DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER WITH

SUN TRACKING
1. 1. DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER WITH SUN
TRACKING A project report Submitted in partial fulfillment of requirements for the award of
Degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY in ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING by CH. NIKHIL CHAKRAVARTHY (14501A0221) G. RAJA SEKHAR
B.K.S.K.A RAMLAL (14501A0236) (14501A0220) B. SIVA DURGA PRASAD B.SREENU
(14501A0212) (14501A0211) UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF Dr. K. LENIN, M.E, Ph.D.
Professor DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING PRASAD
V. POTLURI SIDDHARTHA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Autonomous & Permanent
Affiliation to JNTUK, Kakinada AICTE approved, NBA & NAAC accredited and ISO 9001:
2008 certified Institution KANURU, VIJAYAWADA – 520007 MARCH-2018
2. 2. PRASAD V. POTLURI SIDDHARTHA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY Autonomous &
Permanent Affiliation to JNTUK, Kakinada AICTE approved, NBA & NAAC accredited and
ISO 9001: 2008 certified Institution KANURU, VIJAYAWADA – 520007 DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the
project work entitled “DESIGN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER
WITH SUN TRACKING” is being submitted by “CH. NIKHIL CHAKRAVARTHY
(14501A0221)” in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of BACHELOR OF
TECHNOLOGY in ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING by Jawaharlal Nehru
Technological University Kakinada, Kakinada is a record of bonafide work carried out by
them under our guidance and supervision. The results embodied in this report have not been
submitted to any other University or Institute for the award of any degree or diploma. Internal
Guide Head of the Department Dr. K. LENIN, Ph.D. Dr. M. VENU GOPALA RAO, Ph.D.
Professor Professor & HoD. External Examiner
3. 3. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We sincerely express our deep sense of gratitude to our beloved
guide Dr. K. LENIN, M.E, Ph.D., Professor, Department of ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING for his immense interest with wholehearted involvement in the project and
for his valuable guidance at each and every phase of the work. We particularly express our
heart full thanks for his supervision and inspiration in completion of the project. We are
grateful to Head of the Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering Dr. M.
VENUGOPALA RAO, M.E, Ph.D., for providing necessary Facilities to carry out this project.
We wish to express our profound sense of gratitude to our beloved Principal Dr. K. SIVAJI
BABU, M.TECH, Ph.D. for extending his Official support for the progress of this project. We
would like to express our thanks to all teaching and non-teaching staff members of Electrical
& Electronics department for their encouragement and support in successful completion of
this project. Project Associates Ch. Nikhil Chakravarthy (14501A0221) G. Raja Sekhar
(14501A0236) B. S. K. S. K Ramlal (14501A0220) B. Siva Durga Prasad (14501A0212) B.
Sreenu (14501A0211)
4. 4. INDEX CONTENTS PAGENO ABSTRACT i LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER-1 1 INTRODUCTION 2 LITERATURE SURVEY 3 BLOCK DIAGRAM 4
CHAPTER 2: ARDUINO NANO 6 2.1 General 7 2.2 Technical Specifications 8 2.3 Power 8
2.4 Memory 9 2.5 Input and Output 9 2.6 Communication 10 2.7 Programming 11 2.8
Automatic Reset 11 2.9 ATmega328P Microcontroller 12 2.9.1 Features 12 2.9.2 Pin
configuration 14 2.9.3 Pin Description of ATmega328P 15 CHAPTER 3: PHOTOVOLTAIC
CELL 18 3.1 General 19 3.2 Types of Photovoltaic cells 20 3.2.1 Single crystal silicon 20
3.2.2 Polycrystalline silicon 21 3.2.3 Ribbon silicon 22 3.2.4 Amorphous silicon 23 3.3
Working of PV cell 24 3.3.1 Charge carrier separation 25
5. 5. 3.3.2 The P-N junction 26 3.4 PV array 26 3.4.1 Portable arrays 27 3.4.2 Tracking arrays
28 3.5 Photovoltaic module performance 29 3.6 PV panel specifications 34 CHAPTER 4:
SOLAR TRACKER 35 4.1 General 36 4.2 Evolution of solar tracker 36 4.3 Solar Irradiation:
 Sunlight and solar constant 37 4.4 Sunlight 38 4.5 Types of solar trackers 41 4.5.1 Single
axis tracker 41 4.5.1.1 Horizontal single axis tracker 41 4.5.1.2 Horizontal single axis tracker
with tilted modules 41 4.5.1.3 Vertical single axis tracker 42 4.5.1.4 Tilted single axis tracker
42 4.5.2 Dual axis tracker 42 4.5.2.1 Tip-tilt 43 4.5.2.2 Azimuth-altitude 43 4.6 Types of
drives 44 4.6.1 Active tracker 44 4.6.2 Passive tracker 44 4.6.3 Manual tracking 44
CHAPTER 5: LEAD-ACID BATTERY 45 5.1 Chemical changes during discharging 46 5.2
Chemical changes during charging 47 5.3 Characteristics of Lead-acid cell 48 5.4 Indications
of fully charged cell 49 5.5 Maintenance procedures 49 5.6 Specifications 50 CHAPTER 6:
SERVO MOTOR AND VOLTAGE REGULATOR 51 6.1 Servo motor 52 6.1.1 Servo
mechanism 53
6. 6. 6.1.2 Working principle of servo motor 53 6.1.3 Controlling of servo motor 54 6.1.4
Specifications 55 6.2 Voltage regulator 55 6.2.1 LM7805 series voltage regulator 55 6.2.2
Features of voltage regulator 56 CHAPTER 7: SOFTWARE DESIGN AND DUMPING 57 7.1
Software used 58 7.2 Software design 58 7.2.1 Flowchart for solar charge controller 58 7.2.2
Flowchart for sun tracker 59 7.3 Software dumping procedure 59 CHAPTER 8: PROPOSED
HARDWARE 60 8.1 Hardware used in circuit construction 61 8.2 Working operation of circuit
62 CHAPTER 9: EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 63 9.1 Pictorial view of experimental setup 64
9.1 Charging test 64 9.2 Discharging test 65 CONCLUSION 66 FUTURE SCOPE 67
REFERENCES 68 PUBLICATION DETAILS International Journal for Research in Applied
Science and Engineering Technology ISSN: 2321-9653; IC Value: 45.98; SJ Impact Factor:
6.887 Volume 6 Issue III, March 2018
7. 7. i ABSTRACT Solar Energy- the ultimate & future source of energy for mankind in the near
future. This project work proposes the design and development of Arduino based solar
charge controller with sun tracking using PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) technique. Solar
Charge controller which is part of the design which enhances the recharging capacity of the
battery in a quick mode. Once the battery reaches fully charged condition, a logic system in
the controller will keep the battery on trickle charge. The charge controller will also take care
of the deep discharge protection and cut off the load when the battery reaches a certain level
when discharged. The main feature of this charge controller is to control the load. During day
time when the load is not connected the battery gets charged from solar panel. When the
battery voltage reaches peak value, Arduino interrupts further charging. An inbuilt analog to
digital converter is used to determine voltage of the battery, solar panel and current drawn by
the load. The solar tracking system is implemented in this project, such that panel is always
kept at right angle to incident radiation. This project has been experimentally verified by a
hardware setup.
