AAS – 1

BASIC PRINCIPLES GOVERNING AN AUDIT

Documentation : ​The auditor should maintain documentation of the important matters.

Integrity, Objectivity and Independence :
● Auditor should be interest free. He must possess qualities such as honesty,
sincereness, fairness, objectivity, etc.
Skills and Competence : ​Auditor must have adequate training, competence and experience.
Confidentiality : Auditor must not disclose any confidential information regarding his client to
any third party. However, he may disclose, if –
i. There is a specific permission of client or
ii. Required by law.
Work performed by others : ​Auditor may rely on work done by others i.e. other auditors or
experts or his assistants provided he exercised due skill and care and there is nothing to
doubt.
Planning : ​For proper conduct of work in efficient and timely manner.
Audit Evidence : ​Sufficient and appropriate evidence should be obtained by performing
compliance and substantive procedures.
Accounting Systems and Internal Controls : Management is responsible for maintaining the
same. The auditor has to check their adequacy.
Conclusion and Reporting : ​Auditor is required to express opinion on financial information on
the basis of conclusions drawn from evidences. He is required to conclude whether -
a. Financial information is prepared using consistent and acceptable accounting
policies.
b. Financial statements comply with relevant regulations.
c. There is adequate disclosure of all material matters.
There should be clear expression of opinion in report. If the report is other than unqualified,
auditor should state the reason for the same.
 AAS- 2
OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE OF THE AUDIT OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

​ he term 'General. Purpose Financial Statements' include Balance Sheet, Profit and Loss
T
Account and other statements and explanatory notes which from part thereof.

1. Objective of an Audit ​- The audit of financial statements is undertaken with the objective
to 'enable the auditor to express an opinion on such financial statements. For this, it is
essential that financial statements are prepared as per the recognized accounting policies
and practices and relevant statutory requirements.

The auditor's opinion does not constitute an assurance as to future viability of the
enterprise, or the efficiency or effectiveness with which its management has conducted the
affairs of the enterprise.

2. Responsibility for the financial statements ​- The management is responsible for

maintaining an up to date and proper accounting of various transactions entered into during
the course of the year. The auditor is responsible for forming and expressing an opinion on
the financial statements. The audit of the financial statements, does not relieve the
management of its responsibility.

3. Scope of an Audit ​- The auditor decides the scope of his audit having regard to
a. The terms of the engagement
b. The requirements of the relevant legislation
c. The pronouncements of the Institute (ICAI)
d. The judgments of various courts of law
However, the terms of engagement can not supercede the pronouncements of the Institute
or the provisions of relevant legislation.
1. Organising an Audit ​- The audit should adequately cover all aspects of the enterprise
which are relevant to the financial statements under audit. The auditor should be
reasonably satisfied that the information contained in the accounting records, etc. is reliable
and sufficient.The auditor should compare the financial statements with accounting records
and other source data to satisfy himself that there is no variation between the two. He
should assess the basis of selection of accounting policies and their consistent application.
He should satisfy himself about the compliance with the various relevant laws and rulings of
various courts of law.
5. Inherent limitations of Audit ​- The auditor, with a view to forming his opinion on the
financial statements follows certain audit procedures. He recognizes that because of the
limitations inherent in the test checks, audit and any system of internal control, some
material misstatement may remain undiscovered. It is true that in many situation a material
misstatement by management may be discovered in the course of an audit, but such
discovery is not the main objective of the audit. However, the auditor should extend his
procedures, if he has any indication that some fraud or error, which is likely to result in
material misstatement, may have taken place.
 The auditor is primarily concerned with, the items, which, whether individually or as a
group, are material in relation to the affairs of an enterprise. However, in the absence of
any definite standard to judge materiality, the auditor should make a decision about it on
the basis. of his professional experience and judgment.
The auditor is not expected to perform duties, which are outside the scope of his
competence, e.g. determining physical condition of certain assets.
If there are any constraints as regards the scope of audit, he should set them out in his
report and render a qualified opinion or a disclaimer of opinion, as deemed appropriate.

AAS- 3
DOCUMENTATION

"Documentation" refers to the working papers prepared or obtained by the auditor and retained
by him in connection with the performance of his audit.
1. Form and Content of working papers -​ These are affected by matters such as –
a. The nature of the engagement
b. The form of auditor's report
c. The nature and complexity of the client's business.
d. The nature and condition of the client's records and degree of reliance on internal controls, and
e. The need in particular circumstances for direction, supervision and review of work
performed by assistants.
2. Preparation of working papers ​- Following care should taken while preparing for working
papers -
a. Working papers should be designed and properly organized
b. They should be standardized
c. They should be adequately complete and detailed
d. All significant matters, which require the exercise of judgment and the auditor's
conclusion as regards them, should be included in working papers.
a. The auditor should ensure that the schedules, analysis and other working papers
prepared by the client and utilized in the course of the audit have been properly
prepared.
b. In case of recurring audits, some working paper files may be classified as permanent
audit files and current audit files.
3. Contents of permanent Audit file –
a. Information concerning the legal organizational structure of the entity, such as
Memorandum and Articles of Association in case of a company, and relevant
regulations in the case of a statutory corporation.
b. Extracts or copies of important legal documents, agreements and minutes relevant to the audit.
c. A record of the study and evaluation of internal controls related to the accounting
system.
d. Copies of audited financial statements of previous years.
e. Analysis of significant ratios and trends.
f. Copies of management letter, issued by auditor, if any:
 g. Record of communication with the retiring auditor, if any, before the acceptance of the
appointment as auditor.
h. Notes regarding significant accounting policies.
i. Significant audit observations of earlier years.
j. List of officers, their financial powers and authorities.
k. List of offices, factories, godowns, depots etc.
4. Contents of current audit file
a. Correspondence relating to acceptance of annual reappointment.
b. Extracts of important matters in the minutes of Board meetings and general meetings,
as are relevant to audit.
c. Evidence of the planning process of the audit and audit programme.
d. Analysis of transactions and balances.
e. A record of nature, timing and extent of auditing procedures performed, and the results
of such procedures.
f. Evidence that the work performed by assistants was supervised and reviewed.
g. Copies of communication with other auditors, experts and other third parties.
h. Letters or representation or confirmation received from the client.
i. Copies of letters or notes concerning audit matters communicated to or discussed with the client,
including the terms of the engagement and material weakness in relevant internal controls.
j. Conclusions reached by the auditor concerning significant aspects of the audit.
k. Copies of the financial information being reported on, and the related audit reports. .
I. Reports of branch auditors, internal. auditors and stock auditors etc.

5. Ownership and Custody of Working Papers

Working papers are the property of the auditor. He may, at his discretion, make any
portions or extracts from his working papers available to the client. The auditor should
adopt reasonable procedures for custody and confidentiality of his working papers and
should retain them for a time sufficient to meet the needs of his practice and satisfy any
pertinent legal or professional requirements of records retention.
W.e.f 01/04/2005 Onwards
● It is to be considered in auditing of financial information.
● Sufficient & appropriate documentation to provide a record of basis for auditors report and to
demonstrate that audit was performed in accordance with AAS and applicable legal and
regulatory requirements.
● Documentation (working papers) is the record of audit procedures performed, relevant audit
evidence obtained & conclusions the auditor reached.
● It may be recorded on paper or electronic or other media.
● Audit documentation for a specific audit engagement is assembled in an audit file.
● Purpose of A.D:-
i. Assisting Audit team to plan & perform the audit
ii. Assisting members of audit team to direct / supervise the work etc as per AAS-17.
iii. Demonstrating the accountability of Audit team for its work.
iv. Retaining a record of matters of continuing significance to future audits of the
 entity.
v. Enabling an experienced auditor to conduct reviews as per statement on Peer
Review.
vi. Enabling an experienced auditor to conduct external reviews as per applicable
legal or other requirement.
● Form, Content and Extent of Audit Documentation:-
Auditor should prepare documentation that enables an experienced auditor, having no
previous connection with the audit, to understand.
vii. Nature, timing, extent (NTE) and results of Audit procedures
viii. Audit Evidence obtained
ix. The conclusions reached on significant matters.
x. In relation to audit procedures designed to address identified risk of material
misstatements, conclusions that are not otherwise readily determinable from the
documentation of procedures or evidences.
● Auditor to document (a) Oral discussion and (b) Management response.
● If auditor has identified audit evidence that contradicts / is inconsistent with auditor’s final
conclusion regarding a significant matter, he (auditor) should document how he addressed
the contradiction.
● Audit to record
i. Who performed the audit work & date of such work
ii. Who reviewed specific audit documentation & date of such review.
● Auditor should record the identifying characteristics of the specific items tested.
● If in exceptional circumstances, auditor departs from basic principle or procedure in an AAS,
he should document the reasons for the same.
●  After date of audit report, if (in exceptional situations) auditor performs new procedures
etc. he should document the changes necessary including:
i. When & by whom such charges were made & reviewed (if applicable)
ii. Specific reasons for the changes, &
iii. The effect (if any) of changes on auditors conclusion.
●  After completing Audit file, auditor shouldn’t delete any documentation. However he may
make addition he should take care of above, same is the case with documentation of new
information received after A.R’s date.
● Auditor, should (regarding documentation)
i. Maintain its confidentiality & sale custody.
ii. Protect its integrity
iii. Enable its accessibility & retrievability, &
iv. Enable its retention for a period sufficient to meet the needs of the firm & legal
and professional requirements (subject to legal requirements but not shorter
than 10 years from date of audit report).
● He should adopt proper control procedures to maintain integrity, accessibility and
retrievability of data whether documentation is in paper, electronic or other media.
 AAS- 4
THE AUDITOR'S RESPONSIBILITY TO CONSIDER FRAUD AND ERROR IN AN
AUDIT OF
FINANCIAL STATEMENTS

1. Fraud - fraud refers to intentional misrepresentation of financial information by one or more

individuals among employees, management, those charged with governance, or third
parties. A fraud may involve
a. Manipulation or falsification of accounting records
b. Misappropriation of assets
c. Suppression or omission o ​ f effects of transactions from records or documents
d. Wrong accounting procedures
e. Misapplication of accounting policies
2. Error ​- It refers to unintentional mistakes in financial statements. For e.g.
a. Mathematical or clerical mistake
b. Oversight or misrepresentation of facts
c. Misapplication of accounting policies
3. Responsibility for detection of fraud and error ​- Prevention and detection of fraud and
error is the responsibility of the management, and for this purpose it should implement and
continuously operate an adequate system of internal control.
The audit should be planned in such a way that there is reasonable expectation of
detecting material misstatement in the financial information resulting from fraud and error
4. Inherent Limitations of an Audit
a. The test nature of an audit will involve judgement as to the areas to be tested and the
number of transactions to be examined.
b. Audit evidence in many cases is persuasive, and not conclusive
c. Material misstatements resulting from frauds are more difficult to detect than those
resulting from errors because frauds will usually involve acts with a view to conceal
frauds.
d. Audit programme is drafted only to help the auditor -to achieve the objective of framing
and expressing an opinion on financial statements.
If the auditor adheres to basic principles governing an audit, e.g. Performance of audit
work with requisite skill and competence, he will not be responsible for any subsequent
discovery of material misstatement in financial information resulting from fraud or error.
5. Discussion and inquiries ​- In planning the audit, the auditor should discuss with other
members of the audit team, the susceptibility of the entity to material misstatements in the
financial statements resulting from fraud or error. In addition the auditor should make
inquiries of the management regarding the accounting and internal control system in place
to prevent and detect error. In order to obtain insights regarding the susceptibility of the
entity to management fraud, the auditor should seek the views of those who are charged
with governance on the adequacy of accounting and internal control systems in place to
prevent and detect frauds and error, the risk of frauds and error and the competence and
integrity of management.
6. Audit Risk ​- When assessing inherent risk and control risk in accordance with AAS-6, the
auditor should consider how the financial statements might be materially misstated as a
result of fraud or error. Based on his assessment of inherent and control risk, the auditor
should design substantive procedures to reduce to an acceptably low level the risk that
misstatements resulting from fraud and error that are material to the financial statements
taken as whole will not be detected.

