature, (E-EF)>>kT. so Fermi probability function

reduces to Boltzmann approximation

1 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
i.e. 𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝐹 )
≈ 𝑒𝑥𝑝 (− ) --------(3)
𝑘𝑇
1+𝑒 𝑘𝑇

Substituting (3) in (2) we get,

3
∞ 8√2π(m∗e ) ⁄2 1⁄ (E−EF )
n= ∫E (E − Ec ) 2 exp [− ] dE
C h3 kT

By adding and subtracting Ec in the exponential term, we can write

3⁄
8√2π(m∗e )
∞ 2 1⁄ (E − Ec + Ec − EF )
n=∫ (E − Ec ) 2 exp [− ] dE
EC h3 kT

3
∞ 8√2π(m∗e ) ⁄2 1⁄ (Ec −EF ) (E−Ec )
n= ∫E (E − Ec ) 2 exp [− ] exp [− ] dE
C h3 kT kT

3
8√2π(m∗e ) ⁄2 (Ec −EF ) ∞ 1⁄ (E−Ec )
n= exp [− ] ∫EC
(E − Ec ) 2 exp [− ] dE .....(4)
h3 kT kT

E−Ec
Let us take, ( kT
)=x

16
 Then dE = (kT). dx

Also, as E→Ec; x→0 and as E→∞, x→0

Then eqn (4) becomes

3
8√2π(m∗e ) ⁄2 (Ec −EF ) 3⁄ ∞
n= exp [− ] (kT) 2 ∫ √x
0
exp[−x]dx
h3 kT

∞ √π
But ∫0 √x exp[−x]dx = 2
(Gamma function)

3
8√2π(me∗ ) ⁄2 (Ec −EF ) 3⁄ √π
 n= exp [− ] (kT) 2
h3 kT 2

4√2(πkTmn∗ )3⁄2 (E −E )
= 3
exp [− c F ]
h kT

𝟑
𝟐(𝟐𝛑𝐦∗𝐞 𝐤𝐓) ⁄𝟐 (𝐄𝐜 −𝐄𝐅 )
𝐧= 𝐞𝐱𝐩 [− ]
𝐡𝟑 𝐤𝐓

(𝐄𝐜 −𝐄𝐅 )
(or) 𝐧 = 𝐍𝐂 𝐞𝐱𝐩 [− ]
𝐤𝐓

This is electron concentration at thermal equilibrium in the conduction band.

𝟑
𝟐(𝟐𝝅𝒎∗𝒆 𝒌𝑻) ⁄𝟐
where 𝑵𝑪 = and it is called the effective density of states function for electrons
𝒉𝟑

in the conduction band.

Note: Similarly, thermal equilibrium hole concentration in the valance band is given by

𝟑⁄
𝟐(𝟐𝝅𝒎∗𝐡 𝒌𝑻) 𝟐 (𝑬𝐅 − 𝑬𝒗 )
𝒑= 𝒆𝒙𝒑 [− ]
𝒉𝟑 𝒌𝑻

(𝐄𝐅 −𝐄𝒗 )
(or) 𝐩 = 𝐍𝐕 𝐞𝐱𝐩 [− ]
𝐤𝐓

𝟑
⁄
𝟐(𝟐𝝅𝒎∗𝒉 𝒌𝑻) 𝟐
where 𝑵𝑽 = and it is called the effective density of states function for holes
𝒉𝟑

in the valance band.

17
Law of mass action in semiconductors:

Statement: “In a semiconductor under thermal equilibrium, the product of electron and hole
concentration is a constant and is equal to the square of intrinsic carrier
concentration”.
i.e. np = n2i
The law of mass action holds for both intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors.

In an intrinsic semiconductor, the electron concentration in conduction band is identical

to hole concentration in valence band at any given temperature.
n = p = ni where ni is intrinsic carrier concentration.
According to the law of mass action in semiconductors, if ‘n’ is increased by doping,
then ‘p’ decreases such that the product ‘np’ remain a constant irrespective of doping
concentration.

The electron and hole concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor is given by

(𝑬𝒄 −𝑬𝑭 )
𝒏 = 𝑵𝑪 𝒆𝒙𝒑 [− ] -----------(1) and
𝒌𝑻

(𝑬𝑭 −𝑬𝒗 )
𝒑 = 𝑵𝒗 𝒆𝒙𝒑 [− ] ----------(2).
𝒌𝑻

For an intrinsic semiconductor concentration of electrons in the conduction band is equal

to concentration of holes in the valence band. i.e, n = p = ni. , intrinsic carrier concentration.

(𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝐹 ) (𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑣 )

 𝒏𝒑 = 𝒏𝟐𝒊 = 𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝑣 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ] 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ]
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇

(𝐸𝑐 −𝐸𝑣 )
= 𝑁𝐶 𝑁𝑣 𝑒𝑥𝑝 [− ]
𝑘𝑇

(𝑬𝒈 )
𝒏𝟐𝒊 = 𝑵𝑪 𝑵𝒗 𝒆𝒙𝒑 [− ]
𝒌𝑻

(𝐄𝐠 )
 𝐧𝐢 = √𝐍𝐜 𝐍𝐯 𝐞𝐱𝐩 [− ]
𝟐𝐤𝐓

where Eg is the bandgap energy of semicoductor.

Thus for a given semiconductor material at a constant temperature the value of √𝒏𝒑 = 𝒏𝒊 is a

constant and independent of Fermi energy. It is called the law of mass action in semiconductors.

18
HALL EFFECT

When a magnetic field is applied normal to a conductor carrying current, a potential

difference VH is developed in a direction normal to both the magnetic field and current. This is
known as Hall Effect and generated voltage is called as Hall voltage.

Consider a rectangular slab (a metal or semiconductor) carrying current Ix in X-

direction. If a uniform magnetic field Bz is applied along Z-direction, then a potential difference
is developed along Y-direction (i.e. in a direction perpendicular to both Ix and Bz). This voltage
is called Hall voltage (VH).

Suppose the material is an n-type semiconductor, then current flow is entirely due to majority
electrons. Since current is in +ve x-direction, the conduction electrons are drifting with velocity
‘v’ in the –ve X-direction.
The Lorentz force {FL = q (v×B)} causes the electron to bend downward as shown in
the figure. As a result electrons accumulate on the bottom surface producing a net negative
charge there. Simultaneously a net positive charge appears on the upper surface. This creates a
downward electric field EH called Hall field and thus Hall voltage VH is developed between
bottom and upper surface.

19
Expression for Hall voltage (VH) and Hall coefficient (RH):
The Lorentz force on moving electrons in the magnetic field acts downwards (as shown in the
figure) and is given by,

FL = e (v ×Bz) = e (v Bz sinθ) where v is the velocity of electrons.

FL = e v Bz ………(1) (since v and Bz are perpendicular, θ=90o)

Now the Hall field (EH) created by surface charges opposes this Lorentz force. The
force due to Hall field acts upwards and is given by,

FH = e EH ……….(2)

In steady state, the net force on electrons is zero.

i.e. FH = FL (They are in opposite directions).

𝑒𝐸𝐻 = e v 𝐵𝑧

EH = vBz ………..(3)

If Jx is the current density in X-direction, then

Jx = nev where ‘n’ is the concentration of charge carriers.

𝐽x
(or) v=
ne

Substituting this in eqn. (3), we get

20
 𝐽x Bz
EH =
ne

Thus Hall field is proportional to current density and magnetic field.

EH = 𝑅𝐻 𝐽x Bz ………….(4)

1
where R𝐻 = and it is called Hall coefficient.
ne

EH
From eqn. (4), we can write R𝐻 =
𝐽x Bz

For n-type semiconductors, electric field is developed in –ve Y- direction. Hence RH is –ve.

1 EH
R𝐻 = − ( ) = − ( )
ne 𝐽x Bz

In case of p-type semiconductors, RH is +ve.

1
R𝐻 = ( )
pe

where ‘p’ is hole concentration.

If ‘d’ is thickness and ‘w’ is width of semiconductor , then A = (w.d) is the area of cross
section of the slab. If VH is the Hall voltage across bottom and upper surfaces of slab, then Hall
field is

𝑉H
E𝐻 =
𝑑

From eqn. (4), we get

VH RH Ix Bz RH Ix Bz
= =
d A wd

RH Ix Bz
VH =
𝑤

VH 𝑤
(or) 𝑅H =
Ix Bz

21
The quantities VH, Bz and Ix can be measured experimentally, so the Hall coefficient (RH) and
carrier concentration can be determined.

Applications of Hall Effect:

 Determination of semiconductor type: For an n-type semiconductor, the Hall
coefficient is –ve whereas for p- type semiconductor it is +ve. Thus the sign of Hall
coefficient can be used to determine whether a given semiconductor is n or p-type.
 Calculation of Carrier concentration: Hall coefficient ‘RH’ is measured
experimentally.
1 1
R𝐻 = ( ) ∴ 𝑛=( )
ne e R𝐻

Thus the concentration of charge carriers can be calculated.

 Determination of mobility: If the conduction is due to one type of carriers, eg.,
𝜇𝑛
electrons, we have 𝜎 = 𝑛 𝑒 𝜇𝑛 = 𝑅𝐻

∴ 𝜇𝑛 = σ 𝑅𝐻
Thus by knowing σ and measuring RH, the mobility can be determined.

22