DEFINING LOGGING The first in a series of articles introducing basic concepts of the E&P industry

Discovering the Secrets of the Earth

Mark A. Andersen
Executive Editor

Oil and gas reservoirs lie deep beneath the Earth’s surface. Geologists and
engineers cannot examine the rock formations in situ, so tools called sondes
go there for them. Specialists lower these tools into a wellbore and obtain
measurements of subsurface properties. The data are displayed as a series of
measurements covering a depth range in a display called a well log. Often,
several tools are run simultaneously as a logging string, and the combination
of results is more informative than each individual measurement (right).

The Dawn of an Era

The first well log was obtained in 1927 in Pechelbronn field in Alsace,
France. The tool, invented by Conrad and Marcel Schlumberger, measured
electrical resistance of the earth. Engineers recorded a data point each
meter as they retrieved the sonde, suspended from a cable, from the bore-
hole. Their data log of resistivity changes identified the location of oil.
Today, geologists depend on sets of well logs to map properties of subsur-
face formations (below). By comparing logs from many wells in a field,
geologists and engineers can develop effective and efficient hydrocarbon
production plans.

Neutron Porosity
45 % –15
Gamma Ray Depth, Resistivity Bulk Density
0 gAPI 150 ft 0.2 ohm.m 20 1.90 g/cm3 2.90
7,000

Shale

>Assembling a logging tool on a rig floor. One logging operator holds a

logging tool in place (left) while another assembles a connection (right).
7,100
G as The upper part of the tool is suspended from the rig derrick (not shown,
Hydroca rbon above the men). The operators will connect that to the lower section of the
tool, seen protruding above the rig floor between the men. That part of the
Sand Oil
tool is suspended in the wellbore, held in place at the rig floor by the flat
metal C-clamp. Most logging tools have a small diameter but can be the
height of an average one-story building. The combination of several sondes
7,200 in one toolstring can be many stories tall.
Brine Brine

Types of Logs
Shale
Immediately after a well is drilled, the formations are exposed to the well-
7,300
>Basic log. A common combination of logging measurements includes bore. This is an opportune time to determine the properties of the rocks
gamma ray, resistivity, and neutron and density porosity combined on one using openhole logging tools. In some cases, particularly in wells with com-
toolstring. The gamma ray response (Track 1) distinguishes the low gamma
ray value of sand from the high value of shale. The next column, called the plex trajectories, companies include logging tools as part of the drilling tool
depth track, indicates the location of the sonde in feet (or meters) below a assembly. This approach is referred to as logging while drilling, or LWD.
surface marker. Within the sand formation, the resistivity (Track 2) is high Drillers typically stabilize formations by cementing metal casing in the
where hydrocarbons are present and low where brines are present. Both well. The metal of the casing interferes with many logging measurements,
neutron porosity and bulk density (Track 3) provide measures of porosity,
when properly scaled. Within a hydrocarbon zone, a wide separation of the but over the past 30 years the industry has dramatically improved its ability
two curves in the way shown here indicates the presence of gas. to measure formation properties and even locate bypassed oil behind casing
using cased-hole logs. In addition, many cased-hole tools measure fluid flow
rates and other production parameters in the wellbore or examine the
Oilfield Review Spring 2011: 23, no. 1. integrity of the metal casing and its cement.
Copyright © 2011 Schlumberger. The first objective of logging in an exploration area is to locate hydrocar-
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Austin Boyd, Rio de Janeiro; Michel Claverie, bons in a well. Next, the operating company wants to determine if enough
Clamart, France; Martin Isaacs, Sugar Land, Texas, USA; and Tony Smithson, Northport,
Alabama, USA. (continued on page 59)

60 Oilfield Review
DEFINING LOGGING (continued from page 60)

Measurements Resistivity Porosity Lithology Mineralogy Saturation Pore geometry Permeability Fluid properties Geomechanical Geologic Geologic
properties structure bedding
Electrical resistivity
Laterolog
Induction
Microlaterolog
Spontaneous potential
Electromagnetic propagation
Nuclear
Gamma ray density
Neutron porosity
Natural radioactivity
Induced gamma ray spectrometry
Nuclear magnetic resonance
Acoustic
Dipmeter and imaging
Formation testing and sampling
Rock sampling
Fluids sampling
Fluids pressure testing
Seismic

Measurement provides direct information about the reservoir property. Measurement is influenced by or is sensitive to the reservoir property.
Measurement contributes to understanding the reservoir property.