7. Procedures when circumstances indicate a possible misstatement – When the

auditor encounters circumstances that indicate presence of material misstatements
resulting from fraud and error, the auditor should perform procedures to determine whether
the financial statements are materially misstated. When the auditor identifies a
misstatement, he should consider whether such a misstatement might be indicative of a
fraud and if there is such an indication, he should consider the implication of the
misstatement in relation to other aspects of the audit, particularly the reliability of
management representation.
When the auditor confirms that, or is unable to conclude whether, the financial
statements are materially misstated due to fraud or error, he should consider a necessity
for a disclosure in the financial statements and if adequate disclosures are not made, the
necessity for a suitable disclosure in audit report.
8. Documentation - The auditor should document fraud risk factors identified and his
response to such factors.
9. Management representation - The auditor should obtain a management representation
that
a. It is responsible for the implementation and operation of accounting and internal control
systems that are designed to prevent and detect fraud and error;
b. It believes that the effect of uncorrected misstatements, both individually and in
aggregate, is immaterial;
c. It has disclosed to the auditor all facts relating to frauds or suspected frauds known to
the them; and
a. It has disclosed to the auditor the results of its assessment of the risk that the financial
statements may be materially misstated as a result of fraud or error.
10. Communication - When the auditor identifies a misstatement resulting from fraud or error,
,he should communicate that information to the appropriate level of management on a
timely basis, and consider the need to report such matters to those charged with
governance and if required to regulatory and enforcement authorities. The auditor should
communicate to the management any material weakness in internal control related to the
prevention or detection of fraud and error, which has come to his attention as a result of the
performance of the audit.
11. Auditor unable to complete the engagement - If the auditor concludes that it is not
possible to continue performing the audit due to material misstatements, he should
consider the professional and legal responsibilities applicable in the circumstances
including responsibilities to persons who made the audit appointment or regulatory
authorities. The AAS specifies that in such circumstances the auditor should consider the
possibility of withdrawal from the engagement .The AAS also specifies that if fraud or
suspected fraud was a factor in the existing auditor's withdrawal from the engagement, the
existing auditor should estate the facts relating to these matters to the incoming auditor.
 AAS – 5 AUDIT EVIDENCE

Sufficient and Appropriate : ​Sufficiency refer to quantum of evidences, whereas

appropriateness refer to quality. Evidences should be seen in totality.

Obtaining the Evidences Procedures

Compliance Substantive
Whether internal control Regarding
completeness, accuracy
have been designed and and validity of
transactions and
these are operating balances.
effectively throughout the
period.

Reliability of Evidences :
● External Evidences more reliable.
● Internal Evidences reliable if internal controls are effective.
● Written are more reliable than oral.
Consistency : ​If evidences from one source are inconsistent with those obtained from
other sources, auditor is required to perform extended procedures.
Methods :
a. Inspection – ​It involves examination of records, documents or assets, etc.
b. Computation – ​i.e. to check the arithmetical accuracy of data and records.
c. Analytical Review Procedures –​ Examination of significant ratios and trends.
d. Inquiry and confirmation – ​obtaining appropriate informations from persons orally
or In written form.
e. Observation – ​witnessing a process being performed by others.
 AAS- 6
RISK ASSESSMENT AND INTERNAL CONTROLS

According to this standard, it is the responsibility of the management to develop and operate. an
adequate. system of accounting and internal control. The auditor should acquaint himself with
the accounting system and internal control system in order to develop an effective audit plan.
The auditor should use his professional judgment to assess audit risk and to design audit
procedures to ensure that it is reduced to an acceptably low level.
1. Accounting System ​- Accounting system refers to the series of tasks and records of an
entity by which transactions are processed as a means of maintaining final records. The
auditor should obtain an understanding of the accounting system sufficient to identify and
understand
a. Major classes of transactions;
b. Manner of initiation of transaction;
c. Significant accounting records, supporting documents and specific accounts in the
financial statements; and
d. The accounting and financial reporting process.
2. Internal Control System ​- It refers to all the policies and procedures adopted by the
management of the entity to assist in achieving management's objective of:
a. Conducting the business in an orderly and effective manner;
b. Adherence to management policies.
c. Safeguarding of assets; and
d. Defection of fraud and error in a timely manner
"The Internal Control System comprises of
i. The Control Environment - It refers to the overall attitude, awareness and actions of
the directors. and management regarding the internal control system and its
importance in the entity.
II. Control Procedures - ​Control procedures are additional policies and procedures
established by the management to achieve entity's specific objectives. These
procedures include preparation of periodic reports, approving and controlling access to
documents and records etc.
1. Audit Risks - ​Auditors risk is the risk that the auditor may give an inappropriate opinion
when the financial statements are materially misstated. Audit risk has three components
viz.; inherent risk, control risk and detection risk.-
2. Inherent Risk - Inherent risk is the susceptibility of an account balance or class of
transaction to a material misstatement either individually or when aggregated with
misstatements of other balances or classes, assuming that there were no internal controls.
The auditor should study and evaluate the degree of inherent risk in order to determine the
audit plan. He should also consider other factors, which might compensate for an otherwise
high degree of inherent risk.
Inherent Limitations of Internal Controls
The objectives of internal control can only be reasonably, and not absolutely, achieved due
to the following limitations inherent in the system:
a. Management's concern about the operating system;
 b. Transactions of unusual nature may be missed by most controls;
c. Potential of human error;
d. Circumvention of controls through collusion;
e. Abuse of control by the person who is himself responsible for exercising it; f.
Inadequacy of procedures due to changes in conditions; and
g. Manipulations by management.
5. Control Risk.- ​Control risk is the risk that a misstatements could occur in an account
balance or class of transaction and that could be material, either individually or when
aggregated with other misstatements, will not be prevented or detected and corrected on a
timely basis by the accounting and internal control system.
I. Preliminary Assessment of Control Risk
In order to make a preliminary assessment of the control risk, the auditor should obtain
an understanding of the accounting system and related internal controls.
The preliminary assessment of control risk 'is the process of evaluating the likely
effectiveness of an entity's accounting on internal control system in preventing or
detecting and correcting material misstatements. Thus the auditor should assess the
control risk as high when
a. The entity's accounting and/or internal control system are/is not effective; or
b. It would be inefficient to evaluate the effectiveness of the accounting and internal
control system.
II. Test of Controls
Tests of controls are performed by an auditor to obtain audit evidence about the effectiveness of the
a. Whether the accounting and internal control systems are suitably designed to prevent
or detect and control material misstatements; and
b. Operation of internal controls throughout the period. '
Test of control may include the following procedures:
● Inspection of the documents and records;
● Inquiries about and observation of internal controls that leave no audit trail;
● Re-doing on a test basis, activities performed automatically by the system; and
● Testing of internal controls operating on computerized applications.
III. Final assessment of control risk
On the basis of the results of the test of control the auditor should evaluate whether the
preliminary assessment of control risk was correct or do they need to be revised. He
should accordingly determine any modification in the nature, timing and extent of audit
procedures.
6. Relationship between assessment of Internal and Control Risks - The auditor should
make a combined ,assessment of the inherent and control risks. This is because the
management often reacts to inherent risk situations by designing suitable accounting and
internal control system to prevent or detect and correct material misstatement.
7. Detection Risk - Detection risk is the risk that an auditor's substantive procedures will not
detect a misstatement that exists in an account balance or class of transactions that could
be material, either individually or when aggregated with misstatements in other balances or
classes.
 There is an inverse relationship between detection risk and the combined level of inherent
and control risks. Thus when inherent and control risks are high, acceptable detection risk
should be low to reduce the audit risk to an acceptably low level. It should, however, be
noted that the assessed levels of inherent and control risk cannot be sufficiently low to
eliminate the need to perform substantive procedures.
When the auditor determines that the detection risk regarding material assertion in the
financial statements cannot be reduced to an acceptably low level, the auditor should
express a qualified opinion or a disclaimer of opinion as may be appropriate.
8. Internal Controls In a Small Business ​- There may be inadequate segregation of
functions among a small number of persons who perform accounting procedures.. However
through an effective supervision by the owner or manager of the business who has direct
personal knowledge of the business and its transactions, this limitation can be neutralized.
But where effective supervision is lacking, the auditor should largely depend upon
subtractive procedures to form his opinion as regards financial information.
9. Communication of Weaknesses in Internal Control ​- Any material weakness in the
internal control noticed by the auditor during the course of his evaluation or audit
procedures should be communicated in writing to the management in a timely manner.
However, such communication should make it clear that the audit examination has not
been designed to determine the adequacy of internal controls.
 AAS- 7
RELYING UPON THE WORK OF AN INTERNAL AUDITOR
Though work of internal auditor can be useful to the statutory auditor, the statutory auditor alone will be
responsible for his report and for determination of the nature, timing and extent of the auditing procedures.
Scope and Objective of Internal audit function:
It depends on the size and structure of the enterprise and the requirements of its management.
The internal audit broadly covers following areas:
a. Review of accounting system and internal controls
b. Examination for management of financial and operating information.
c. Examination of the economy, efficiency and effectiveness of the operations.
d. Physical examination and verification.
Relationship between internal and external auditors:
a. Although the internal and external audit functions are different as regard their role and
objectives, the external auditor can usefully draw on the work of internal auditor to
determine the nature, timing and extent of the auditing procedures.
b. However, the external auditor should carefully subject the relevance of the internal control
system to his own examination.
c. The external auditor will alone be responsible for his report and the reliance on the internal
auditor's work will in no way reduce his responsibility.
General evaluation of Internal audit function:
The external auditor's evaluation and conclusions as to the internal audit function should take
into account the following:
a. Organlsational status : Whether the internal auditor reports directly to top management
and is free of any other operating responsibility, whether there are any restrictions as
regards the work of the internal auditor should be evaluated by external auditor.
b. Scope of coverage: The nature and depth of coverage of the internal auditor's
assignment vis-a-vis the management should be ascertained and how the management
acts upon his recommendations.
c. Technical competence: Whether the internal audit is under the charge of persons with
appropriate professional training and proficiency should be considered.
d. Due Professional care: Whether the internal audit function is property planned,
supervised" reviewed and documented should be ascertained.
Coordination: When the internal auditor's work is to be relied upon. The external auditor should
ascertain the internal audit plan and discuss with him at an early stage to determine the areas
where reliance may be placed. The internal. and external auditors should meet at regular
intervals to ensure effective coordination. They should share the information, which may help
each other.
Evaluating specific internal audit work:
He should review the internal auditor's work taking into account the following factors
a. The scope of work and related audit programme are adequate for the external auditor's
purpose.
b. The work was properly planned and the work of .assistants was properly supervised,
reviewed and documented.
c. Sufficient appropriate evidence was obtained.
d. Conclusions reached are appropriate in circumstances and any report_ prepared are
consistent with the results of the work performed.
e. Any exceptions disclosed by the internal auditor's procedures are properly resolved.
The external auditor's conclusions as to the review of the specific work should be documented.
He should also test the work of the internal auditor on which he intends to rely. The nature,
timing and extent of his tests will depend on his evaluation of internal audit function.
AAS- 8
AUDIT PLANNING
The first step in audit process is planning. Every audit should be carefully planned to ensure highest
technical standards make best use of audit personnel and achieve utmost efficiency. Audit plan helps to:
a. Ensure that appropriate attention is devoted to important areas of audit.
b. See that potential problems are promptly identified.
c. Ensure that work is completed on time.
d. Coordinate the work done by other auditors and experts.
e. Utilize the assistants properly.
Factors to be considered while planning the audit are:
a. Complexity of the audit.
b. Environment in which the entity operates.
c. Previous experience with the client.
d. Knowledge of client's business.
Knowledge of the client's business: It will enable the auditor to identify the events,
transactions and practices, that in his judgment, may have a significant effect on the financial
information. The auditor can obtain such knowledge from:
a. the client's annual report to its shareholders;
b. minutes of meetings of shareholders, Board of Directors etc;
c. internal financial management reports;
d. previous year's audit working papers;
e. discussion with client;
f. the client's policy and procedures manual;
g. consideration to the state of economy and its affect on client's business; and h. visit of the
client's premises and plant facilities.
Development of an overall plan:​ The overall plan should cover the following:
a. Terms of audit engagement and statutory responsibilities.
b. Nature and timing of reports or other communication.
c. Relevant legal and statutory requirements.
d. Accounting policies of client and changes therein.
e. Effect of new accounting or auditing pronouncements on the audit.
f. Identification of critical audit areas.
g. Conditions requiring special attention.
h. Degree of reliance as regards accounting system and internal control.
i. Possible rotation of emphasis on specific audit areas.
j. Nature, timing and extent of audit evidence to be obtained.
k. Work of internal auditors and reliance to be placed on them.
I. Consideration to branch auditor's report.
m. Allocation of work between joint auditors and the procedures for its control and review.
n. Establishing and coordinating the staff requirements.

Developing the audit programme :

The auditor should prepare a written audit programme setting forth the procedures that are
needed to be implemented while carrying out the audit plan. He may take into account the
reliance to be placed on internal controls.
The auditor has some flexibility in deciding when to perform audit procedures. But, sometimes
he may have no discretion as to timing, such as, observing the stock taking by the client's
personnel. The audit programme should consider previous year's audit programmes and should
be modified, if necessary.

AAS- 9
USING THE WORK OF AN EXPERT
An auditor during the course of an audit may have to place reliance on the work of an expert. An
expert is a person who possesses special skill, knowledge: and experience in a particular field,
other than accounting and auditing.
Determining the Need to use the Work of an Expert:
During the audit, an auditor may seek to obtain, either independently or from the client, audit
evidence by way of reports, opinions, valuations and statements of experts, such as value of
certain types of assets, actuarial valuation etc. In determining whether to use the work of an
expert, the auditor should consider the materiality of an item, the nature and complexity of item
etc.