8. 8. ii LIST OF FIGURES Fig no TITLE OF THE FIGURE Page no 1.1 Block diagram of the
proposed system 4 2.1 Components on Arduino Nano board 7 2.2 Pin configuration of
ATmega328P 14 2.3 ATmega328P 15 3.1 PV cell 19 3.2 PV cell working 24 3.3 Parallel
connection of PV panel 27 3.4 Portable arrays 28 3.5 Tracking arrays 29 3.6 Photovoltaic
module performance 30 3.7 Current-Voltage curves of PV panel 31 3.8 Current-Voltage
characteristics when module is shades and unshaded 32 3.9 Current-Voltage characteristics
at different temperatures 32 3.10 PV module performance under battery charging 33 4.1
Sun’s apparent motion 37 4.2 Angle of elevation and zenith angle 40 5.1 Lead-Acid battery
46 5.2 Discharging of lead-acid battery 47 5.3 Charging of lead-acid battery 48 6.1 Servo
motor 52 6.2 Pulse width control of servo motor 54 6.3 LM7805 Voltage regulator 55 7.1
Flowchart of solar charge controller 58 7.2 Flowchart of sun tracking system 59 8.1 Circuit
diagram of proposed system 62 9.1 Pictorial view of experimental setup 64
9. 9. iii LIST OF TABLES Table no TITLE OF TABLES Page no 4.1 Range of the brightness of
sunlight (lux) 39 9.1 Charging test results 65 9.2 Discharging test results 65
10. 10. 1 CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
11. 11. 2 CHAPTER- 1 INTRODUCTION One of the most promising renewable energy sources
characterized by a huge potential of conversion into electrical power is the solar energy. The
conversion of solar radiation into electrical energy by Photo-Voltaic (PV) effect is very
 promising technology, being clean, silent, reliable, with very small maintenance costs and
small ecological impact. The interest in the Photo Voltaic conversion systems is visibly
reflected by the exponential increase of sales in this market segment with a strong growth
projection for the next decades. The continuous evolution of the technology determined a
sustained increase of the conversion efficiency of PV panels, but nonetheless the most part
of the commercial panels have efficiencies no more than 20%. A constant research
preoccupation of the technical community involved in the solar energy harnessing technology
refers to various solutions to increase the PV panel’s conversion efficiency. Among PV
efficiency improving solutions we can mention: solar tracking, solar charge controller,
optimization of solar cells geometry, enhancement of light trapping capability, use of new
materials, etc. Efficiency of the system can be drastically increase by using Arduino for PWM
(Pulse Width Modulation) control and solar tracker. The solar charge controller described
here has the following features:  Overcharge protection  System status display  Built-in
digital voltmeter (0V-20V range)  Single axis solar tracking The major components of this
system are as follows  Arduino  Solar panel  Rechargeable battery  Light dependent
resistor  Servo motor
12. 12. 3  Charge control  Load control LITERATURE SURVEY Photovoltaic (PV) is the field of
technology and research related to the application of solar cells for energy by converting sun
energy (sunlight or sun 5 ultra violet radiation) directly into electricity [1-4]. Due to the
growing demand for clean sources of energy, the manufacture of solar cells and PV arrays
has expanded dramatically in recent years [5]. PV production has been doubling every two
years, increasing by an average of 48 percent each year since 2002, making it the world’s
fastest-growing energy technology [6]. At the end of 2008, according to preliminary data,
cumulative global installations reached 15,200 megawatts [7]. PV is best known as a method
for generating electric power by using solar cells packaged in PV modules, often electrically
connected in multiples as solar PV arrays to convert energy from the sun into electricity. The
term PV denotes the unbiased operating mode of a photodiode in which current through the
device is entirely due to the transduced light energy. Virtually all PV devices are some type
of photodiode. Solar cells produce direct current electricity from light, which can be used to
power equipment or to recharge a battery. The first practical application of PV was to power
orbiting satellites and other spacecraft, but today the majority of PV modules are used for
grid connected power generation. Cells require protection from the environment and are
usually packaged tightly behind a glass sheet. When more power is required than a single
cell can deliver, cells are electrically connected together to form photovoltaic modules, or
solar panels. A single module is enough to power an emergency telephone, but for a house
or a power plant the modules must be arranged in arrays. Although the selling price of
modules is still too high to compete with grid electricity in most places, significant financial
incentives in Japan and then Germany and Italy triggered a huge growth in demand, followed
quickly by production. Perhaps not unexpectedly, a significant market has emerged in off-
grid locations for solar-power-charged storage-battery based solutions [8]. These often
provide the only electricity available. The EPIA (European Photovoltaic Industry Association)
/Greenpeace Advanced Scenario shows that by the year 2030, PV systems could be
generating approximately 1,864 GW of electricity around the world [9].
13. 13. 4 This means that, assuming a serious commitment is made to energy efficiency, enough
solar power would be produced globally in twenty-five years’ time to satisfy the electricity
needs of almost 14% of the world’s population [10]. BLOCK DIAGRAM: Fig1.1 Block
diagram of the proposed design
14. 14. 5 PV Panel: Photovoltaic (PV) is a method of generating electrical power by converting
solar radiation into direct current electricity using semiconductors that exhibits the
photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic power generation employs solar panels comprised of an
array of cells containing a photovoltaic material. The PV generator is formed by the
combination of many PV cells connected in series and parallel to provide the desired value of
the output voltage and current. Arduino Nano: Arduino Nano, which employs ATmega328 as
 a microcontroller, is used in this project for many purposes. 1. To read input data such as
voltage, current, temperature etc. 2. To generate PWM signal for switching purposes. 3. To
control battery charging voltage. 4. To implement load control. 5. To give control to
servomotor for sun tracking. Battery: The solar energy is converted into electrical energy and
stored in a 12V battery. The efficiency of battery charging system is to store the energy from
solar panel. Lead-acid battery is used in this system because it is inexpensive and high
capacitated. The 12V of lead-acid battery has six cells. Overcharging battery can cause
reduce life span of battery. Switching Circuit: MOSFET is used as a switching device
because it has fast switching speed and low voltage drop. MOSFET is a voltage-controlled
device. It operates in two modes-enhanced mode and depletion mode. In the hardware
circuit transistor is used to switch the MOSFET from microcontroller. A MOSFET and
transistor combination is used for the switching purpose between solar panel and battery.
15. 15. 6 CHAPTER -2 ARDUINO NANO
16. 16. 7 CHAPTER 2 ARDUINO NANO 2.1 GENERAL Arduino is an open-source platform
used for building electronics projects. Arduino consists of both a physical programmable
circuit board (often referred to as a microcontroller) and a piece of software, or IDE
(Integrated Development Environment) that runs on your computer, used to write and upload
computer code to the physical board. The Arduino does not need a separate piece of
hardware (called a programmer) in order to load new code onto the board – you can simply
use a USB cable. Additionally, the Arduino IDE uses a simplified version of C++, making it
easier to learn to program. Finally, Arduino provides a standard form factor that breaks out
the functions of the micro-controller into a more accessible package. The parts of Arduino
Nano is shown in fig 2.1. Fig2.1 Components on Arduino Nano board
17. 17. 8 2.2 TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS Microcontroller ATmega328 Architecture AVR
Operating Voltage 5 V Flash Memory 32 KB of which 2 KB used by bootloader SRAM 2 KB
Clock Speed 16 MHz Analog IN Pins 8 EEPROM 1 KB DC Current per I/O Pins 40 mA (I/O
Pins) Input Voltage 7-12 V Digital I/O Pins 22 (6 of which are PWM) PWM Output 6 Power
Consumption 19 mA 2.3 POWER The Arduino Uno can be powered via the Mini-B USB
connection or with an external power supply. The power source is selected automatically.
External (non-USB) power can come from either an AC-to-DC adapter or battery. The
adapter can be connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-positive plug into the board's power
jack. Leads from a battery can be inserted in the Gnd and Vin pin headers of the POWER
connector. The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less
than 7V, however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the board may be unstable.
If using more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage the board. The
recommended range is 7 to 12 volts. The power pins are as follows:  VIN: The input voltage
to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source (as opposed to 5 volts from
the USB connection or other regulated power source). You can
18. 18. 9 supply voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it
through this pin.  5V: This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The
board can be supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 12V), the USB
connector (5V), or the VIN pin of the board (7-12V).  3V3: A 3.3 volt supply generated by
the on-board regulator.  GND: Ground pins. 2.4 MEMORY The ATmega328 has 32 KB
(with 0.5 KB used for the bootloader). It also has 2 KB of SRAM (Static random-access
memory) and 1 KB of EEPRO (Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory). 2.5
INPUT AND OUTPUT Each of the 14 digital pins on the Nano can be used as an input or
output, using pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts.