>Logging measurements used to determine reservoir properties. Some tools provide a direct measurement of a reservoir property (blue) and some provide
partial information that is combined with other measurements to determine the property (green). In addition, tools are often sensitive to a property, even
though they do not provide a measurement of that property (brown).

resource is present to economically justify completing and producing the based on the rock type, and the average of the two, a density-neutron log, can
well. Logging indicates the basic parameters of porosity (fluid-filled por- be a good measure of porosity. In the presence of gas, the two detection methods
tion of the rock); the water, oil and gas saturations and the vertical extent separate in a distinctive manner that is recognized as a gas indicator. Some
of a productive hydrocarbon zone, or net pay (above). Logging tools are contemporary tools use a pulsed neutron generator, which can generate neu-
calibrated to properly determine these and other quantities from the res- trons only while power is applied.
ervoir so companies can calculate accurate reserve values. Most logging The chemical makeup of minerals in a formation can be determined
tools designed for formation evaluation are based on electric, nuclear or with a neutron source that uses elemental capture spectrometry. This infor-
acoustic measurements. mation helps geologists determine the rock composition.

Electric Logging Acoustic Logging

Oil and gas are more resistive than the salty water that fills most deeply The speed at which sound travels through rock depends on its mineral com-
buried rocks. Engineers created two types of electric sondes; both of them position and porosity. An acoustic or sonic logging tool transmits a sound
measure that difference. One type, a laterolog, measures formation resistiv- pulse into the formation and a receiver on another part of the tool detects the
ity by creating an electric circuit. Current flows from a tool electrode transmitted pulse. The travel distance of the pulse is known, so its travel time
through the formation and back to another electrode. The other design uses provides a sound velocity that is proprotional to a porosity measurement.
induction coils to measure conductivity, the inverse of resistivity. This has The mechanical properties of a solid affect properties of sound waves
similar physics to an electric transformer: A tool coil induces a current loop passing through it. Some sonic tools measure these changes to quantify
in the formation that is measured by a pickup coil on the tool. An extensive those mechanical properties.
zone filled with hydrocarbon is apparent on an electric log typically as more
resistive than an adjacent water-filled zone. A Multitude of Measurements
Geoscientists and engineers have access to a wide variety of logging tools
Detecting Radiation that provide much more than the basic information described above.
Quartz and carbonates, which compose the most common hydrocarbon reser- Nuclear magnetic resonance tools obtain information about pore sizes and
voirs, have little or no intrinsic radioactivity. Shales, which often act as seals fluids in situ. Imaging logs can provide a high-resolution and 360° view of
above reservoirs, include several naturally occurring radioactive components. various formation properties at the wellbore wall. Other tools can bring rock
Most logging strings include a gamma ray sonde to detect this radiation and or fluid samples to surface or measure properties of fluids as they flow into
discriminate geologic layers. A characteristic pattern on the gamma ray log the wellbore. And at a larger scale, measurements made with a source in
often repeats in logs for wells throughout a given area. Geologists correlate one well and a receiver in another indicate formation and fluid properties
these patterns from well to well to map geologic layers across the field. between them.
Some logging tools use chemical sources that generate radioactive particles. Well logging requires robust technology because of harsh well conditions
The particles interact with the surrounding formation, and detectors on the and cutting-edge technology because of complex reservoir properties.
sonde pick up the resulting signals. Gamma radiation is absorbed proportionally Scientists use sophisticated methods to design new tools and evaluate the data
to the density of the formation. Other radioactive particles—neutrons—are they collect. Most hydrocarbon discoveries today are in remote areas and often
absorbed proportionally to the amount of hydrogen. Measurements from both of are difficult to produce. These resources—and the people to find, evaluate and
these types of logs can be converted to porosity values. Each has a variability produce them—are vital to fulfill the growing energy needs of the world.

Spring 2011 59