Skills and Competence of Expert :

The auditor should satisfy himself regarding the expert's skill and competence by considering
his professional qualifications, experience and reputation in the field in which the auditor is
seeking evidence.
Objectivity of the Expert :
The auditor should consider the objectivity of the expert. Such objectivity may be affected if the
expert is an employee of the client or is otherwise related to the client.
Evaluation of the Work of an Expert: ,
The auditor should seek reasonable assurance that the expert's work constitutes appropriate
audit evidence in support of the financial information. He should see whether the expert has
used the source data, which are appropriate in the given circumstances. He should also obtain
an understanding of various assumptions and methods used by expert to determine their
reasonableness. In case the work of the expert does not support the related representation in
the financial statement, the auditor should attempt to resolve the inconsistency ​by discussions
with the client' and the expert. He may apply additional procedures, including engaging another
expert.
Even after performing necessary audit procedures, the auditor concludes, that the work of the
expert is inconsistent with the information in the financial statement or the work of expert does
not constitute appropriate audit evidence, he should express a qualified opinion, a disclaimer of
opinion or an adverse opinion, as appropriate.
Reference to Expert in Audit Report :
In case of an unqualified report, the auditor should not refer ​to the work of an expert. In case of
qualified opinion, he may refer to or describe the work of the expert to explain the nature of his
reservation. He, may refer the name of the expert subject to prior consent of the report.
 AAS-10
USING THE WORK OF ANOTHER AUDITOR
AAS-10 is applicable only to components audits and it excludes joint audit form its purview.
The procedures laid down in AAS-10 are applicable where the financial statement of a component of
business, For Example, branch, sales depot etc. are material. Where several components, immaterial in
themselves, are together material in relation to the financial statement as a whole, this AAS is applicable.
COMPONENT ​Any branch, division, subsidiary, J.V., or associates etc. whose financial
information is used in the financial statements of client.
Principal Auditor's Procedures:
The following procedures are recommended on the part of principal auditor:
1. Advise the other auditor of the use that is to be made of his work and report.
2. The principal auditor should also inform the areas requiring special consideration and the
timetable for completion of audit.
3. Advise the other auditor of the significant accounting auditing and reporting requirements.
4. Ascertain from other auditors any limitation on the scope of his work by the terms of
engagement.
5. Consider the significant findings of the other auditor.
6. The principle auditor is not required to evaluate the professional competence or
independence of other auditor except in doubtful situation,
7. He may require the other auditor to submit responses to a questionnaire regarding the audit
work performed.
8. He may discuss with the other auditor and concerned branch official the audit findings
affecting the financial statements of the branches.
9. If necessary, he may require that supplementary tests be performed or he may himself
perform such tests.
10. In case of foreign branch, the principal auditor should consider the qualification, experience
and expertise of the foreign branch auditor.
Documentation:
1. The principal auditor should maintain in his working paper / files the financial statement of the
branches, which are audited by other auditor. He should also document the manner in which he has
applied the audit procedures and conclusions thereof.
2. When the other auditor has qualified his audit report, the principal auditor should refer in his working
paper the manner in which he dealt with the same.
Coordination between Auditors:
1. There should be coordination between the principal auditor and branch auditor so what they can
discharge their responsibility effectively.
2. The other auditor should bring to the notice of principal auditor any of his significant findings, adhering
to the time scales, ensuring compliance with legal requirements, etc.
3. If the principal auditor requires a specific audit procedure to be carried out or to answer a detailed
questionnaire, the other auditor should comply with the same.
Consideration of Report of Other Auditor
1. The principal auditor should qualify or disclaim his opinion when he concludes that he cannot use the
work of the other auditor and has not been able to perform sufficient additional procedures with respect
to the financial statements submitted by the branch auditor.
2. The principal auditor should consider the qualification of the branch auditor's report in relation to the
financial statement of the entity as a whole.
Division of Responsibility:
1. The principal auditor is not responsible for work carried out by the other auditor unless
there are doubtful . circumstances
2. The principal auditor's report should clearly state the division of responsibility by indicating the extent to
which the financial statement of branches audited by other auditors have been included in the financial
statement of the entity e.g. the number of branches / divisions audited by other auditors.

AAS – 11 Management Representation

Management Representation – ​written / oral confirmation by them w.r.t. items included in

financial statement.
Example :
(i) For Financial Statement as a whole.
ii. For Accounting Policies.
iii. Investments.
iv. Provision for claims, etc.
Types of MRL :
(i) Letter issued by management.
ii. Letter from auditor outlining his understanding, duly acknowledged and confirmed by
management.
Elements :
● Addressed to Auditor.
● Dated and signed by proper authority.
● MRL date ​<​ AR date.
● For specific transfer there may be separate MRLs.
Management Representation as Audit Evidence :
● He should use his professional judgement to decide the areas in which MRL is required.
● Management Representation should be in writing.
● Auditor should seek corroborative evidences.
● Evaluate its reasonableness and consistency.
● Person rendering Management Representation should be well informed.
● Management Representation Letter can’t be substitute for other audit evidences.
● Sometimes it may be only evidence.
Documentation : ​of both types of Management Representation Letters.

Refusal by Management : Auditor asks for MRL

Management provides Management Refuses

 
OK Auditor should himself prepare it
with
a request to acknowledge the same.

Management Management
Acknowledges refuses
 
 OK Limitation on
Scope
of work of​ auditor
 AAS-12
JOINT AUDITORS
Division of Work :
The joint auditors should divide the audit work in anyone of the following basis:
1. Components of financial statements
2. Geographical location
3. Functional areas and activities
4. Period basis
The division of work among joint auditors should be adequately documented and communicated
to the entity.
Coordination among Joint Auditors:
Where a company auditor comes across matters, which are relevant to the areas of
responsibility of their joint auditors, he should communicate it immediately to the other joint
auditors to discharge himself of the responsibility.
Relationship among Joint Auditors:
Each joint auditor is responsible for the work allocated to him. However, in respect of following
areas, all the joint auditors are jointly and severally responsible.
1. Audit work not divided among joint auditors and carried out by all of them.
2. Matters, which are brought to the knowledge of joint auditors by one of them and on which
there is an agreement among the joint auditors.
3. Collective decisions taken by joint auditors such as the decision regarding the nature,
extent and timing of the audit procedures to be carried out.
4. Compliance and disclosure requirements as per statute.
In case the information is brought to the other joint auditors by an auditor after submission of the
audit report, the other joint auditors would not be responsible for such matter.
Each joint auditor is responsible for drafting his own audit programme and determine nature,
extent of checking etc.
Each joint auditor should keep appropriate working papers, which enables him to come to a
conclusion regarding the financial statements.
In the case of audit of a large entity with several branches. In such a case, it is the separate
responsibility of each joint auditor to review the reports of the branches allotted to him and to
ensure that they are properly incorporated into the accounts of the entity.
In respect of branches, which do not fall under any division or zone, which were separately
assigned to different joint auditors, they may agree among themselves regarding the division of
work relating to such branch returns.
Each joint auditor is entitled to rely upon the work carried by other joint auditors. It is not
necessary for a joint auditor to review the work performed by other joint auditors or perform any
tests to ascertain whether the work has actually been performed in accordance with generally
accepted audit procedures.
If one of joint auditors also carries out the audit of branches or other division of the entity, the
joint auditors. are entitled to rely upon the work carried out by him, unless the other joint auditor
specifically brings out any material discrepancy.
Reporting Responsibilities:
Where the joint auditors are in disagreement with regard to any matter, each one of them should
express his own opinion through a separate report. The joint auditor is not bound by the views
of the majority of joint auditors regarding matters to be covered in the report.
 AAS – 13 AUDIT MATERIALITY

Materiality :
● Material items are those which may influence the judgement of users of statement.
● It may be quantitative / qualitative.
● It depends upon –
(i) Size of item (ii) Nature of item, (iii) Statutory provisions, etc.
● Materiality to be considered from both point of views –
i. Individual A/c.; and
ii. Overall financial statement.
● Auditor to consider materiality while –
i. Determining NTE of audit procedure; and
ii. Evaluating effect of misstatement.

Relationship between Materiality and Audit risk

● Degree of audit Risk and Materiality Level.

Reason ​– Generally management / employees don’t commit fraud in high value items.
Moreover, as a general practice, auditor checks high value items in detail. Thus it is less
risky that high value F & E may not be detected. Thus high materiality level leaves audit
risk at lower degree. Thus inverse relation.

Procedure and considerations by Auditor –

● Auditor decides upon mat level during planning stage which may be ​changed during
progress of audit. May be increased/decreased for specific A/c.
● If ARP indicates misstatements, auditor should adopt other procedures to estimate it.
● Aggregate uncorrected misstatement =
i. Specific misstatement identified by Auditor +
ii. Aggregate uncorrected misstatements (not identified) +
iii. Net effect of uncorrected misstatement identified during previous year’s audit.
● Auditor concludes aggregate uncorrected misstatement are material

Ask management to adjust f. st.

Mgt. does Mgt. refuses

​ ​
OK qualify / adverse
 AAS-14
ANALYTICAL PROCEDURES

"Analytical review procedure" refers to analysis of significant ratios and trends including the
resulting investigation of fluctuations and relationships that are inconsistent with other relevant
information or which deviates from predicted amounts. The auditor should apply analytical
review procedures at the planning and the overall stages of audit.
Nature and purpose of Analytical Procedures:
Analytical review procedures includes both inter-firm and intra firm comparisons. The latter is vis-a-vis:
a. Comparable information for prior periods.
b. Predictive estimates prepared by auditor e.g. estimation of depreciation change.
c. Anticipated results of the entity such as budgets or forecasts.
d. Similar industry information - entity's ratio of sales to debtors with industry averages.
It depends on the auditor's judgment as to the nature of procedures, methods arid level 6f
applications.
Purposes ​I stages of application of Analytical Review Procedures:
The analytical review procedures can be used by the auditor for the following purposes / at
following stages:
i. While planning the nature, timing and extent of other audit procedures.
ii. As a means of substantiating the financial assertion relating to business transactions.
iii. Overall review of the financial statements in the final review stage of the audit.
Stage I - Planning the audit:
Analytical review procedures assist in understanding the business and in identifying areas of
potential risk. It may indicate aspects of the business of which the auditor was not aware,
Stage II - Analytical review tasks as useful substantive procedures:
The following are the factors that need to be considered while applying analytical procedures as
substantive tests:
1. Extent of reliance that can be placed on analytical procedures and results derived thereof.
2. Nature and complexity of the business.
3. Reliability of information available
4. Relevance of information available.
5. Sources from which information is available i.e. internal/external sources.
6. Comparability of the information available.
7. Knowledge gained by the auditor in the previous year's audit.
8. Auditor's understanding of the effectiveness of the accounting and internal control systems
and types of problems that in prior periods have given rise to accounting adjustments.
Extent of reliance that can be placed on Analytical Procedures:
The extent of reliance that the auditor places on the results of analytical procedures depends on
the following factors:
1. Materiality of the items involved. .
2. Other audit procedures directed towards the same audit objectives e.g. other procedures
performed by the auditor in reviewing the collectability of accounts receivable.
3. Accuracy with which the expected results of analytical procedures can be predicted.
4. The auditor should also test the control over the preparation of information used in applying
 analytical procedures.
State III - Overall review at the end of the audit:
The auditor should apply analytical procedures at the end of the audit when of in overall
conclusion as to the consistency financial statement with that of auditor's knowledge of the
business. The drawn thereof is intended to corroborate the evidences found during the audit of
individual element or components, of the financial statement. Where, based on analytical pr
ocedures, the auditor concludes that he has to apply further procedures before forming
conclusions, then he has to apply such procedures which he considers deemed fit.
Investigation of unusual items:
When analytical procedures identify major fluctuations or relationships that are inconsistent with
other relevant information, the auditor should investigate and seek explanation from
management and other corroborative evidences.
 AAS – 15
AUDIT SAMPLING
Sample DUS METER
Audit Sampling – ​Meaning – Application of audit procedure on ​Less than 100% of items
within a class of tr./A/c. Balance
● It may be ​statistical or n ​ on-statistical.
● It requires ​skill and competence on part of auditor.
● Auditor should try his level best to choose sample which should be ​true representative
of population.
● Choosing all items above certain amount is not sampling.
Design of Audit Sample – ​It depends on following :
i. Audit Objective – Specific objective and procedures.
ii. Population – It should be appropriate.
iii. Stratification – Dividing ​heterogeneous (different characteristics) population in more
homogeneous (similar characteristics) sub-population. For getting same level of
assurance, it results in smaller sample size.
Sampling Units – ​Individual units constituting the population.
Size of Sample – Auditor should consider overall population, tolerable error, expected error and
sampling risk.