Each pin can provide or receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor
(disconnected by default) of 20-50 kOhms. In addition, some pins have specialized functions:
 Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial(transistor-
transistor logic) data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the FTDI USB-
to-TTL Serial chip.  External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an
interrupt on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value.  PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10,
 and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite() function.  SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI),
12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI (Serial
19. 19. 10 Peripheral Interface) communication, which, although provided by the underlying
hardware, is not currently included in the Arduino language.  LED: 13. There is a built-in
LED (Light emitting diode) connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH value, the LED
is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off. The Nano has 8 analog inputs, each of which provide 10
bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By default they measure from ground to 5 volts,
though is it possible to change the upper end of their range using the analogReference()
function. Analog pins 6 and 7 cannot be used as digital pins. Additionally, some pins have
specialized functionality:  I2C: 4 (SDA) and 5 (SCL). Support I2C (TWI) communication
using the Wire library. There are a couple of other pins on the board:  AREF: Reference
voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analogReference().  Reset: Bring this line LOW to
reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a reset button to shields which block the one
on the board. 2.6 COMMUNICATION The Arduino Nano has a number of facilities for
communicating with a computer, another Arduino, or other microcontrollers. The
ATmega328P provide UART TTL (Universal asynchronous receiver-transmitter transistor-
transistor logic) (5V) serial communication, which is available on digital pins 0 (RX) and 1
(TX). An FTDI FT232RL on the board channels this serial communication over USB and the
FTDI drivers (included with the Arduino software) provide a virtual com port to software on
the computer. The Arduino software includes a serial monitor which allows simple textual
data to be sent to and from the Arduino board. The RX and TX LEDs on the board will flash
when data is being transmitted via the FTDI chip and USB connection to the computer (but
not for
20. 20. 11 serial communication on pins 0 and 1). A SoftwareSerial library allows for serial
communication on any of the Nano's digital pins. The ATmega328P also support I2C (TWI)
and SPI communication. The Arduino software includes a Wire library to simplify use of the
I2C bus. 2.7 PROGRAMMING The Arduino Nano can be programmed with the Arduino
software. Select "Arduino Duemilanove or Nano w/ ATmega328P" from the Tools > Board
menu (according to the microcontroller on your board). The ATmega328P on the Arduino
Nano comes pre-burned with a bootloader that allows you to upload new code to it without
the use of an external hardware programmer. It communicates using the original STK500
protocol. You can also bypass the bootloader and program the microcontroller through the
ICSP (In-Circuit Serial Programming) header using Arduino ISP (In-circuit Serial
Programmer) or similar. 2.8 AUTOMATIC RESET Rather than requiring a physical press of
the reset button before an upload, the Arduino Nano is designed in a way that allows it to be
reset by software running on a connected computer. One of the hardware flow control lines
(DTR) of the FT232RL is connected to the reset line of the ATmega328P via a 100 Nano
farad capacitor. When this line is asserted (taken low), the reset line drops long enough to
reset the chip. The Arduino software uses this capability to allow you to upload code by
simply pressing the upload button in the Arduino environment. This means that the
bootloader can have a shorter timeout, as the lowering of DTR can be well-coordinated with
the start of the upload. This setup has other implications. When the Nano is connected to
either a computer running Mac OS X or Linux, it resets each time a connection is made to it
from software (via USB). For the following half-second or so, the bootloader is running on the
Nano. While it is programmed to ignore malformed data (i.e. anything besides an upload of
new code), it will intercept the first few bytes of
21. 21. 12 data sent to the board after a connection is opened. If a sketch running on the board
receives one-time configuration or other data when it first starts, make sure that the software
with which it communicates waits a second after opening the connection and before sending
this data. 2.9 ATmega328P MICROCONTROLLER The Atmel picoPower ATmega328/P is a
low-power CMOS (Complementary Metal- Oxide Semiconductor) 8-bit microcontroller based
on the AVR enhanced RISC (Reduced instruction set computer) architecture. By executing
powerful instructions in a single clock cycle, the ATmega328/P achieves throughputs close to
 1MIPS (Microprocessor without Interlocked Pipeline Stages) per MHz. This empowers
system designer to optimize the device for power consumption versus processing speed.
The device is manufactured using Atmel’s high density non-volatile memory technology. The
On-chip ISP Flash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed In- System through an
SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface), by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer, or by
an On-chip Boot program running on the AVR core. The Boot program can use any interface
to download the application program in the Application Flash memory. Software in the Boot
Flash section will continue to run while the Application Flash section is updated, providing
true Read-While-Write operation. By combining an 8-bit RISC CPU with In-System Self-
Programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel ATmega328/P is a powerful
microcontroller that provides a highly flexible and cost effective solution to many embedded
control applications. 2.9.1 FEATURES  High Performance, Low Power Atmel AVR 8-Bit
Microcontroller Family  131 Powerful Instructions  32 x 8 General Purpose Working
Registers  32KBytes of In-System Self-Programmable Flash program Memory, 1KBytes
EEPROM and 2KBytes Internal SRAM.  Write/Erase Cycles: 10,000 Flash/100,000
EEPROM
22. 22. 13  Data Retention: 20 years at 85°C/100 years at 25°C  23 Programmable I/O Lines 
28-pin PDIP, 32-lead TQFP (Thin Quad Flat Package), 28-pad QFN (quad-flat no-
leads)/MLF (micro leadframe) and 32-pad QFN/MLF  Two 8-bit Timer/Counters with
Separate Prescaler and Compare Mode  One 16-bit Timer/Counter with Separate
Prescaler, Compare Mode, and Capture Mode  8-channel 10-bit ADC in TQFP and
QFN/MLF package  Six Sleep Modes: Idle, ADC Noise Reduction, Power-save, Power-
down, Standby, and Extended Standby  Speed Grade: 0-20MHz  Operating Voltage: 1.8 -
5.5V  Temperature Range: -40°C to 105°C
23. 23. 14 2.9.2 PIN CONFIGURATION The pin configuration of ATmega328/P is shown in fig
2.2. Fig2.2 Pin configuration of ATmega328P
24. 24. 15 Fig2.3 ATmega328P 2.9.3 PIN DESCRIPTION OF ATmega328P VCC Digital supply
voltage. GND Ground. Port B (PB[7:0]) XTAL1/XTAL2/TOSC1/TOSC2 Port B is an 8-bit bi-
directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port B output
buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As
inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are
activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the
clock is not running. Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB6 can be used as
input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input of internal clock operating circuit.
25. 25. 16 Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB7 can be used as output from the
inverting Oscillator amplifier. If the Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator is used as chip clock
source, PB[7:6] is used as TOSC[2:1] input for the Asynchronous Timer/Counter2 if the AS2
bit in ASSR is set. Port C (PC[5:0]) Port C is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up
resistors (selected for each bit). The PC[5:0] output buffers have symmetrical drive
characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are
externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are activated. The Port C pins
are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the clock is not running.
PC6/RESET If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note that the
electrical characteristics of PC6 differ from those of the other pins of Port C. If the RSTDISBL
Fuse is un-programmed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than
the minimum pulse length will generate a Reset, even if the clock is not running. Shorter
pulses are not guaranteed to generate a Reset. Port D (PD[7:0]) Port D is an 8-bit bi-
directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The Port D output
buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source capability. As
inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up resistors are
activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even if the
clock is not running. AVCC AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter, PC[3:0],
 and PE[3:2]. It should be externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the
ADC is used, it should be connected to VCC through a low-pass filter. Note that PC[6:4] use
digital supply voltage, VCC.
26. 26. 17 AREF AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter. ADC[7:6] In the TQFP
and VFQFN package, ADC[7:6] serve as analog inputs to the A/D converter. These pins are
powered from the analog supply and serve as 10-bit ADC channels.
27. 27. 18 CHAPTER -3 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL
28. 28. 19 CHAPTER -3 PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL 3.1 GENERAL A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell,
is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the
photovoltaic effect, which is a physical and chemical phenomenon. It is a form of
photoelectric cell, defined as a device whose electrical characteristics, such as current,
voltage, or resistance, vary when exposed to light. Individual solar cell devices can be
combined to form modules, otherwise known as solar panels. In basic terms a single junction
silicon solar cell can produce a maximum open-circuit voltage of approximately 0.5 to 0.6
volts. Solar cells are described as being photovoltaic, irrespective of whether the source is
sunlight or an artificial light. They are used as a photodetector detecting light or other
electromagnetic radiation near the visible range, or measuring light intensity. Fig 3.1 shows
layout of PV cell Fig 3.1 PV cell
29. 29. 20 3.2 TYPES OF PHOTOVOLTAIC CELLS Now, most commercial photovoltaic cells
are manufactured from silicon, the same material from which sand is made. In this case,
however, the silicon is extremely pure. Other, more exotic materials such as gallium arsenide
are just beginning to make their way into the field. The four general types of silicon
photovoltaic cells are:  Single-crystal silicon.  Polycrystalline silicon (Also known as multi-
crystal silicon).  Ribbon silicon.  Amorphous silicon (Also known as thin film silicon). 3.2.1
Single-crystal silicon Monocrystalline silicon (also called "single-crystal silicon", "single-
crystal Si", "mono c-Si", or mono-Si) is the base material for silicon chips used in virtually all
electronic equipment today. Mono-Si also serves as a photovoltaic, light-absorbing material
in the manufacture of solar cells. It consists of silicon in which the crystal lattice of the entire
solid is continuous, unbroken to its edges, and free of any grain boundaries. Mono-Si can be
prepared as an intrinsic semiconductor that consists only of exceedingly pure silicon, or it
can be doped by the addition of other elements such as boron or phosphorus to make p-type
or n-type silicon. Due to its semiconducting properties, single-crystal silicon is perhaps the
most important technological material of the last few decades—the "silicon era", because its
availability at an affordable cost has been essential for the development of the electronic
devices on which the present-day electronics. Monocrystalline silicon is generally created by
one of several methods that involve melting high-purity, semiconductor-grade silicon (only a
few parts per million of impurities) and the use of a seed to initiate the formation of a
continuous single crystal. This process is normally performed in an inert atmosphere such as
argon, and in an inert crucible such as quartz to avoid impurities that would affect the crystal
uniformity.
30. 30. 21 The most common production method is the Czochralski process, which dips a
precisely oriented rod-mounted seed crystal into the molten silicon. The rod is then slowly
pulled upwards and rotated simultaneously, allowing the pulled material to solidify into a
monocrystalline cylindrical ingot up to 2 meters in length and weighing several hundred
kilograms. Magnetic fields may also be applied to control and suppress turbulent flow, further
improving the uniformity of the crystallization. Other methods are float-zone growth, which
passes a polycrystalline silicon rod through a radiofrequency-heating coil that creates a
localized molten zone from which a seed crystal ingot grows, and Bridgman techniques,
which move the crucible through a temperature gradient to cool it from the end of the
container containing the seed. The solidified ingots are then sliced into thin wafers for further
processing. Compared to the casting of polycrystalline ingots, the production of
monocrystalline silicon is very slow and expensive. However, the demand for mono-Si
continues to rise due to the superior electronic properties—the lack of grain boundaries
 allows for better charge carrier flow and prevents electron recombination—allowing for
improved performance of integrated circuits and photovoltaics. Monocrystalline silicon is also
used for high-performance photovoltaic (PV) devices. Since there are less stringent
demands on structural imperfections compared to microelectronics applications, lower quality
solar grade silicon (Sog-Si) is often used for solar cells. Monocrystalline silicon has the
highest efficiency of 26.7%. 3.2.2 Polycrystalline silicon Polycrystalline silicon, also called
polysilicon or poly-Si, is a high purity, polycrystalline form of silicon, used as a raw material
by the solar photovoltaic and electronics industry. Polysilicon is produced from metallurgical
grade silicon by a chemical purification process, called the Siemens process. This process
involves distillation of volatile silicon compounds, and their decomposition into silicon at high
temperatures. An emerging, alternative process of refinement uses a fluidized bed reactor.
The photovoltaic industry also produces upgraded metallurgical-grade silicon (UMG-Si),
using metallurgical instead of chemical purification processes. When produced for the
electronics industry,
31. 31. 22 polysilicon contains impurity levels of less than one part per billion (ppb), while
polycrystalline solar grade silicon (SoG-Si) is generally less pure. The polysilicon feedstock –
large rods, usually broken into chunks of specific sizes and packaged in clean rooms before
shipment – is directly cast into multi- crystalline ingots or submitted to a recrystallization
process to grow single crystal boules. The products are then sliced into thin silicon wafers
and used for the production of solar cells, integrated circuits and other semiconductor
devices. Polysilicon consists of small crystals, also known as crystallites, giving the material
its typical metal flake effect. While polysilicon and multi-silicon are often used as synonyms,
multi-crystalline usually refers to crystals larger than 1 mm. Multi-crystalline solar cells are
the most common type of solar cells in the fast-growing PV market and consume most of the
worldwide produced polysilicon. About 5 tons of polysilicon is required to manufacture 1
megawatt (MW) of conventional solar modules. Polysilicon is distinct from monocrystalline
silicon and amorphous silicon. Polycrystalline cells can be recognized by a visible grain, a
"metal flake effect". Semiconductor grade (also solar grade) polycrystalline silicon is
converted to "single crystal" silicon – meaning that the randomly associated crystallites of
silicon in "polycrystalline silicon" are converted to a large "single" crystal. Single crystal
silicon is used to manufacture most Si-based microelectronic devices. Polycrystalline silicon
can be as much as 99.9999% pure. 3.2.3 Ribbon silicon The name describes the
manufacturing process, where a sheet of silicon the ribbon is pulled vertically from a bath of
molten silicon to form a multi-crystalline silicon crystals. The ribbon is then cut into lengths
which are treated with traditional processes to form solar cells. Mobil-Tyco, Solar Energy
Corp., Energy Materials, Corp., Motorola and IBM developed the process in the 1970s.
Ribbon growth has the capability of using less silicon compared to other wafer production
methods as wafers are manufactured to the approximately correct specification avoiding the
need for sawing of silicon blocks. Silicon accounts for more
32. 32. 23 than 50% of manufacturing costs in producing first generation solar cells, where much
of the silicon is discarded as waste at the sawing stage of manufacture. Employing the string
ribbon process allows the manufacture of PV grade silicon wafers to the approximate
dimensions while avoiding the waste encountered when sawing wafers from ingots. This
manufacturing process uses about half the amount of input silicon required by traditional
processes. String Ribbon technology is a technique where the ribbon is pulled from the
silicon melt between two wires, it is not capable of achieving the same electrical performance
as conventional wafer technology. Typically a cut wafer will convert 18-20% of the incoming
light into electricity where String Ribbon Solar Cells are capable of converting 13-14%. In
research laboratories the technology has reached as high as 18.3%, however it cannot be
produced commercially to this specification. Wafer technologies have reached as high as
25% in laboratory conditions. While String Ribbon technology has certain advantages as to
the shape of the crystals, the overall thickness varies enough so that not every 'silicon strip'
can be processed directly into a solar cell. In addition to this drawback, the growth process is
 thermally very inefficient. The radiating area/gram of crystal is extremely high, leading to very
high energy expenses which offset the reduced silicon use/expense. 3.2.4 Amorphous silicon
Amorphous silicon (a-Si) is the non-crystalline form of silicon used for solar cells and thin-film
transistors in LCDs. It is used as semiconductor material for a-Si solar cells, or thin-film
silicon solar cells, it is deposited in thin films onto a variety of flexible substrates, such as
glass, metal and plastic. Amorphous silicon cells generally feature low efficiency, but are one
of the most environmentally friendly photovoltaic technologies, since they do not use any
toxic heavy metals such as cadmium or lead. In amorphous silicon this long range order is
not present. Rather, the atoms form a continuous random network. Moreover, not all the
atoms within amorphous silicon are fourfold coordinated. Due to the disordered nature of the
material some atoms have a dangling bond. Physically, these dangling bonds represent
defects in the continuous random network and may cause anomalous electrical behaviour.
The material can
33. 33. 24 be passivated by hydrogen, which bonds to the dangling bonds and can reduce the
dangling bond density by several orders of magnitude. Hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-
Si:H) has a sufficiently low amount of defects to be used within devices such as solar
photovoltaic cells, particularly in the proto-crystalline growth regime. However, hydrogenation
is associated with light-induced degradation of the material, termed the Staebler–Wronski
effect. Amorphous silicon (a-Si) has been used as a photovoltaic solar cell material for
devices, which require very little power, such as pocket calculators, because their lower
performance compared to conventional crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells is more than
offset, by their simplified and lower cost of deposition onto a substrate. 3.3 WORKING OF
PV CELL Fig 3.2 PV cell working When a photon hits a piece of silicon, one of three things
can happen as shown in fig 3.2. 1. The photon can pass straight through the silicon — this
(generally) happens for lower energy photons, 2. The photon can reflect off the surface.
34. 34. 25 3. The photon can be absorbed by the silicon, if the photon energy is higher than the
silicon band gap value. This generates an electron-hole pair and sometimes heat, depending
on the band structure. When a photon is absorbed, its energy is given to an electron in the
crystal lattice. Usually this electron is in the valence band, and is tightly bound in covalent
bonds between neighbouring atoms, and hence unable to move far. The energy given to it by
the photon "excites" it into the conduction band, where it is free to move around within the
semiconductor. The covalent bond that the electron was previously a part of now has one
fewer electron — this is known as a hole. The presence of a missing covalent bond allows
the bonded electrons of neighbouring atoms to move into the "hole," leaving another hole
behind, and in this way a hole can move through the lattice. Thus, it can be said that photons
absorbed in the semiconductor create mobile electron-hole pairs. A photon need only have
greater energy than that of the band gap in order to excite an electron from the valence band
into the conduction band. However, the solar frequency spectrum approximates a black body
spectrum at ~6000 K, and as such, much of the solar radiation reaching the Earth is
composed of photons with energies greater than the band gap of silicon. The solar cell will
absorb these higher energy photons, but the difference in energy between these photons
and the silicon band gap is converted into heat (via lattice vibrations — called phonons)
rather than into usable electrical energy. 3.3.1 Charge carrier separation There are two main
modes for charge carrier separation in a solar cell: 1. Drift of carriers, driven by an
electrostatic field established across the device. 2. Diffusion of carriers from zones of high
carrier concentration to zones of low carrier concentration. In the widely used p-n junction
solar cells, the dominant mode of charge carrier separation is by drift. However, in non-p-n-
junction solar cells (typical of the third generation solar cell research such as dye and
polymer solar cells), a general electrostatic
35. 35. 26 field has been confirmed to be absent, and the dominant mode of separation is via
charge carrier diffusion. 3.3.2 The P-N junction The most commonly known solar cell is
configured as a large-area p-n junction made from silicon. As a simplification, one can
imagine bringing a layer of n-type silicon into direct contact with a layer of p-type silicon. In
 practice, p-n junctions of silicon solar cells are not made in this way, but rather by diffusing
an n-type dopant into one side of a p- type wafer (or vice versa). If a piece of p-type silicon is
placed in intimate contact with a piece of n-type silicon, then a diffusion of electrons occurs
from the region of high electron concentration (the n- type side of the junction) into the region
of low electron concentration (p-type side of the junction). When the electrons diffuse across
the p-n junction, they recombine with holes on the p-type side. The diffusion of carriers does
not happen indefinitely, however, because charges build up on either side of the junction and
create an electric field. The electric field creates a diode that promotes charge flow, known
as drift current that opposes and eventually balances out the diffusion of electron and holes.