Method of Sampling – Each item in population should have equal chances of being chosen.
Thus –
1. Random Sample – use of random no table. Each sampling unit has equal probability of
being selection.
2. Systematic Sample – Having fixed interval, between any consecutive units selected.
However, it can be adopted only when population is not structured in a way that it
corresponds to a particular trend.
3. Haphazard Selection – No intention to include/exclude a particular item. Equivalent to
(1).
Expected Error - If auditor ​expects error in sample – ​larger sample size, otherwise smaller
sample size.

Tolerable Error – ​Maximum Error in population that auditor is ready to accept for a given
sample size.

Evaluation of Sample Results – ​Steps are as follows :

I​st,​ Step – Analysis of Error in Sample –
● Judge whether an item is error or not.
● If sufficient and appropriate evidence can’t be obtained regarding a specific item, it
could be an error.
● Auditor to check < cause of error and its impact on other phases of audit.
● Common trend in error  ​ ​ extended procedures.
II​nd ​Step – Projection of Error –
● Project it to entire population by appropriate method.
 ● Consider both quantitative and qualitative aspects of error found while projecting.
III​rd​ Step – Reassessing Sampling Risk –
● If error in population > tolerable error;
● Either revise sampling risk or extend audit procedure.
Sampling Risk - It arises from possibility that auditor’s conclusion based upon sample may be
different from conclusion that would have been reached if complete population were
subjected to same audit procedure.
● If auditor willing to accept less risk ​​ large size of sample to be chosen.
● It is always there in sampling..
Sampling Risk
In Compliance Procedure Risk of under reliance Risk of over reliance
In Substantive Procedure Risk of incorrect rejection Risk of incorrect acceptance
● Less risky ​ More risky
● Leads to more work to be  May lead to erroneous
opinion
performed by auditor by auditor.
 AAS – 16
Going Concern

Going Concern : an entity is said to be going concern if it is likely to continue in existence for
foreseeable future.
​ It is a fundamental accounting assumption (AS-1).

Auditor’s Consideration : ​whether going concern assumption adopted by management holds

goods.
​ There may be indicators when auditor should adopt extended procedures.

Indicators : Financial Operating Other

1. Negative net worth/working cap. 1. Loss of key management 1. Pending legal
proceedings
.without replacement.
2. Arrears / discontinuance of 2. Loss of major market or 2. Change in Govt. Policy
Dividends or supplier. affecting the entity
adversely.
3. Adverse financial ratio 3. Labour unrest strikes etc. 3. Non-compliance with
Statutory
requirements
4. Substantial losses (operating). 4. Loss of major licence,
franchise, etc.
5. Borrowings approaching maturity but
no prospects of renewal /
repayment
6. Short term borrowing for long
term asset financing.
7. No payment to creditors on due date.
8. No compliance with terms in loan
agreement.
9. Negative cash flow from operation.
10. Rearrangement with creditors for
reduction​ liability.
11. Change from creditors to cash on
delivery transaction with supplier.
 ● Such indications may be mitigated (compensating) by some positive factors. For
example – labour difficulties may be solved by negotiations and compromises, or
loss of some major supplier may be compensated by availability of some alternate
source of supply.
● But in case of question regarding going concern, auditor should obtain sufficient and
appropriate evidence e​ .g.
1. Discussion with management.
2. Reviewing events after Balance sheet date.
3. Taking legal advice.
4. Analyse future plans of management.

Audit procedures – Conclusion and Reporting

If doubt regarding Going Concern Assumption

Obtain Audit Evidence

Evaluate those Evidences & Conclude whether


​Going Concern is Going concern is Going concern

Appropriate inappropriate question is not
resolved

Due to Otherwise The effect is Whether financial

Mitigatory ​ material and statements
disclose
Factors clean pervasive such fact
​ report 
auditor considers Adverse
whether it needs to report Yes No
be disclosed in ​ ​
financial statements Normally
Modified
by the management clean report report
If (But he may (qualify
provide
disclosure in
Yes No his audit report
  as well)
Ask mgt. to clean
disclose the report
same

If mgt. If mgt.
do not discloses
disclose
​​ ​
qualify the clean
report report/
modified
(disclosure)

21. On 30​th September, 2000 a company’s issued and paid up capital was Rs.25 crores
comprising of fully paid equity shares of Rs.10 each. This included Rs.50,00,000 capital
issued for cash; Rs.4,50,00,000 capital issued for purchase of business; Rs.20 crores on
issue of bonus shares from time to time by capitalizing various reserves including Rs.5
crores by capitalizing capital redemption reserve. The company had fixed assets costing
Rs.2 crores on which depreciable provision was Rs.1.95 crores, which was equal to the
full cost of depreciable assets. The balance Rs.5 lakhs represented the cost of land. It has
discontinued its operations for last many years. The company had made investments in
various companies to the tune of Rs.30 crores. Unfortunately, all the investee companies
have turned out to be BIFR cases. Nothing is expected to be realized on such
investments. The company has dues from customers totaling to Rs.4.95 crores of which
Rs.4.90 crores are due from businesses, which have become defunct. The balance Rs.5
lakhs are due for over 3 years. The accumulated losses are Rs.10 crores. The amounts
due to suppliers are Rs.3 crores and they are overdue. The balancing figure in the
Balance Sheet refers to loan from Financial Institutions. Workers who had put in long
years of service have lodged claims for termination benefits of Rs.10 crores, which have
been decreed in their favour. No accounting entry has been passed for the same since the
decree on 1-1-1997. In the light of AAS-16, relating to Going Concern, you are asked to
write appropriate paragraph of audit report. Give reason for supporting your report. ​(C.A.
Final, Nov., 2000)
Ans.: Considering these indicators and as per the facts of the case, the company is not a going
concern as on September 30,2000 on account of following reasons :
i. The company has discontinued its operations for last many years. Its productive
fixed assets are fully depreciated. The only productive asset left is land worth Rs.5
lakhs.
ii. The claim of workers for termination benefits amounting to Rs.10 crores though
decreed on January 1, 1997 has not been provided for in the books of account. The
accumulated loss of the enterprise would be much higher if these losses were
provided for.
iii. The amounts recoverable from customers totaling Rs.4.95 crores of which Rs.4.90
crores are due from business which are totally defunct are doubtful of recovery in its
entirety. Even the balance amount is due for more than 3 years.
iv. The company has not been able to pay to its suppliers amounting to Rs.3 crores
which are overdue.
v. The company’s investment to the tune of Rs.30 crores are not realizable and are
 worthless in view of the fact that all investor companies have turned sick. The
accumulated loss of the enterprise would be much higher if the loss on account of
diminution in value of investment was provide for.
vi. The balance figure for term loan from financial institutions works out to be Rs.17
crores as per records which the company is unable to pay.
vii. The net worth of the company is completely eroded and there are no mitigation
factors or any support from the group company or financial institution that would
prevent its ultimate collapse.
Thus, in view of the aforesaid financial operating and other indicators, the assumption of
going concern is not appropriate. Since the qualification is very material and all pervasive
an adverse opinion rather than a ‘subject’ to qualification would be required.
Paragraph in the Audit Report. “The Company has discontinued its operations for last
many years and has not been able to honour its obligation t creditors and financial
institutions for quite some time. Thus total accumulated losses are Rs.54.5 crores (and not
as…………. Reported).
After taking into account the above factors we are of the opinion that the company is not a
going concern as on September 30, 2000 and, thus the using of going concern
assumption in the preparation of financial statements is inappropriate.
In our opinion, considering the information given in preceding paragraph, the financial
statements do not give a true and fair view of the financial position of the company at
September 2002 and the results of its operations for the year that ended”.

AAS- 17
QUALITY CONTROL FOR AUDIT WORK

Objective ​- To establish standards on quality control:

a. Policies and procedures of an audit firm for audit work generally, and
b. Procedures regarding the work delegated to assistants on an individual audit.
Meaning of certain terms
a. Auditor -' The person with final responsibility for the audit.
b. Audit firm - A proprietary or a partnership firm providing audit service.
c. Personnel - All partners and professional staff engaged in the audit practiced of the firm.
d. Assistants - Personnel involved in an audit other than auditor.
Implementation of Quality Control ​- The audit firm should implement quality control policies to
ensure that all audits are conducted in accordance with Auditing and Assurance Standard
(AASs).
Essential factors for incorporating quality control in audit work -​ .
a. Professional Requirements - Adherence to basic principles such as independence, integrity,
objectivity, confidentiality, etc.
b. Skills and competence - Audit personnel should have required degree of skill and
competence.
c. Assignment - Audit work should be assigned only to competent personnel.
d. Delegation - There is to be sufficient direction, supervision and review of work at all levels.
e. Consultation - Consultancy within and outside the firm with experts.
f. Acceptance and Retention of clients - Evaluation of prospective client and review of existing
client should be done.
g. Monitoring - Continued adequacy and effectiveness of quality control policies should be
monitored.
The firm's quality control policy should be effectively communicated to its personnel.
Quality control for Individual Audits ​- The quality control policies applicable to firm should be
implemented for individual audits to the extent applicable. The audit work should be delegated
to assistants with professional competence and should be appropriately directed and
supervised. Audit assistants should be informed of the nature of business, accounting policies,
possible accounting or auditing problems. They should be explained of what is expected of them
and how to achieve it. They should be informed about the importance of audit programme, time
budgets and overall audit plan.
Supervision ​- Persons with supervisory responsibilities should
a. Monitor the progress of audit;
b. Become informed of and address significant accounting and auditing questions raised during the audit;
c. Resolve the differences of professional judgment and consider the level of consultation as appropriate.
Review ​- Review of work of audit staff should be carried out to ensure that the:
a. Work has been performed as per the audit programme.
b. Work performed has been adequately documented.
c. All significant matters have been resolved or are reflected in audit conclusions.
d. Objectives of the audit procedures have been achieved, and
e. Conclusions expressed are consistent with the work performed.
Matters to be reviewed On a timely basis
a. Overall audit plan and the audit programme.
b. Assessment of inherent and control risks.
c. Changes to be made to audit plan and programme.
d. Documentation of the audit evidence obtained from substantive procedures and the conclusions drawn
there from.
e. Any amendment to the financial statement arising out -of the auditor's examination, and the auditor's
proposed observations / report.
Persons not connected with audit may be requested to perform additional procedures before
issuing the auditor's report.
 AAS-18
AUDIT OF ACCOUNTING ESTIMATES
Accounting Estimate ​-An approximation of an item in the absence of a precise means of
measurement. For example, provision for taxation, provision for warranty claims, provision for a
loss from a law suit, accrued revenue etc.
Responsibility for Accounting Estimates ​- Management is responsible for making accounting
estimates included in financial statement.
Nature of Accounting Estimates ​- The determination of accounting estimates may be simple
or complex, depending upon the nature of the item. Accounting estimates may be determined
as part of the routine accounting system operating on a continuous basis, or may be non-routine
only at the end of the period. The uncertainly associated with an item, or lack of. objective data
may make it incapable of reasonable estimation.
Audit Procedures ​- The auditor should ensure that an accounting estimate is reasonable in
circumstance, and when required, is appropriately disclosed in the financial statements.
Following approaches should be used in the audit of an accounting estimate
a. Review and test the process used by management to develop the estimate.
b. Use an independent estimate for comparison with that prepared by management, or
c. Review subsequent events, which confirm the estimate made.
d. Obtain external evidence, where possible, to corroborate internal evidence.
e. Evaluate the data and assumptions on which the estimate is based and ensure
reasonableness and consistency of assumptions.
f. Use of experts in case of complex estimating process
g. Review the counting appropriateness of formula used by management.
h. Test the calculation procedures used by management.
i. Where possible, compare accounting estimates made for prior periods with actual results of
those periods.
Evaluation of Results of Audit Procedures ​- The final assessment of an accounting estimate
would be based on the auditor's knowledge of the client's business and its consistency with
other audit evidence obtained during the audit. If he of the opinion that the accounting estimates
prepared by the management is significantly different from that assesses the auditor, he should
request the management to revise the same, If the management refuses to revise the estimate,
it would be considered a misstatement and the auditor would need to consider its effect on the
financial statements.
 AAS – 19
Subsequent Events

Subsequent Event : ​Significant events occurring between Balance sheet date and Auditor Report’s date.
Auditors duty and Audit procedures :
● Ensure that all events upto AR date requiring adjustment/disclosure (as per AS-4) in f. statement
have been identified and incorporated.
● Review management’s procedure for identification of sub events.
● Inquiring entity’s lawyer regarding litigation.
● Reading entity’s latest interim f.st., budgets. Cash flow statements/forecasts, etc.
● Reading minutes of meetings of shareholders, B.O.D. and other executive committees.
● Inquiring management about significance of sub events.
● If another auditor audits the component of entity, principal auditor should make similar enquiries and
procedures w.r.t component regarding events between another auditors report and principal
auditor’s report.