This region where electrons and holes have diffused across the junction is called the
depletion region because it no longer contains any mobile charge carriers. It is also known
as the space charge region. 3.4 PV ARRAY For almost all applications, the one-half volt
produced by a single cell is inadequate. Therefore, cells are connected together in series to
increase the voltage. Several of these series strings of cells may be connected together in
parallel to increase the current as well. These interconnected cells and their electrical
connections are then sandwiched between a top layer of glass or clear plastic and a lower
level of plastic or plastic and metal. An outer frame is attached to increase mechanical
strength, and to provide a way to mount the unit. This package is called a "module” or
"panel". Typically, a module is the basic building block of photovoltaic systems.
36. 36. 27 In many applications the power available from one module is inadequate for the load.
Individual modules can be connected in series, parallel, or both to increase either output
voltage or current. This also increases the output power. It is important to note that
photovoltaic panels or modules from different manufacturers should not be mixed together in
a single array, even if their power, voltage or current outputs are nominally similar. This is
because differences in the I-V characteristic curves of the panels as well as their spectral
response are likely to cause extra mismatch losses in the array reducing its efficiency. Fig
3.3 Parallel connections of PV panels 3.4.1 Portable arrays A portable array may be as small
as a one square foot module easily carried by one person to recharge batteries for
communications or flashlights. They can be mounted on vehicles to maintain the engine
battery during long periods of inactivity. Larger ones can
37. 37. 28 be installed on trailers or truck beds to provide a portable power supply for field
operations as shown in fig 3.4. Fig 3.4 Portable arrays 3.4.2 Tracking arrays Arrays that
track, or follow the sun across the sky, can follow the sun in one axis or in two. Tracking
arrays perform best in areas with very clear climates. This is because following the sun
yields significantly greater amounts of energy when the sun's energy is predominantly direct.
Direct radiation comes straight from the sun, rather than the entire sky. Normally, one axis
trackers follow the sun from the east to the west throughout the day. The angle between the
modules and the ground does not change. The modules face in the "compass" direction of
the sun, but may not point exactly up at the sun at all times. Two axis trackers change both
their east-west direction and the angle from the ground during the day. The modules face
straight at the sun all through the day. Two axis trackers are considerably more complicated
than one axis types. Fig 3.5 shows describes about single axis and dual axis tracking.
38. 38. 29 Fig 3.5 Tracking arrays 3.5 PHOTOVOLTAIC MODULE PERFORMANCE To insure
compatibility with storage batteries or loads, it is necessary to know the electrical
characteristics of photovoltaic modules. As here, "I" is the abbreviation for current, expressed
in amps. "V" is used for voltage in volts, and "R" is used for resistance in ohms. A
photovoltaic module will produce its maximum current when there is essentially no resistance
in the circuit. This would be a short circuit between its positive and negative terminals. This
maximum current is called the short circuit current, abbreviated I(sc). When the module is
shorted, the voltage in the circuit is zero. Conversely, the maximum voltage is produced
when there is a break in the circuit. This is called the open circuit voltage, abbreviated V(oc).
Under this condition the resistance is infinitely high and there is no current, since the circuit is
incomplete. These two extremes in load resistance, and the whole range of conditions in
 between them, are depicted on a graph called a I-V (current-voltage) curve. Current,
expressed in amps, is on the vertical Y-axis. Voltage, in volts, is on the horizontal X-axis. The
short circuit current occurs on a point on the curve where the voltage is zero. The open
circuit voltage occurs where the current is zero.
39. 39. 30 The power available from a photovoltaic module at any point along curve is expressed
in watts. Watts are calculated by multiplying the voltage times the current (watts = volts x
amps, or W = VA). At the short circuit current point, the power output is zero, since the
voltage is zero. At the open circuit voltage point, the power output is also zero, but this time it
is because the current is zero. The PV module performance is shown in fig 3.6. Fig 3.6
Photovoltaic module performance There is a point on the "knee" of the curve where the
maximum power output is located. This point on our example curve is where the voltage is
15 volts, and the current is 2.5 amps. Therefore the maximum power in watts is 15 volts
times 2.5 amps, equalling 37.5 watts. The power, expressed in watts, at the maximum power
point is described as peak, maximum, or ideal, among other terms. Maximum power is
generally abbreviated as "I(mp)." Various manufacturers call it maximum output power,
output, peak power, rated power, or other terms. The current-voltage (I-V) curve is based on
the module being under standard conditions of sunlight and module temperature. It assumes
there is no shading on the module. Standard sunlight conditions on a clear day are assumed
to be 1000 watts of
40. 40. 31 solar energy per square meter (1000 W/m2 or l KW/m2 ). This is sometimes called
"one sun," or a "peak sun." Less than one sun will reduce the current output of the module by
a proportional amount. For example, if only one-half sun (500 W/m2) is available, the amount
of output current is roughly cut in half as shown in fig 3.7. Fig 3.7 Current-Voltage curves of
PV panel For maximum output, the face of the photovoltaic modules should be pointed as
straight toward the sun as possible because photovoltaic cells are electrical semiconductors,
partial shading of the module will cause the shaded cells to heat up. They would be acting as
inefficient conductors instead of electrical generators. Partial shading may ruin shaded cells.
Partial module shading has a serious effect on module power output. For a typical module,
completely shading only one cell can reduce the module output by as much as 80%. One or
more damaged cells in a module can have the same effect as shading as shown in fig 3.8.
41. 41. 32 Fig 3.8 Current- Voltage characteristics when module is shaded and unshaded This is
why modules should be completely unshaded during operation. A shadow across a module
can almost stop electricity production. Thin film modules are not as affected by this problem,
but they should still be unshaded. Module temperature affects the output voltage inversely.
Higher module temperatures will reduce the voltage by 0.04 to 0.1 volts for every one
Celsius degree risen in temperature (0.04V/0C to 0.1V/0C). In Fahrenheit degrees, the
voltage loss is from 0.022 to 0.056 volts per degree of temperature rise. This is why modules
should not be installed flush against a surface. Air should be allowed to circulate behind the
back of each module so its temperature does not rise and reducing its output. An air space of
4-6 inches is usually required to provide proper ventilation. The I-V characteristics of PV
panel at different temperatures is shown in fig 3.9. Fig 3.9 Current- Voltage characteristics at
different temperatures
42. 42. 33 The last significant factor, which determines the power output of a module, is the
resistance of the system to which it is connected. If the module is charging a battery, it must
supply a higher voltage than that of the battery. If the battery is deeply discharged, the
battery voltage is fairly low. The photovoltaic module can charge the battery with a low
voltage, shown as point 1 in Figure 3.10. As the battery reaches a full charge, the module is
forced to deliver a higher voltage, shown as point 2. The battery voltage drives module
voltage. Fig 3.10 PV module performance under battery charging Eventually, the required
voltage is higher than the voltage at the module's maximum power point. At this operating
point, the current production is lower than the current at the maximum power point. The
module's power output is also lower. To a lesser degree, when the operating voltage is lower
than that of the maximum power point, the output power is lower than the maximum. Since
 the ability of the module to produce electricity is not being completely used whenever it is
operating at a point fairly far from the maximum power point, photovoltaic modules should be
carefully matched to the system load and storage. Using a module with a maximum voltage
that is too high should be avoided nearly as much as using one with a maximum voltage that
is too low. The output voltage of a module depends on the number of cells connected in
series. Typical modules use any of 30, 32, 33, 36, or 44 cells wired in series. The modules
with
43. 43. 34 30- 32 cells are considered self-regulating modules. 36 cell modules are the most
common in the photovoltaic industry. Their slightly higher voltage rating, 16.7 volts, allows
the modules to overcome the reduction in output voltage when the modules are operating at
high temperatures. Modules with 33 - 36 cells also have enough surplus voltage to effectively
charge high antimony content deep cycle batteries. However, since these modules can
overcharge batteries, they usually require a charge controller. Nowadays 44 cell modules are
available with a rated output voltage of 20.3 volts. These modules are typically used only
when a substantially higher voltage is required. Another application for 44 cell modules is a
system with an extremely long wire run between the modules and the batteries or load. If the
wire is not large enough, it will cause a significant voltage drop. Higher module voltage can
overcome this problem. 3.6 PV PANEL SPECIFICATIONS General Specifications 
Manufacturer: Oswal Electrical Company Delhi  Model: OECOGSEPL 10WP/12V  Solar
cell: Poly crystalline  Solar cell shape: Rectangle Electrical Specifications  Open circuit
voltage: Voc= 21.07 V  Short circuit current: Isc= 0.61 A  Maximum voltage: Vmp= 17.00 V
 Maximum current: Imp= 0.59 A  Tolerance Pmax: ± 3%  Maximum system voltage:
1000V
44. 44. 35 CAPTER -4 SOLAR TRACKER CHAPTER -4
45. 45. 36 SOLAR TRACKER 4.1 GENERAL A solar tracker is a device that orients a payload
toward the Sun. Payloads are usually solar panels, parabolic troughs, Fresnel reflectors,
lenses or the mirrors of a heliostat. For flat-panel photovoltaic systems, trackers are used to
minimize the angle of incidence between the incoming sunlight and a photovoltaic panel.
This increases the amount of energy produced from a fixed amount of installed power
generating capacity. In concentrator photovoltaics (CPV) and concentrated solar power
(CSP) applications, trackers are used to enable the optical components in the CPV and CSP
systems. The optics in concentrated solar applications accept the direct component of
sunlight light and therefore must be oriented appropriately to collect energy. Tracking
systems are found in all concentrator applications because such systems collect the sun's
energy with maximum efficiency when the optical axis is aligned with incident solar radiation.
4.2 EVOLUTION OF SOLAR TRACKER Since the sun moves across the sky throughout the
day, in order to receive the best angle of exposure to sunlight for collection energy. A
tracking mechanism is often incorporated into the solar arrays to keep the array pointed
towards the sun. A solar tracker is a device onto which solar panels are fitted which tracks
the motion of the sun across the sky ensuring that the maximum amount of sunlight strikes
the panels throughout the day. When compare to the price of the PV solar panels, the cost of
a solar tracker is relatively low. Most photovoltaic solar panels are fitted in a fixed location-
for example on the sloping roof of a house, or on framework fixed to the ground. Since the
sun moves across the sky though the day, this is far from an ideal solution. Solar panels are
usually set up to be in full direct sunshine at the middle of the day facing South in the
Northern Hemisphere, or North in the Southern Hemisphere. Therefore morning and evening
sunlight hits the panels at an acute angle reducing the total amount of electricity which can
be generated each day. Fig 4.1 shows the sun’s apparent motion. .
46. 46. 37 Fig 4.1 Sun’s apparent motion During the day the sun appears to move across the sky
from left to right and up and down above the horizon from sunrise to noon to sunset. Figure
4.1 shows the schematic above of the Sun's apparent motion as seen from the Northern
Hemisphere. To keep up with other green energies, the solar cell market has to be as
efficient as possible in order not to lose market shares on the global energy marketplace.
 The end-user will prefer the tracking solution rather than a fixed ground system to increase
their earnings because:  The efficiency increases by 30-40%.  The space requirement for a
solar park is reduced, and they keep the same output  In terms of cost per Watt of the
completed solar system, it is usually cheaper to use a solar tracker and less solar panels
where space and planning permit.  A good solar tracker can typically lead to an increase in
electricity generation capacity of 30-50%. 4.3 SOLAR IRRADIATION: SUNLIGHT AND
SOLAR CONSTANT The sun delivers energy by means of electromagnetic radiation. There
is solar fusion that results from the intense temperature and pressure at the core of the sun.
Protons get converted into helium atoms at 600 million tons per second. Because the output
of the
47. 47. 38 process has lower energy than the protons which began, fusion gives rise to lots of
energy in form of gamma rays that are absorbed by particles in the sun and re-emitted. The
total power of the sun can be estimated by the law of Stefan and Boltzmann. P=4πr2 σϵT 4
W T is the temperature that is about 5800K, r is the radius of the sun which is 695800 km
and σ is the Boltzmann constant which is 1.3806488 × 10-23 m 2 kg s-2 K -1 . The emissivity
of the surface is denoted by ϵ. Because of Einstein’s famous law E=mc2 about millions of
tons of matter are converted to energy each second. The solar energy that is irradiated to the
earth is 5.1024 Joules per year. This is 10000 times the present worldwide energy
consumption per year. Solar radiation from the sun is received in three ways: direct, diffuse
and reflected. Direct radiation: is also referred to as beam radiation and is the solar radiation
which travels on a straight line from the sun to the surface of the earth. Diffuse radiation: is
the description of the sunlight which has been scattered by particles and molecules in the
atmosphere but still manage to reach the earth’s surface. Diffuse radiation has no definite
direction, unlike direct versions. Reflected radiation: describes sunlight which has been
reflected off from non- atmospheric surfaces like the ground. 4.4 SUNLIGHT Photometry
enables us to determine the amount of light given off by the Sun in terms of brightness
perceived by the human eye. In photometry, a luminosity function is used for the radiant
power at each wavelength to give a different weight to a particular wavelength that models
human brightness sensitivity. Photometric measurements began as early as the end of the
18th century resulting in many different units of measurement, some of which cannot even
be converted owing to the relative meaning of brightness. However, the luminous flux (or lux)
is commonly used and is the measure of the perceived power of light. Its unit, the lumen, is
concisely defined as the luminous flux of light produced by a light source that emits one
candela of luminous intensity over a solid angle of one steradian. The candela is the SI unit
of luminous intensity and it is the power
48. 48. 39 emitted by a light source in a particular direction, weighted by a luminosity function
whereas a steradian is the SI unit for a solid angle; the two-dimensional angle in three-
dimensional space that an object subtends at a point. One lux is equivalent to one lumen per
square metre; 1 lx = 1lm ∙ m-2 = 1 cd ∙ sr ∙ m-2 I.e. a flux of 10 lumen, concentrated over an
area of 1 square metre, lights up that area with illuminance of 10 lux. Sunlight ranges
between 400 lux and approximately 130000 lux, as summarized in the table below. Table 4.1
shows the various luminous flux at different times of a day. Time of day Luminous flux (lux)
Sunrise or sunset on a clear day 400 Overcast day 1000 Full day (not direct sun) 10000 –
25000 Direct sunlight 32000 – 130000 Table 4.1: Range of the brightness of sunlight (lux)
Elevation angle The elevation angle is used interchangeably with altitude angle and is the
angular height of the sun in the sky measured from the horizontal. Both altitude and elevation
are used for description of the height in meters above the sea level. The elevation is 0
degrees at sunrise and 90 degrees when the sun is directly overhead. The angle of elevation
varies throughout the day and also depends on latitude of the particular location and the day
of the year.
49. 49. 40 Zenith angle This is the angle between the sun and the vertical. It is similar to the
angle of elevation but is measured from the vertical rather than from the horizontal.
Therefore, the zenith angle = 90 degrees – elevation angle. Fig 4.2 Angle of elevation and
 Zenith angle Azimuth angle This is the compass direction from which the sunlight is coming.
At solar noon, the sun is directly south in the northern hemisphere and directly north in the
southern hemisphere. The azimuth angle varies throughout the day. At the equinoxes, the
sun rises directly east and sets directly west regardless of the latitude. Therefore, the
azimuth angles are 90 degrees at sunrise and 270 degrees at sunset.