Reporting : ​If management doesn’t agree for such events which as per auditors opinion should be
incorporated then qualify / adverse report.

(31 / 3 – 4 / 6) AS – 4 Events occurring after B/S Date

Events Confirming Events confirming Events affecting

Conditions existed conditions which arise going concern
At B/S date after B/S date

Adjustment in f. st. No adjustment. If material, Adjusted in

Then only disclosure. f. st.
 AAS 20 - KNOWLEDGE OF THE BUSINESS

Obtaining the knowledge -

● Auditor should obtain knowledge of the business to identify/understand the events
transactions and practices that may have a significant effect on financial statements or
audit report.
● General knowledge of economy and industry (level of auditor’s knowledge is less than
that of management).
● Knowledge at the start of the engagement updation during audit.
● Continuous need for knowledge (knowledge is refined and added in later stages of
Audit).
● In continuous engagement, he’ll update information to identify significant changes since
last audit.
Sources : For ​E.g.:
i. Previous Experience.
ii. Discussion with people with entity.
iii. Discussion with internal auditor.
iv. Discussion with other auditor (Advisor).
v. Discussion with knowledgeable people outside entity.
vi. Publication.
vii. Legislation and Regulation.
viii. Visits to entity/plant.
ix. Documents produced by entity (minutes, manuals, plans), etc.
Knowledge assist him in following :
i. Assess risk and problems
ii. Plan and perform audit effectively.
iii. Evaluating audit evidence.
Better service to clients.
 AAS – 21
Consideration of Law and Regulation in an audit of f.st.

Non-Compliance : ​Act of ​commission / omission by entity (intentional / unintentional), which are

contrary to prevailing laws or regulation.
● Management’s responsibility to ensure that entity’s operations are ​conducted as per
laws and regulations.
● Management’s responsibility for p ​ revention and detection of non-compliance.
● Management should –
i. Monitor legal requirements.
ii. Design and operate proper I.C.
iii. Develop publicise and follow code of conduct.
iv. Training to employees.
v. Monitor compliance with code of conduct.
vi. Establish legal department.
vii. Maintain register of significant laws.
viii. In larger entity, to ensure these responsibilities may be assigned to Internal
auditor or Audit committee.
Auditor’s Consideration :
● Auditor is/can ​not be held r​ esponsible for preventing non-compliance.
● The ​risk of non-detention of non-compliance is h ​ igher.
● But audit may reveal condition/events compliance.
● Thus he should accordingly plan and perform audit. For this, he should perform :
1. He should obtain ​general understanding of (A) Legal and regulatory ​framework
applicable to entity and (B) How entity comply with it.
2. Perform procedures to ​identity non-compliance to be considered when preparing
f.st. specifically.

Inquire mgt. as to compliance Inspect correspondence with

relevant authorities
3. Sufficient and appropriate evidence for compliance with those laws and regulation
having effect on material amounts and disclosures in financial statement. (​such
laws are known and considered w.r.t. f. st.)
● Except 1, 2, 3, auditor need not test compliance.
 ● However, there may be instances of possible non-compliance came to auditors
notice (​fine penalty, etc.)
● Written MRL ​ that management has disclosed to auditor all known / possible
non-compliance effecting preparation of f. st.
Procedures :​ When ​non-compliance is discovered :
● Understanding nature/circumstances etc. to evaluate possible effect on f.st.
● Documentation and discuss with management.
● May consult entity’s lawyer.
● Consider implication of non-compliance w.r.t. other phases of audit (​Reliability of
MRL).
● If unable to obtain information about suspected non-compliance – consider its effect on
A.R.

Communication / Reporting of non-compliance :

To Management To Users of A.R. To Regulatory

If he Authorities
 Communicate it to ------- Only if required by
BOD and Senior mgt. Concludes that Is unable to determine statute etc.
Non-compliance has non-compliance due to
Mat. Effect on f.st. limitations imposed by
 or
qualify/adverse
Mgt./Entity Circumstances
​ 
Qualify / disclaim Consider its
Effect on AR
Withdrawal from Engagement :
● He may withdraw if management doesn’t take remedial steps considered
necessary by auditor, even if non-compliance is not material to f.st.
● He may seek legal advice (​e.g. Management involvement in non-compliance)
● When incoming auditor communicates, tell him ​reasons of such withdrawal (not of
its affairs)
 AAS – 22 [Initial Engagements – Opening Balance

Initial Engagements :
i. When financial statements are audited for 1​st​ time or
ii. Some other auditor audited the financial statement for preceding period.
Opening Balance :
A/c. Balances existing at beginning of the period ​i.e. closing balance of preceding period
b/f to current period.
● It reflects the effect of :
i. Transaction / Events of preceding period, and
ii. A/c. policies applied in preceding period.
Evidence :
Obtain sufficient app. evidence that :
a. Correctly b/f.
b. Opening Balance d ​ on’t contain m
​ isstatements affecting current pd. f.st. and
c. Consistent application of appropriate A ​ /c. policy.
Audit Procedure :
He should consider :
i. A/c. policy followed by entity.
ii. Type of preceding period’s. A.R. – clean / modified
iii. Nature of opening Balance – risk of misstatement.
iv. Materiality of opening balance for current pd’s f.s.t.
​ ​Financial Statement for preceding period
 ​Audited by some other Auditor Not Audited

​Sufficient App. evidence (for Op. bal.) Extended Procedure

by having audited financial statement (i) CA & CL: ​Audit Evidence
as
part of audit procedure
during
or current year.
(ii) Others : ​may check
records
Generally reliance During C.Y. audit, underlying op. balance or
on them indication of seek external
misstatement in confirmations.
opening balance

Extended procedures

Audit Conclusion & Reporting :

● If unable to obtain sufficient app. evidence regarding opening balance – qualified
/ disclaimer.
● If opening balance contain misstatement affecting C.Y. financial statement and
which is not properly incorporated disclosed in financial statement – qualified /
adverse.

AAS-23
RELATED PARTIES
The auditor should perform audit procedures designed to obtain sufficient appropriate audit
evidence regarding the identification and disclosure by management of related parties and the
related party transactions that are material to the financial statements.
Existence and Disclosure of Related Parties :
1. He should -
a. Review the entity’s procedures for identification of related parties.
b. Review his working papers for the prior year for names of known related parties.
c. Review shareholders records to determine the names of principal shareholders or
appropriate, obtain a list of principal shareholders form the share register,
d. Review the joint venture and other relevant agreements entered into by the entity.
e. Review statutory records like memorandum and articles of association, minutes of
board and shareholders’ meetings and other relevant records such as register of
director’s interest.
2. Where the financial reporting framework requires disclosure of related party relationships,
the auditor should satisfy himself that the disclosure is adequate.
Transactions with Related Parties :
1. The auditor should review information provided by directors and key management
personnel of the entity identifying related party transactions. During the course of the audit,
the auditor should carry out detailed procedures, which may identify the existence of
transactions with related parties.
2. The auditor needs to be alert for transactions, which appear unusual in the circumstances
and may indicate the existence of previously unidentified related parties.
Examine Identified related party transactions:
1. In examining the identified related party transactions, the auditor should obtain sufficient
appropriate audit evidence as to whether these transactions have been properly recorded
and disclosed.
2. Given the nature of related party relationships, evidence of related party transactions may
be limited. Because of such transactions, the auditor would consider performing procedures
such as:
a. Confirming the terms and amount of the transaction with the related party.
b. Obtaining confirmation from persons associated with the transaction, such as, banks,
lawyers, guarantors and agents.
Management Representations:
The auditor should obtain a written representation from management regarding:
a. The completeness, accuracy and validity of information provided regarding the identification
of related parties; and
b. The adequacy of related party disclosure in the financial statements.
Audit conclusion and Reporting:
If he is unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence concerning related parties and
transactions with such parties or concludes that their disclosure in the financial statements in
not adequate, he should express a qualified opinion or a disclaimer of opinion in his audit report,
as may be appropriate.

AAS-24
AUDIT CONSIDERATIONS RELATING TO ENTITES USING SERVICE
ORGANISATIONS
The Auditor should consider how a service organisation affects the client’s accounting and
internal control systems so as to plan and develop an effective audit approach.
Considerations for The Auditor of the Client
When the services provided by service organisations are limited to recording and processing of
transactions of the client and the client retains authorization and maintenance of accountability,
the client might be able to implement effective policies and procedures within its organisations.
However, the client may have to rely upon the policies and procedures of the service
organisation where the latter executes the transactions and maintains accountability on behalf
of the client.
While planning his audit, the auditor should determine the significance of activities performed by
the service organisation and their relevance to the audit. In doing so the auditor should
consider:
● Nature of the services provided.
● Terms of contract.
● Material financial statement assertions that are affected by the use of the service
organisation.
● Inherent risks associated with those assertions.
● Extent to which the client’s systems interact with those of the service organisation.
● Client’s internal controls that are applied to the transactions processed by the service
organisation.
● The capability and financial strength of the service organisation.
● Documentation of systems manual of the service organisation.
● Information available on general controls and computer systems controls relevant to the
client’s application.
● Reports of the auditor or internal auditor of the service organisation.
When the auditor of the client concludes that the activities of the service organisation are
significant to the entity and to his audit, he should obtain sufficient understanding of the service
organisation’s accounting and internal control system. If the information he is able to gather is
insufficient, he should consider the need to request the auditor of the service organisation to
furnish him information on specified areas.
Service Organisation’s Auditor’s Report
When the auditor of the client uses the report of the auditor of service organisation, he should
consider:
a) The professional competence of the reporting auditor; and
b) Nature and content of the report.
The report submitted to the client’s auditor would ordinarily be one of the two types as follow:
Type A - Report of Suitability of Design
The contents of this report are
a. A description of the service organisation’s accounting and internal control System; and
b. An opinion by the service organisation’s auditor that
i. The above description is accurate;
ii. The systems controls have been placed in operation; and
i. The accounting and internal control systems are suitably designed to achieve their
stated objectives.
Such reports help the auditor of the client in obtaining an understanding of the accounting and
internal control systems installed and operated by the service organisation.

Type B -Report on Suitability of Design and Operating Effectiveness

The contents of the report are
a. A description of the service organisation’s accounting and internal control systems;
b. An opinion by the service organisation’s auditor that:
i. The above description is accurate;
ii. The systems controls have been placed in operation;
iii. The accounting and internal control systems are, suitably designed to achieve the stated
objectives; and
iv. The accounting and internal control systems are operating effectively based on the
results of the tests of control.
In addition to the report on operating effectiveness, the service organisation's auditor should
identify the tests of controls performed and their results.
The client's auditor should consider whether the controls tested by the other auditor are relevant
to the client's transactions. The client's auditor can also use such reports as an evidence of
lower control risk assessment. Based on the control risk assessment, the client's auditor
determines the nature, timing and extent of substantive procedures. He may also request the
auditor of the service organisation to perform substantive tests in certain areas. However the
audit report of the client should not contain reference to the report received from the service
organisation's auditor.
 AAS – 25 COMPARATIVES
COMPARATIVES FINANCIAL REPORTING – FRAMEWORK
Comparatives :
Corresponding figures Comparative f. st.
Amount and other disclosures for preceding Amount and other disclosures for
Period are included as part of Current year preceding period are included for
Financial Statement (Applicable in India comparison but not form part of
and thus covered by AAS – 25) Current year financial statement
(Not applicable in India)
(Not covered by AAS – 25)

Auditor’s responsibility :
● Sufficient & Appropriate evidence that corresponding figures meet requirement
of relevant financial reporting framework.
● Extent of audit procedure is less for corresponding figures as compared to
current period figure.
● He should assess whether –
ii. A/c. policies used for corresponding figures are ​consistent with those of C.Y.
figures. (or whether appropriate adj./ disclosure made)
iii. Corresponding figure ​agree with amount and disclosure in prior period (or
whether appropriate adj./ disclosure made) Also take care of AAS – 22.

Reporting :
Auditor Report (opinion) is on current period financial statements as a whole,
including corresponding figures.
Auditor’s Report on Previous Period

Modified Unqualified/clear
Auditor to check whether matter giving But during audit procedures comes
across
rise to such modification is a material misstatement, affecting
prior
years financial statement.

Audit or examine whether disclosed by
mgt.
Resolved by mgt. unresolved
 
Clear report Modify regarding corres- Yes No
(If material, then ponding figure. ​​ ​
may highlight in  (Clear, may modify regarding
his AR) whether affects C.Y. figures highlight in corresponding
in his A.R.) figure.
 ​ es
Y No
Modify regarding X
C.Y. figures also
● If prior pd​s​ f.st. not audited, state in AR that corresponding figures are un-audited.