50. 50. 41 4.5 TYPES OF SOLAR TRACKERS 4.5.1 Single axis tracker Single axis trackers
have one degree of freedom that act as the axis of rotation. The axis of rotation of single axis
trackers is aligned along the meridian of the true North. With advanced tracking algorithms, it
is possible to align them in any cardinal direction. Common implementations of single axis
trackers include horizontal single axis trackers (HSAT), horizontal single axis tracker with
tilted modules (HTSAT), vertical single axis trackers (VSAT), tilted single axis trackers
(TSAT) and polar aligned single axis trackers (PSAT). The orientation of the module with
respect to the tracker axis is important when modelling performance. 4.5.1.1 Horizontal
single axis tracker (HSAT) The axis of rotation for horizontal single axis tracker is horizontal
with respect to the ground. The posts at either end of the axis of rotation of a horizontal
single axis tracker can be shared between trackers to lower the installation cost. Field
layouts with horizontal single axis trackers are very flexible. The simple geometry means that
keeping all of the axes of rotation parallel to one another is all that is required for
appropriately positioning the trackers with respect to one another. Appropriate spacing can
maximize the ratio of energy production to cost, this being dependent upon local terrain and
shading conditions and the time-of-day value of the energy produced. Horizontal trackers
typically have the face of the module oriented parallel to the axis of rotation. As a module
tracks, it sweeps a cylinder that is rotationally symmetric around the axis of rotation. In single
axis horizontal trackers, a long horizontal tube is supported on bearings mounted upon
pylons or frames. The axis of the tube is on a north–south line. Panels are mounted upon the
tube, and the tube will rotate on its axis to track the apparent motion of the Sun through the
day. 4.5.1.2 Horizontal single axis tracker with tilted modules (HTSAT) In HSAT, the modules
are mounted flat at 0 degrees, while in HTSAT, the modules are installed at a certain tilt. It
works on same principle as HSAT, keeping the axis of tube horizontal in north–south line and
rotates the solar modules east to west throughout
51. 51. 42 the day. These trackers are usually suitable in high latitude locations but does not
take as much land space as consumed by Vertical single axis tracker (VSAT). Therefore, it
brings the advantages of VSAT in a horizontal tracker and minimizes the overall cost of solar
project. 4.5.1.3 Vertical single axis tracker (VSAT) The axis of rotation for vertical single axis
trackers is vertical with respect to the ground. These trackers rotate from East to West over
the course of the day. Such trackers are more effective at high latitudes than are horizontal
axis trackers. Field layouts must consider shading to avoid unnecessary energy losses and
to optimize land utilization. Also optimization for dense packing is limited due to the nature of
the shading over the course of a year. Vertical single axis trackers typically have the face of
the module oriented at an angle with respect to the axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it
sweeps a cone that is rotationally symmetric around the axis of rotation. 4.5.1.4 Tilted single
axis tracker (TSAT) All trackers with axes of rotation between horizontal and vertical are
considered tilted single axis trackers. Tracker tilt angles are often limited to reduce the wind
profile and decrease the elevated end height. With backtracking, they can be packed without
shading perpendicular to their axis of rotation at any density. However, the tilt angle and the
latitude limit the packing parallel to their axes of rotation. Tilted single axis trackers typically
have the face of the module oriented parallel to the axis of rotation. As a module tracks, it
sweeps a cylinder that is rotationally symmetric around the axis of rotation. 4.5.2 Dual axis
tracker Dual axis trackers have two degrees of freedom that act as axes of rotation. These
axes are typically normal to one another. The axis that is fixed with respect to the ground can
be considered a primary axis. The axis that is referenced to the primary axis can be
considered a secondary axis. There are several common implementations of dual axis
trackers. They are classified by the orientation of their primary axes with respect to the
 ground. Two common implementations are tip-tilt dual axis trackers (TTDAT) and azimuth-
altitude dual axis trackers (AADAT). The orientation of the module with respect
52. 52. 43 to the tracker axis is important when modelling performance. Dual axis trackers
typically have modules oriented parallel to the secondary axis of rotation. Dual axis trackers
allow for optimum solar energy levels due to their ability to follow the Sun vertically and
horizontally. No matter where the Sun is in the sky, dual axis trackers are able to angle
themselves to be in direct contact with the Sun. 4.5.2.1 Tip–tilt A tip–tilt dual axis tracker
(TTDAT) is so-named because the panel array is mounted on the top of a pole. Normally the
east–west movement is driven by rotating the array around the top of the pole. On top of the
rotating bearing is a T- or H-shaped mechanism that provides vertical rotation of the panels
and provides the main mounting points for the array. The posts at either end of the primary
axis of rotation of a tip–tilt dual axis tracker can be shared between trackers to lower
installation costs. Other such TTDAT trackers have a horizontal primary axis and a
dependent orthogonal axis. The vertical azimuthal axis is fixed. This allows for great flexibility
of the payload connection to the ground mounted equipment because there is no twisting of
the cabling around the pole. Field layouts with tip–tilt dual axis trackers are very flexible. The
simple geometry means that keeping the axes of rotation parallel to one another is all that is
required for appropriately positioning the trackers with respect to one another. Normally the
trackers would have to be positioned at fairly low density in order to avoid one tracker casting
a shadow on others when the Sun is low in the sky. Tip-tilt trackers can make up for this by
tilting closer to horizontal to minimize up-Sun shading and therefore maximize the total
power being collected. The axes of rotation of many tip–tilt dual axis trackers are typically
aligned either along a true north meridian or along an east–west line of latitude. 4.5.2.2
Azimuth-altitude An azimuth–altitude dual axis tracker (AADAT) has its primary axis (the
azimuth axis) vertical to the ground. The secondary axis, often called elevation axis, is then
typically normal to the primary axis. They are similar to tip-tilt systems in operation, but they
differ in the way the array is rotated for daily tracking. Instead of rotating the array
53. 53. 44 around the top of the pole AADAT systems can use a large ring mounted on the
ground with the array mounted on a series of rollers. The main advantage of this
arrangement is the weight of the array is distributed over a portion of the ring, as opposed to
the single loading point of the pole in the TTDAT. This allows AADAT to support much larger
arrays. Unlike the TTDAT, however, the AADAT system cannot be placed closer together
than the diameter of the ring, which may reduce the system density, especially considering
inter-tracker shading. 4.6 TYPES OF DRIVES 4.6.1 Active tracker Active trackers make use
of motors and gear trains for direction of the tracker as commanded by the controller
responding to the solar direction. The position of the sun is monitored throughout the day.
When the tracker is subjected to darkness, it either sleeps or stops depending on the design.
This is done using sensors that are sensitive to light such as LDRs. Their voltage output is
put into a microcontroller that then drives actuators to adjust the position of the solar panel.
4.6.2 Passive tracker Passive trackers use a low boiling point compressed gas fluid driven to
one side or the other to cause the tracker to move in response to an imbalance. Because it is
a non- precision orientation it is not suitable for some types of concentrating photovoltaic
collectors but works just fine for common PV panel types. These have viscous dampers that
prevent excessive motion in response to gusts of wind. 4.6.3 Manual tracking In some
developing nations, drives have been replaced by operators who adjust the trackers. This
has the benefits of robustness, having staff available for maintenance and creating
employment for the population in the vicinity of the site.
54. 54. 45 CHAPTER -5 LEAD-ACID BATTERY
55. 55. 46 CHAPTER -5 LEAD-ACID BATTERY The most inexpensive secondary cell is the lead
acid cell and is widely used for commercial purposes. A lead-acid cell when ready to use
contains two cells immersed in a dilute sulphuric acid of specific gravity of about 1.28. The
positive plate is of lead- peroxide and negative plate is lead. Fig 5.1 Lead-Acid battery 5.1
CHEMICAL CHANGES DURING DISCHARGING In the discharged state both the positive
 and negative plates become lead sulfate (PbSO4) and the electrolyte loses much of its
dissolved sulfuric acid and becomes primarily water. The discharge process is driven by the
conduction of electrons from the negative plate back into the cell at the positive plate in the
external circuit as shown in fig 5.2. At cathode Pb(s) + HSO− 4(aq) → PbSO4(s) + H+ (aq) +
2e−
56. 56. 47 Release of two conducting electrons gives lead electrode a net negative charge as
electrons accumulate they create an electric field which attracts hydrogen ions and repels
sulphate ions, leading to a double-layer near the surface. The hydrogen ions screen the
charged electrode from the solution which limits further reactions unless charge is allowed to
flow out of electrode. At anode PbO2(s) + HSO− 4(aq) + 3H+ (aq) + 2e− → PbSO4(s) +
2H2O(l) The total reaction can be written as Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) → 2PbSO4(s) +
2H2O(l) The sum of the molecular masses of the reactants is 642.6 g/mol, so theoretically a
cell can produce two faradays of charge from 642.6 g of reactants, or 83.4 ampere-hours per
kilogram. For a 2 volts cell, this comes to 167 watt-hours per kilogram of reactants, but a
lead–acid cell in practice gives only 30–40 watt-hours per kilogram of battery, due to the
mass of the water and other constituent parts. Fig 5.2 Discharging of a lead acid battery 5.2
CHEMICAL CHANGES DURING CHARGING As a lead-acid battery is charged in the
reverse direction, the action described in the discharge is reversed. The lead sulphate
(PbSO4) is driven out and back into the
57. 57. 48 electrolyte (H2SO4). The return of acid to the electrolyte will reduce the sulphate in
the plates and increase the specific gravity. This will continue to happen until all of the acid is
driven from the plates and back into the electrolyte as shown in fig 5.3. 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
→ Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) Fig 5.3 Charging of a lead acid battery 5.3
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEAD-ACID CELL  Terminal Voltage - When the battery delivers
current, the voltage terminal voltage is less than its EMF due to its internal resistance. Lead
acid cell has less lead sulphate that will clogged the pores of the battery once there is
continuous flow of current.  EMF- The EMF of a fully charged L-A cell is relatively higher, its
open circuit voltage will reach as high as 2.2 Volts while other has 1.2 Volts only.  Capacity
- The capacity of the cell is defined as the quantity of electricity which it can give out during
single discharge until its terminal voltage falls to 1.8 V. Battery capacity is measured by
Ampere-hours and the capacity of lead-acid cell is not permitted to discharged beyond 1.8 V,
thus it has high capacity.  Efficiency - There are two ways which we can measure the
efficiency of the lead-acid cell that is ampere-hour efficiency and watt-hour efficiency. The L-
A cell has 90% Ampere-hour efficiency and 75% Watt-hour efficiency. These data is
relatively higher compare to other secondary cells.