AAS-26
TERMS OF AUDIT ENGAGEMENT

The auditor and the client should - agree on the terms of the engagement. The agreement
should be in writing.
Audit Engagement Letters: ​The auditor should send an engagement letter, preferably before
the commencement of the engagement, to help avoid any misunderstanding.
Principal contents of audit ​engagement letter
a. Objective of Audit of financial statements.
b. Management's responsibility for the financial statements.
c. Management's responsibility for selection and consistent application of accounting policies
and accounting standards.
d. Management's responsibility for preparing the financial statements on a going concern
basis.
e. Management's responsibility for making judgements and estimates that are reasonable and
prudent.
f. Management's responsibility for the maintenance of adequate records and internal controls.
g. The scope of audit, including reference to applicable legislation, regulations, etc.
h. The fact that having regard to test nature of an audit, persuasive rather than conclusive
nature of audit evidence together with inherent limitations of internal control system, there is
an unavoidable risk that some fraud and error may remain undetected.
i. Unrestricted access to whatever records, documentation and other information requested in
connection with audit.

Additional matters in the engagement letter

a. Planning of the audit
b. Written confirmation from management in connection with audit
c. Request for the client to confirm the terms of engagement by acknowledging the receipt of
the engagement letter.
d. Any other reports or letters the auditor expects to issue.
e. Fees and billing arrangements.
f. Involvement of other auditors and experts
g. involvement of internal auditors and other staff of the client.
h. Arrangement with predecessor auditor.
i. Any restrictions of the auditors liability, where such possibility exists.
Audit of Components (e.g. Subsidiary, Branch, Division, etc)
When the auditor of parent company is also the auditor of its subsidiary, branch or division, he
should consider certain factors like legal requirements, independence of management, degree
of ownership by parent, extent of work performed by other auditors etc in deciding whether to
issue separate engagement letters.
Recurring Audits
The auditor should consider whether the circumstances require the terms of the engagement to
be revised and whether there is a need to remind the client of the existing terms of the
engagement.
Acceptance of a change in engagement
● In case an auditor. is requested to change the engagement to one that provides a lower
level of assurance before completion of the engagement, he should consider the
appropriateness of doing so and should agree on the new terms.
● A change in circumstances that affects the entity's requirements or a misunderstanding
concerning the nature of service originally requested would ordinarily be considered a
reasonable basis for requesting change in engagement.
● Before agreeing to change, the auditor should consider, any legal or contractual
implications of the change.
● Where the terms of engagement are changed, the auditor and client would agree on new
terms.
● The auditor would not agree to change of engagement if there is no reasonable justification
for doing so.
● If the auditor is unable to agree to a change of the engagement and is not permitted to
continue the original engagement, he should withdraw from the engagement and consider
any obligation to report the circumstances necessitating the withdrawal to other parties, viz.
Board of directors or shareholders.
 AAS-27
COMMUNICATIONS OF AUDIT MATTERS WITH THOSE CHANGED WITH
GOVERNANCE

Governance: ​The term “governance” is used to describe the role of persons entrusted with
supervision, control and direction of an entity.
Audit Matters of Governance interest: ​Those matters that arise form the audit of financial
statements and are in the opinion of the auditor, both important and relevant to those charged
with governance in overseeing the financial reporting and disclosures process.
Relevant Persons:
a. The auditor should determine relevant persons who are charged with governance and with
whom the audit matters of governance interest and to be communicated.
b. The auditor uses his judgment to determine the relevant persons.
c. He considers the governance structure of the entity the circumstances of engagement,
relevant legislations, etc.
d. He also considers the importance and sensitivity of the audit matters.
e. Where it is not possible to identify the relevant persons, the auditor comes to an agreement
with the entity with whom the audit matters of governance are to be communicated.
f. Communications of governance matters may be included in the audit engagement latter.
g. The engagement letter may include the form of communications and the relevant persons
with whom such communications shall be made.
Audit matters ​of governance interest to be communicated.
a. The general approach and overall scope of audit
b. Any expected limitation or any additional requirements
c. The selection of or changes in, significant accounting policies and practices, that have or
 could have a material effect on the entity's financial statements.
d. Audit adjustments that could have a significant effect on the entity's financial statements or
auditor's report.
e. Material uncertainties that may cast a doubt on the going concern assumption.
f. Disagreement with management that could be significant to entity's financial statement or
auditors report.
g. Expected modifications to the auditor's report.
h. Material weakness in the internal control system.
i. Questions regarding management's integrity and fraud involving management.
Timely communications: The auditor should communicate the audit matters of governance
interest on a timely basis. This enables those charged with governance to take appropriate
action.
Forms ​of communications: The communications can be made orally or in writing. The form is
affected by factors such as:-
a. The size, operating structure, legal structure and communications process of the entity.
b. The nature, sensitivity and significance of the audit matters to be communicated.
c. The arrangement made with respect" to periodic meetings or reporting of audit matters of
governance interest.

Oral Communications of audit matters: ​In this case, the auditor should document in the
working paper the matters communicated and any responses to those matters.

Other matters: Communications between the auditor and those charged with governance
cannot be regarded as a substitute for such qualified, adverse or disclaimer of opinion.

Confidentiality: The requirements of professional pronouncements, legislations or regulations

may impose obligations of confidentiality that restrict the auditor's communications of audit
matters of governance interest. In such cases the auditor may wish to consult a legal counsel.

Laws and regulations: The requirements of professional pronouncements, legislations or

regulations may impose obligations on the auditor to make communications on governance
related matters. These additional communications requirements may affect the form, content
and timing of communications with those charged with governance.
 AAS-28
The Auditor’s Report on Financial Statements

Basic elements of an Auditor’s Report

a. Title: It may be appropriate to use the term “Auditor” to distinguish the auditor’s report from
report issued by others.
b. Addressee: The auditor’s report should be appropriately addressed as required by the
circumstances of the engagement and applicable laws and regulations.
c. Opening or Introductory paragraph: The report should identify the financial statements
that have been audited including the date and period covered by the financial statements.
The report should include a statement of responsibility of the entity’s management and of
the auditor.
d. Scope paragraph: The report should describe the scope of the audit by stating that the
audit was conducted in accordance with the auditing standards generally accepted in India.
The report should include a statement that the audit provides a reasonable basis for
opinion.
e. Opinion paragraph: The report should clearly indicate the financial reporting framework
 used to prepare the financial statements and express an opinion on the true and fair view
in accordance with that financial reporting framework and where appropriate the
compliance with the statutory and /​or regulatory requirements.
f. Date of the report: The report should be dated as of the completion date of the audit,
which should not be earlier than the date on which the financial statements are signed or
approved by the management.
g. Place of signature: The report should name the specific location which is ordinarily the city
where the audit report is signed.
h. Auditor’s signature: The report should be signed in the name of the firm, the personal
name of the both as appropriate.

Auditor’s Report
The auditor should incorporate in his report, the matters specified by a statute or regulator
and/or report in the form prescribed by them in addition to the requirements prescribed above.
An unqualified opinion should be expressed when the auditor concludes that the financial
statements give a true and fair view in accordance with the financial reporting framework used
for preparation and presentation of the financial statements.

Under following situations auditor’s report may have to be modified:

● Matters that do not affect the auditor’s opinion.
● Matters that do affect the auditor’s opinion including qualified opinion, disclaimer of opinion
or adverse opinion.
In respect of matters that do not affect the auditor’s opinion, the auditor should modify the report
by adding a paragraph to highlight a matter for example some uncertainty regarding a going
concern problem which is unresolved ,or a significant uncertainty the resolution of which is
dependent on future events and which may significantly affect the financial statements and the
same has already been incorporated by management in financial statement. In such matters,
the opinion paragraph would refer to the fact that the auditor’s opinion is not qualified in this
respect.
Matters that do affect the auditor’s opinion: The AAS specifies that in respect of matters that do
affect the auditor’s opinion
a. A ‘qualified opinion’ should be expressed when the auditor concludes that an unqualified
opinion cannot be expressed but that the effect of any disagreement with the management
is not so material and pervasive as to require a adverse opinion, or limitation on scope is not
material and pervasive as to require a disclaimer of opinion.
b. A 'disclaimer' of opinion' should be expressed when the possible effect of a limitation on
scope is so material and pervasive that the auditor is unable to obtain sufficient appropriate
audit evidence and is hence unable to express an opinion on the financial statements.
c. An 'adverse opinion' should be expressed when the effect of a disagreement is so material
and pervasive to the financial statements that the auditor concludes that a qualification of
the report is inadequate to disclose the misleading or incomplete nature of the financial
statements.
Opinion other than an unqualified opinion: Whenever the auditor requires an opinion other
than unqualified, a description of all the substantive reasons should be included in the report
and quantification of the possible effect(s), individually and in aggregate, on the financial
statements should be mentioned in the report.
Limitation on Scope: The AAS also requires that in case there is a limitation on scope that
requires expression of a qualified opinion or a disclaimer of opinion, the auditor's report should
describe the limitation and indicate the possible adjustments that might have been necessary
had the limitations not existed.

AAS- 29
 INFORMATION SYSTEMS ENVIRONMENT

Computer Information Systems (CIS): CIS environment. is one where one or more computers
of any type or size is involved in the processing of financial information of significance to the
audit, where those computers are operated by the entity or by a third party.
Factors to determine the effect of CIS' environment on the audit
a. The extent to which CIS environment is used to record, compile and analyse accounting
information.
b. The system of internal control in existence in the entity with regard to flow of complete and
correct data to the processing centre and the processing, analysis and reporting tasks
undertaken in the installation.
c. The impact of computer based accounting system on the audit trail that would otherwise
exist in a manual system.
Skills and competence needed in CIS environment: The auditor should have sufficient
knowledge of the CIS to plan, direct, supervise, control and review the work performed. He
should consider whether any specialized skills are needed in the conduct of the audit.
If the use of professional possessing specialized skill is planned, the auditor should in
accordance with AAS- 9 "Using the work of an expert" obtain sufficient, appropriate audit
evidence that the work performed by the expert is adequate for the purpose of the audit.
Planning an audit in CIS environment'
a. The auditor should obtain an understanding of the accounting and internal control systems,
sufficient to plan the audit and to determine the nature, timing and the extent of audit
procedures.
b. In planning the portions of the audit, which may be affected by the environment, the auditor
should obtain an understanding of the significance and complexity of the CIS activities and
the availability of data for use in the. audit.
Matters to be considered while planning
a. The CIS infrastructure (hardware, operating systems) and application software used by the
entity.
b. Significance and complexity of computerized processing in each significant accounting
application.
c. Determination of the organizational structure of the client's CIS activities and extent of
concentration or distribution of computer processing throughout the entity.
d. Determination of availability of data.
e. Potential for Computer Assisted Audit Techniques.
Nature of risks and the internal control characteristics in CIS environments
a. Lack of transactions trails – Some CIS may provide complete transaction trail, however
some may not provide it (OLRT). If there is absence of trail, the risk will be high (IR + CR).
b. Uniform processing of transactions – Uniform processing of transaction can eliminate
clerical errors which are there with manual processing. However, programming errors may
occur.
c. lack of segregation of functions – The extent of segregation of functions present in
 manual systems may not be there in CIS environment. Thus, an individual performing
many computer related works may be in a position to perform incompatible function.
d. Potential for errors and irregularities in the development, maintenance and
execution of Computer Information System – The potential for human error in
development, maintenance & execution of CIS may be greater than in manual system
(due to technical incompetence).
e. Initiation or execution of transaction automatically may not be authorized or
documented – CIS may initiate certain transactions automatically. The authorization of
these transactions may not be documented (for Ex. – ERP)
f. Dependence of other controls over computer processing – Manual control procedure
may also be used while implementing CIS.
g. Potential for increased management supervision may serve to enhance the entire
internal control structure – If management uses all the technologies & tools to review &
supervise the CIS department of entity, the risk will be reduced.
h. Potential for use of computer-assisted audit techniques – Due to peculiarities of
some transaction and systems, auditor may be required to apply CAAT.
Evaluating the reliability of the Accounting and Internal Control Systems ​These systems
should
a. Ensure that authorized, correct and complete data is made available for processing.
b. Provide for timely detection of errors.
c. Ensure that in case of interruption in the working of the CIS environment due to power,
mechanical or processing failures, the system restarts without distorting the completion of
entries or records.
d. Ensure the accuracy and completeness of the output.
e. Provide adequate data security against fire and other calamities, wrong processing, fraud,
etc.
f. Prevent unauthorized amendments to the programs.
g. Provide for safe custody of the source code of the application software and the data files.
Assessment of Risk: ​Based on an understanding of the CIS environment, the auditor should
make an assessment of inherent and control risks for material financial statements in
accordance with AAS- 6 "Risk Assessments and Internal Control".
Audit Procedures: ​The auditor should consider the CIS environment in designing audit
procedures to reduce audit risk to an acceptably low level. He should ensure that adequate
procedures exist to ensure that the data transmitted is correct and complete. .
Documentation:
a. He should document the audit plan, the nature, timing and the extent of audit procedures
performed and the conclusions drawn from the evidence obtained.
b. In CIS environment, some of the audit trail may be in the electronic form. He should satisfy
himself that such evidence is adequately and safely stored and is retrievable in its entirety as
and when required.
 AAS-30
EXTERNAL CONFIRMATIONS

1. Objective: ​To establish standards on the auditor's use of external confirmations as a means
of obtaining audit evidence.
2. External Confirmation ​:- It is the process of obtaining and evaluating audit evidence
through a direct communication from a third party in response to a request for information
about a particular item affecting assertions made by the management.
The auditor should determine whether the use of external confirmations is necessary.
3. Process of External Confirmations:
a. Selecting the items for which confirmations are needed.
b. Designing the form of the confirmation request.
c. Communicating the confirmation request to the appropriate third party.
d. Obtaining response from third party.
e. Evaluating the information or absence thereof.

4. Situations where External Confirmations may be used:

a. Accounts balances and their components
b. Terms of agreement or transactions with third parties.
c. Bank Balance and other information from bankers.
d. Stock held by third parties.
e. Property title deeds held by third parties.
f. Investments purchased but delivery not taken.
g. Loans from lenders
h. Long outstanding share application money.

5. Reliability of evidence obtained by External Confirmations:

It depends on -
 a. The application of appropriate procedures by the auditor in designing the external
confirmation.
b. Performing external confirmation procedure and evaluating the request of the external
confirmation procedures.
c. The control which the auditor exercises over confirmation request and responses.
d. The characteristics of respondents
e. Any restrictions included in the response or imposed by management.
6. Relationship of, External Confirmation Procedures to the Auditor's Assessment of
Inherent Risk and Control Risk.
The auditor should assess whether the evidence provided by the confirmations reduces
audit risks for the related assertions to an acceptably low level. If the auditor is satisfied that
the evidence provided by the confirmations alone is not sufficient, he should perform
additional procedures.
7. Assertions Addressed by External Confirmations - The ability of an external confirmation
to provide evidence relevant to a particular financial statement assertion varies.
The external confirmation of an account receivable provides strong evidence regarding' the
existence of the account as at a certain date. Confirmations also provides evidence
regarding the operation of cut-off procedures. However, such confirmation does not provide
all the necessary audit evidence relating to the assertion regarding valuation.
When obtaining evidence for assertions not adequately addressed by confirmations, the
auditor considers other audit procedures to complement confirmation procedures or to be
used instead of confirmation procedures.
8. Timing of External Confirmations - External confirmation may be requested either at the
date of financial statements or as at any other selected dates close to the date of financial
statements. The date may be settled in consultation with the management. When the level of
inherent and control risk is high, the auditor may decide to confirm balances at a date other
than the period end.
9. Design of the External Confirmation Request–​The auditor should design external
confirmation requests to the specific audit objective.
10. Nature of Information being confirmed - In designing the request, the auditor consider the
type of information respondents will be able to confirm readily since this may affect the
response rate and the nature of evidence obtained. Respondents will be more willing to a
confirmation request containing management authorisation.
11. Prior Experience - The auditor should consider the information from audits of earlier years
while designing external confirmation requests.
12. Form of confirmation request–​ Use of Positive and Negative Confirmations:
Positive confirmation request - It asks the respondent to reply to the auditor in all cases either
by indicating the respondent's agreement with the given information, or by asking the
respondent to fill in information.
Negative confirmation request - It asks the respondent to reply only. in the event of
disagreement with the information provided in the request. Negative confirmation request should
be used when:
a. the assessed level of inherent and control risk is low;
 b. a large number of small balances is involved;
c. a substantial number of errors is not expected; and
d. the auditor has no reasons to believe that respondents will disregard these requests.
A combination of positive and negative combinations may be used.
13. Characteristics of Respondents
The reliability of evidence is affected by the respondent's competence, independence,
authority to respond, knowledge of the matter being confirmed, and objectivity. Therefore,
the confirmation request should be directed to appropriate individual.
The auditor also assesses whether certain parties may not provide an objective or unbiased
.response to a confirmation request. The auditor considers the effect of such information on
designing the confirmation request and evaluating the results, including determining whether
additional procedures are necessary.
14. The external confirmation process -
● The auditor should maintain control over the process of selecting those to whom a request
will be sent, the preparation and sending of confirmation requests, and the responses to
those requests.
● He should ensure that it is he (the auditor) who sends out the confirmation requests, the
requests are properly addressed, and that it is requested that all replies and the undelivered
confirmations are delivered directly to the audit.
● He should perform alternative procedures when no response is received to a positive
external confirmation requests.
● The auditor should consider whether there is any indication that external confirmations
received may not be reliable.
● The auditor should also consider the authenticity of the response and perform appropriate
procedures to dispel any doubts. Oral confirmations should be documented in work papers.
● If the confirmation process and alternative procedures have not provided sufficient
appropriate audit evidence regarding an assertion, the auditor should undertake additional
procedures to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence.
● Any discrepancy revealed by the external confirmations received or by additional procedures
carried out by the auditor might have a bearing on the assertions and the accounts within
the given assertion not selected for external confirmation. The auditor in such a case, should
request the management to verify and reconcile the discrepancies.
● He should also consider the causes and frequency of exceptions reported by respondents. If
the responses received indicate a pattern of misstatements, the auditor should reconsider
his assessment of inherent and control risk and also consider the effect on his audit
procedures.
Management Requests
When the auditor seeks to confirm certain balances or other information, and management
requests the auditor not to do so, the auditor should consider whether there are valid
grounds for such a request and obtain evidence to support the validity of management's
requests. The auditor should also seek the management to submit its request in a written
form, detailing therein the reasons for such request.
If the auditor agrees to managements requests not to seek external confirmation regarding a
 particular matter, the auditor should –
a. document the reasons for acceding to the management's request; and
b. apply alternative procedures to obtain sufficient appropriate evidence.
If the auditor does not accept the validity of management's request and is prevented from
carrying out the confirmations, there has been a limitation on the scope of the auditor's work
and the auditor should consider the possible impact on the auditor's report. The auditor
should, however. in this case also, document the request made by the management along
with the reasons given by the management as well as his own reasons for acceding to the
management's request.

AAS – 31
ENGAGEMENTS TO COMPILE FINANCIAL INFORMATION

1. OBJECTIVE – ​To establish standards on professional responsibilities of an accountant

when an engagement to compile financial statements or other financial information is
undertaken and form and content of the report to issued in connection with such a
compilation so that the association of name of the accountant with such financials is not
misconstrued by a user of those statements or information as having been audited by him.
2. OBJECTIVES OF A COMPILATION ENGAGEMENT – ​The objective of a compilation
engagement is an accountant to use accounting expertise, as opposed to auditing expertise,
to collect, classify summarize financial information. This requires reducing detailed data to
manageable and understandable form without the requirement to test the assertions
underlying that information.

3. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF A COMPILATION ENGAGEMENT – ​The accountant should

comply with the “Core of Ethic” issued by ICAI. The ethical principles are –
a. Integrity;
b. Objectivity;
c. Professional Competence and due care;
d. Confidentiality;
e. Professional conduct; and
f. Technical Standards
If the accountant is not independent, a statement to that fact should be made in the
accountant’s report. When an accountant’s name is associated with financial information
compiled by him, the accountant should issue a report.
4. RESPONSIBILITY OF MANAGEMENT – ​It includes –
a. Ensuring that the financial information generated in the entity is correct, complete and
reliable.
b. Maintaining adequate accounting and other records and internal controls.
c. Selecting and applying appropriate accounting policies.
d. Establishing controls designed to safeguard the assets of the entity.
e. To deter fraudulent or other dishonest conduct and to detect any fraud that occurs.
f. Assuring that the entity complies with laws and regulation applicable to its activities.
A compilation engagement carried out by the accountant does not relieve the management
of these responsibilities. The accountant should obtain an acknowledgement from the
management of its responsibility for the appropriate preparation and presentation of financial
statements or other information.

5. DEFINING THE TERMS OF THE ENGAGEMENT – ​The accountant should ensure that
there is a clear understanding the terms of the engagement by means of an engagement
letter helps avoid misunderstanding regarding matters such as the objective and scope of
the engagement and the extent of the auditor’s responsibilities. The engagement letter
would include –
a. Nature of the engagement
b. Fact that the engagement can’t be relied upon the disclose frauds or defalcations
c. Nature of the information to be supplied by the client.
d. Fact that the management is responsible for –
i. Accuracy and completeness of the information supplied including maintenance of
adequate accounting records and internal control.
ii. Preparation and presentation of financial statements in accordance with applicable
laws.
iii. Safeguarding the assets of the entity and preventing and detecting fraud and other
irregulations.
 iv. Ensuring that activities of the entity are carried in accordance with applicable laws
and regulations.
v. Ensuring complete disclose of all material and relevant information to the
accountant.
e. Intended use and distribution of the information, once compiled.
f. Basic of accounting on which financial information is to be compiled.
g. The fact that the management is responsible to the users for the information to be
compiled by the accountant.
h. Basis on which fees would be computed and any billing arrangements.
i. Request for the client to confirm the forms of engagement by acknowledging the receipt
of the engagement letter.

6. PLANNING AND DOCUMENTATION – T ​ he accountant should plan the work so that an

effective engagement will be performed. He should document matters which care important in
providing evidence that the engagement was carried out in accordance with this Auditing
and Assurance Standard and the terms of the engagement.

7. PROCEDURES –
a. The accountant should obtain a general knowledge of the business and
operation of the entity and should be familiar with the accounting and practice of
the industry in which the entity operates.
b. He should be familiar with the form and the content of financial statements / other
financial information which is appropriate in the circumstances.
c. He should request management representation letter covering significant
information or explanations given orally on which he considers representations
are required.
d. If he becomes aware that the information supplied by management is incorrect,
incomplete or unsatisfactory, he should consider performing additional
procedures, e.g. making inquiries, assessing internal controls, etc. If the
management refuses to provide additional information, he should withdraw from
the engagement.
e. He should read the compiled information and consider whether it appears to be
appropriate in form and free from obvious material misstatements.
8. SPECIAL CONSIDERAIONS –
a. Clients having an Identified Reporting Framework – in this case, the accountant
should ensure that the financial statements or other financial information
compiled comply with the requirements of the identified financial reporting
framework. If case o any material departure, the fact should be stated in the
notes to the Accounts or other compiled financial information as well as in the
accountant’s report.
b. Clients having not Identified Financial Reporting Framework – since accounts are
normally assumed to be compliant with the generally accepted accounting
practices, including the accounting standards issued by ICAI, the different basis
of compilation should be set out in the Notes to the Accounts or other compiled
financial information as well as the report issued by the accountant on
compilation
c. Non-Compliance with the Accounting Standards – if the accountant becomes
aware of material non-compliance with the relevant Accounting Standards, the
 same should be brought to the attention of the management. If the same is not
rectified by the management, it should be included in the notes to the accounts
and the compilation report of the accountant.
d. Accounting Estimates made by Clients - if it appears that certain estimates made
by the client are unreasonable, the accountant should draw these to the attention
of the management for consideration.

9. REPORTING ON COMPILATION ENGAGEMENT – ​The financial statement or other

financial information compiled should be approved by the client before the compilation
report is signed by the accountant. It is essential that the accountant clearly brings out
the nature of work with the financial statements and the nature of work performed by
him. The report on compilation should be in following lay out –
a. Title – The title should be “Accountant’s Report on compilation of unaudited Financial
Statements” (and not “Auditor’s Report”).
b. Address – The report should be addressed to the appointing authority.
c. Identification of the financial information.
d. When relevant, a statement that the accountant is not independent of the entity.
e. A statement that management is responsible for –
i. Completeness and accuracy of the underlying data and complete disclosure of
all material and relevant information.
ii. Maintaining adequate accounting and other records and internal control.
iii. Selecting and applying appropriate accounting policies.
iv. Preparation of financial statements and other information in accordance with
applicable laws and regulations, if any.
v. Establishing controls to safeguard the assets of the entity and preventing and
detecting fraud or other irregularities.
vi. Establishing controls for ensuring that activities of the enterprise and carried out
in accordance with applicable laws and regulations.
f. A statement that the engagement was performed in accordance with his Auditing and
Assurance Standard.
g. A statement that neither an audit nor a review has been carried out and that
according no assurance is expressed on the financial information
h. Date of report
i. Place of signature, and
j. Accountant’s signature – the report should be signed by the accountant in his
personal name. Where a firm is appointed, the report should be signed in the
personal name of the accountant and in the name of the firm. The membership
number assigned by ICAI should be mentioned.

AAS – 32
ENGAGEMENTS TO PERFORM AGREED UPON PROCEDURES
REGARDING FINANCIAL INFORMATION

1. INTRODUCTION – ​In an engagement to perform agreed upon procedures, the auditor is

engaged by the client issue a report of factual findings, based on specified subject
 matter of specified elements, accounts or items of a financial statement. For example, an
engagement to perform agreed upon procedures may require auditor to perform certain
procedures concerning, say, accounts payable, accounts receivable, purchases from
related parties, etc.
This AAS may also provide useful guidance for engagement to perform agreed upon
procedures regarding non-financial information, provided he has adequate knowledge of
the subject matter and reasonable criteria exist on which to base his findings.

1. OBJECTIVE – ​To establish standard and provide guidance3 on the auditor’s

professional responsibilities when an agreed upon procedures regarding financial
information is undertaken and on the form and content of the report that the auditor
issues in connection with such an engagement.

2. OBJECTIVE OF AN AGREED UPON PROCEDURES ENGAGEMENT – ​The objective

on an engagement is for the auditor to carry upon procedures engagement is for the
auditor to carry out procedures of an audit nature to which the auditor and the entity and
any appropriate third parties have agreed and to report on factual findings.

The auditor simply provides a report of the factual findings of agreed upon procedures,
no assurance is expressed by him in his report. The report is restricted to those parties
that have agreed to the procedures to be performed since others, unaware of the
reasons for the procedures, may misinterpret the result.

3. GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF AN AGREED UPON PROCEDURES ENGAGEMENT –

The auditor should comply with the Code of Ethics, issued by ICAI. The ethical principles
are –
a. Integrity
b. Objectivity;
c. Professional competence and the care;
d. Confidentiality
e. Professional conduct; and
f. Technical Standards.
When the auditor is not independent, a statement to that effect should be made in the
report of factual findings.

The auditor should conduct an agreed upon procedure engagement in accordance with
this AAS and the terms of the engagement.

4. DEFINING THE TERMS OF THE ENGAGEMENT – ​There should be a clear

understanding among the auditor, the client and other specified parties, who will receive
copies of the report of factual findings regarding the agreed procedures and the
conditions of the engagement. The nature to be agreed include the following:
a. Nature of the engagement
b. Stated purpose for the engagement
c. Identification of the financial information to which he agreed upon procedures will be
applied.
d. Nature, timing and extent of the specific procedures to be applied.
 e. Limitations on distribution of the report of factual findings. When such limitation
would be in conflict with legal requirements, the auditor, would not accept the
engagement.
The auditor should send an engagement letter documenting the key terms of the
appointment. An engagement letter helps avoid misunderstanding regarding such
matters as the objectives and scope of engagement, the extend of auditor’s
responsibilities and the form of report to be issued.
5. PLANNING AND DOCUMENTATION – ​The auditor should plant the work so that an
effective engagement will be performed in providing evidence to support the report of
factual findings, and evidence that the engagement was carried out in accordance with
this AAS and the term of the engagement.

6. PROCEDURES AND EVIDENCE – ​The auditor carry out the procedures agreed upon
and use the evidence obtained as the basis for the report of factual findings. The
procedures may includes –
a. Inquiry and analysis.
b. Recompilation, comparison and other clerical accuracy checks.
c. Observation
d. Inspection
e. Obtaining confirmations.

7. REPORTING – ​The report needs to describe the purpose and agree upon procedures in
details to extent of work performed. The report should also clearly mention that no audit
ore review work has been performed. The report should certain –
a. Title
b. Addressee (ordinarily the appointing authority);
c. Identification of specific financial or non-financial information
d. A statement that the procedure performed were those agreed upon with the
recipient;
e. A statement that the engagement was performed in accordance with this AAS.
f. Identification of the purpose for which the agreed upon procedures were performed;
g. A listing of the specific procedures performed.
h. A description of the auditor’s factual findings.
i. A statement that procedures performed do not constitute either an audit or a review,
and, as such, no assurance in expressed.
j. A statement that had the auditor performed additional procedures, an audit or a
review, other matters might have come to light that would have been reported;
k. A statement that the report is restricted to those parties that have agreed to the
procedures to be performed.
l. A statement (when applicable) that the report relates only to the elements, accounts,
items or financial or non-financial information specified and that it does not extent to
the entity’s financial statement taken as a whole;
m. Date of the report;
n. Place of signature;
o. Auditor signature – The report should be signed by the auditor in his personal name.
When a firm is appointed the report signed in the personal name of the auditor and
the firm. The membership number assigned by ICAI should also be mentioned.
 Auditing and Assurance Standard (AAS) 33
Engagements to Review Financial
Statements

General Principles of a Review Engagement

1. The auditor should comply with the Code of Ethics issued by the Institute of Chartered
Accountant of India.
2. The auditor should conduct a review in accordance with the AAS.
3. For the purpose of expressing negative assurance in the review report, the auditor should
obtain sufficient appropriate evidence primarily through inquiry and analytical procedures to
be able to draw conclusions​.

Scope of a Review
The procedures required to conduct a review of financial statements should be determined by
the auditor having regard to the requirements of this AAS, relevant legislation, regulation and,
where appropriate, the terms of the review engagement and reporting requirements.

Terms of Engagement
The auditor and the client should agree on the terms of the engagement.

Planning
1. The auditor should plan the work so that an effective engagement will be performed.
2. In planning a review of financial statements, the auditor should obtain or update the
knowledge of the business including consideration of the entity’s organization, accounting
systems, operating characteristics and the nature of its assets, liabilities, revenues and
expenses.

Work Performed by Others

When using work performed by another auditor or an expert, the auditor should be satisfied that
such work is adequate for the purposes of the review.

Documentation
The auditor should document matters which are important in providing evidence to support to
review, and evidence that the review was carried out in accordance with this AAS.

Procedures and Evidence

1. The auditor should apply judgment in determining the specific nature, timing and extend of
review procedures.
2. The auditor should apply the same materiality considerations as would be applied if an
audit opinion on the financial statements were being given.
3. The auditor should inquire about events subsequent to the date of the financial statements
that may require adjustment of or disclosure in the financial statements.
4. If the auditor has reason to believe that the information subject to review may be materially
 mis-stated, the auditor should carry out additional or more extensive procedures as are
necessary to be able to express negative assurance or to confirm that a modified report is
required.

Conclusion and Reporting

1. The review report should contain a clear written expression of negative assurance. The
auditor should review and assess the conclusions drawn from the evidence obtained as the
basis for the expression of negative assurance.
2. Based on the work performed, the auditor should assess whether any information obtained
during the review indicates that the financial statements do not give a true and fair view (or
‘are not presented fairly, in all material respects,’) in accordance the framework used for
the preparation and presentation of financial statements and relevant statutory
requirements, if any.
3. The report on a review of financial statements should contain the following basic elements,
ordinarily in the following layout:
a. Title​5​;
b. Addressee;
c. Opening or introductory paragraph including;
i. Identification of the financial statements on which the review has been
performed; and
ii. A statement of the responsibility of the entity’s management and the
responsibility of the auditor;
d. Scope paragraph, describing the nature of a review, including:
i. A reference to this AAS applicable to review engagements, or to relevant laws
or regulations;
ii. A statement that an audit has not been performed, that the procedures
undertaken provide less assurance than an audit and that an audit opinion is
not expressed;
e. Statement of negative assurance;
f. Date of the report;
g. Place of Signature; and
h. Auditor’s signature and membership number assigned by the Institute of Chartered
Accountants of India.
4. The review report should:
a. State that nothing has come to the auditor’s attention based on the review that
causes the auditor to believe the financial statements do not give a true and fair view
(or ‘are not presented fairly, in all material respects’) in accordance with the
framework used for the preparation and presentation of financial statements
(negative assurance)​6​; or
b. If matters have come to the auditor’s attention, describe those matters that impair a
true and fair view (or a fair presentation, in all material respects) in accordance with
the framework used for the preparation and presentation of financial statements
including, unless impracticable, a quantification of the possible effect(s) on the
financial statements, and either:
i. Express a qualification of the negative assurance provided; or
ii. When the effect of the matter is so material and pervasive to the financial
statements that the auditor concludes that a qualification is no adequate to
disclose the misleading or incomplete nature of the financial statements, give
 an adverse statement that the financial statements do not give a true and fair
view (or ‘are not presented fairly, in all material respects’) in accordance with
the framework used for the preparation and presentation of financial
statements; or
c. If there has been a material scope limitation, describe the limitation and either:
i. Express a qualification of the negative assurance provided regarding the
possible adjustments to the financial statements that might have been
determined to be necessary had the limitation not existed; or
ii. When the possible effect of the limitation is so significant and pervasive that the
auditor concludes that no level of assurance can be provided, not provide any
assurance.
5. The auditor should date the review report as the date the review is completed, which
includes performing procedures relating to events occurring up to the date of the report.
However, since the auditor’s responsibility is to report on the financial statements as
prepared and presented by management, the auditor should not date the review report
earlier than the date on which the financial statements were approved by management.

Auditing and assurance standard (AAS) 34

Audit Evidence-Additional
Considerations for Specific Items

PART A : ATTENDANCE AT PHYSICAL INVENTORY COUNTING

The auditor should perform audit procedures designed to obtain sufficient appropriate audit
evidence during his attendance at physical inventory counting.

Definitions
1. Physical verification of inventories is the responsibility of the management of the entity.
2. When inventory is material to the financial statements, the auditor should obtain sufficient
appropriate audit evidence regarding its existence and condition by attendance at physical
inventory counting unless impracticable, due to factors such as the nature and location of
the inventory.
3. If unable to attend the physical inventory count on the date planed due to unforeseen
circumstances, the auditor should take or observe some physical counts on an alternative
date and where necessary, perform alternative audit procedures to assess whether the
changes in inventory between the date of physical count and the period end date are
correctly recorded.
4. Where attendance at the physical inventory counting is impracticable, the auditor should
consider whether alternative procedures provide sufficient appropriate audit evidence of
existence and condition of inventory to conclude that the auditor need not make reference
to a scope limitation.

Management Representations
The auditor should obtain a written representation from management concerning:
a. The completeness of information provided regarding the inventory; and
b. Assurance with regard to adherence to laid down procedures for physical inventory count.

Audit Conclusions and Reporting

If the auditor is unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence concerning the existence
of inventory or adequacy of procedures adopted by the management in respect of physical
inventory count or concludes that the disclosure of inventory in the financial statements is
inappropriate, he should consider its effect in his audit report.

PART B : INQUIRY REGARDING LITIGATION AND CLAIMS

Definitions
1. The auditor should carry out audit procedures in order to become aware of any litigation
and claims involving the entity which may have a material effect on the financial
statements.
2. When litigation or claims have been identified by the management or when the auditor
believes hey may exist, and are likely to be material, the auditor should seek direct
communication with the entity’s lawyer.
3. The letter, which should be prepared by management and sent by the auditor, should
request the entity’s lawyer to communicate directly with the auditor.
4. If management refuses to give the auditor permission to communicate with the entity’s
lawyers, this would be a scope limitation and should ordinarily lead to a qualified opinion or
a disclaimer of opinion.

Management Representations
The auditor should obtain a written representation from management concerning:
a. The completeness of information provided regarding the identification of litigation and
claims; and
b. The adequacy of litigations and claims disclosures in the financial statements.

PART C : VALUATION AND DISCLOSURE OF LONG TERM INVESTMENTS

The auditor should perform audit procedures designed to obtain sufficient appropriate audit
evidence for valuation and disclosure of long term investments.

Definitions
When long-term investments are material to the financial statements, the auditor should obtain
sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding their valuation and disclosure.

Management Representations
The auditor should obtain a written representation from management concerning:
a. The completeness of information provided regarding valuation and disclosure off long
term investments.
b. The valuation of long term investments in the financial statements including adequacy of
provision for diminution in such values, wherever required.

Audit Conclusions and Reporting

If the auditor is unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence concerning the existence,
valuation of long term investments or concludes that their disclosure in the financial statements
is not adequate, he should consider its effect in his audit report.

PART D: SEGMENT INFORMATION

The auditor should perform audit procedures designed to obtain sufficient appropriate audit
evidence for appropriate disclosure of segment information.

Definitions
When segment information is material to the financial statements, the auditor should obtain
sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding its disclosure in accordance with the applicable
identified financial reporting framework.

Management Representations
The auditor should obtain a written representation from management concerning:
a. The completeness of information regarding segments and disclosure thereof; and
b. Appropriateness of the selected segments based on risks and returns; and
c. The organizational structure of an enterprise and its internal financial reporting system
and deviation therefrom.

Audit Conclusions and Reporting

If the auditor is unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence concerning segment
information or concludes that their disclosure in the financial statements is not adequate, he
should consider its effect in his audit report.

Effective Date
This Auditing and Assurance Standard becomes operative for all audits related to accounting
periods beginning on or after 1​st​ April, 2005.