58. 58. 49 Ampere-hour efficiency= (Amp-hr provided on discharge/ Amp-hr on charge) x 100
Watt-hour efficiency= (Energy given on discharge/ Energy input of charge) x 100 5.4
INDICATIONS OF FULLY CHARGED CELL The indications of a fully charged battery are: 
Voltage- During charging, the terminal potential of a cell increases and provides an indication
to its state of charge. A fully charged lead-acid cell has a terminal voltage of about 2 volts. 
Specific gravity- When the battery is fully charged the specific gravity increases up to 1.28.
This can be measured by means of a hydrometer.  Gassing- When the battery is fully
charged, the charging current starts electrolysis of water. The result is that hydrogen is given
off at cathode and oxygen at anode; this process is known as gassing. Gassing indicates
that charging current is not doing useful work and hence should be stopped.  Colour of
plates- The visual examination of colour of the plates of lead-acid cell provides another
important indication of state of charge. When the cell is fully charged, the positive plate gets
converted into Pbo2 which is brown in colour and negative plate to spongy lead which is grey
in colour 5.5 MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES The average life of secondary battery can be
increased by taking proper care of batteries. Some of the important battery precautions that
should be taken for healthy maintenance of battery are the following:  The battery should be
recharged immediately after the discharge according the rates of charge and discharge
specified by manufacturer.  The top of battery should be kept clean and dry.  The level of
 electrolytes in the battery should always be kept above the top of the electrode plates. The
loss of water due to evaporation and decomposition during charging should be compensated
by adding pure distilled water.
59. 59. 50  The temperature of the battery should not exceed 40 o C. At higher temperatures,
the electrode plate deteriorate very rapidly.  If the white lead sulphate is accumulated on the
electrode plates, it should be removed by overcharging the battery by passing a current
which is about 150% of the normal current.  The battery should never be short circuited. 
The battery should not be left in a discharge condition for a long time.  When not in use, the
battery must be fully charged and kept in a cool and dry place. 5.5 SPECIFICATIONS Type :
Sealed lead-acid battery Nominal Voltage : 12V Rated Capacity : 1.3AH Approx. Weight :
0.57Kg Maximum discharge current : 19.5A Case material : Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
(A.B.S) Initial resistance (Fully charged battery) : 78mOhms Operating temperature : -20 o C
to 50 o C Specific Energy : 26 Watt-Hour/Kg
60. 60. 51 CHAPTER -6 SERVO MOTOR AND VOLTAGE RGULATOR
61. 61. 52 CHAPTER -6 SERVO MOTOR AND VOLTAGE RGULATOR 6.1 SERVO MOTOR A
servo motor is an electrical device which can push or rotate an object with great precision. If
you want to rotate and object at some specific angles or distance, then you use servo motor.
It is just made up of simple motor which run through servo mechanism. If motor is used is DC
powered then it is called DC servo motor, and if it is AC powered motor then it is called AC
servo motor. We can get a very high torque servo motor in a small and light weight
packages. Doe to these features they are being used in many applications like toy car, RC
helicopters and planes, Robotics, Machine etc. Servo motors are rated in kg/cm. his kg/cm
tells you how much weight your servo motor can lift at a particular distance. For example: A
6kg/cm Servo motor should be able to lift 6kg if the load is suspended 1cm away from the
motors shaft, the greater the distance the lesser the weight carrying capacity. Fig 6.1 Servo
motor
62. 62. 53 6.1.1 Servo mechanism It consists of three parts: 1. Controlled device 2. Output
sensor 3. Feedback system It is a closed loop system where it uses positive feedback
system to control motion and final position of the shaft. Here the device is controlled by a
feedback signal generated by comparing output signal and reference input signal. Here
reference input signal is compared to reference output signal and the third signal is produces
by feedback system. And this third signal acts as input signal to control device. This signal is
present as long as feedback signal is generated or there is difference between reference
input signal and reference output signal. So the main task of servomechanism is to maintain
output of a system at desired value at presence of noises. 6.1.2 Working principle of servo
motor A servo consists of a Motor (DC or AC), a potentiometer, gear assembly and a
controlling circuit. First of all we use gear assembly to reduce RPM and to increase torque of
motor. Say at initial position of servo motor shaft, the position of the potentiometer knob is
such that there is no electrical signal generated at the output port of the potentiometer. Now
an electrical signal is given to another input terminal of the error detector amplifier. Now
difference between these two signals, one comes from potentiometer and another comes
from other source, will be processed in feedback mechanism and output will be provided in
term of error signal. This error signal acts as the input for motor and motor starts rotating.
Now motor shaft is connected with potentiometer and as motor rotates so the potentiometer
and it will generate a signal. So as the potentiometer’s angular position changes, its output
feedback signal changes. After sometime the position of potentiometer reaches at a position
that the output of potentiometer is same as external signal provided. At this condition, there
will be no
63. 63. 54 output signal from the amplifier to the motor input as there is no difference between
external applied signal and the signal generated at potentiometer, and in this situation motor
stops rotating. 6.1.3 Controlling of servo motor All motors have three wires coming out of
them. Out of which two will be used for Supply (positive and negative) and one will be used
for the signal that is to be sent from the MCU. Servo motor is controlled by PWM (Pulse with
 Modulation) which is provided by the control wires. There is a minimum pulse, a maximum
pulse and a repetition rate. Servo motor can turn 90 degree from either direction form its
neutral position. The servo motor expects to see a pulse every 20 milliseconds (ms) and the
length of the pulse will determine how far the motor turns. Fig 6.2 Pulse width control of
servo motor Servo motor works on PWM (Pulse width modulation) principle, means its angle
of rotation is controlled by the duration of applied pulse to its Control PIN. Basically servo
motor is made up of DC motor which is controlled by a variable resistor (potentiometer) and
some gears. High speed force of DC motor is converted into torque by Gears. We know that
WORK= FORCE X DISTANCE, in DC motor force is less and distance (speed) is high and in
Servo, force is High and distance is less. Potentiometer is connected to the output shaft of
the Servo, to calculate the angle and stop the DC motor on required angle.
64. 64. 55 6.1.4 Specifications  Manufacturer : Vega Robo Kit  Model : V3006  Operating
Voltage : 4.8-6.0V  PWM Input Range : Pulse Cycle 20±2ms, Positive Pulse 1~2ms  STD
Direction : Counter Clockwise / Pulse Traveling 1500 to 1900µsec  Stall Torque : 6 kg-cm at
4.8V, 7.1 Kg-cm at 6V  Operating Speed : 0.18 sec/ 60° at 4.8V, 0.16 sec/ 60° at 6V at no
load  Weight : 40g (1.41 oz)  Special Feature : Heavy Duty Plastic Gears, Economy Servo
6.2 VOLTAGE REGULATOR 6.2.1 LM 7805 SERIES VOLTAGE REGULATOR This series
of fixed-voltage integrated-circuit voltage regulators is designed for a wide range of
applications. These applications include on-card regulation for elimination of noise and
distribution problems associated with single-point regulation. Each of these regulators can
deliver up to 1.5 A of output current. The internal current-limiting and thermal-shutdown
features of these regulators essentially make them immune to overload. Fig 6.3 LM7805
Voltage Regulator
65. 65. 56 6.2.2 FEATURES OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR  Output Current up to 1.5A  Internal
Thermal-Overload Protect  High Power-Dissipation Capability  Internal Short-Circuit
Current Limiting  Output Transistor Safe-Area Compensation  3-Terminal Regulators
66. 66. 57 CHAPTER -7 SOFTWARE DESIGN AND DUMPING
67. 67. 58 CHAPTER -7 SOFTWARE DESIGN AND DUMPING 7.1 SOFTWARES USED 1.
Arduino IDE 1.8.5 2. EasyEDA for drawing circuit diagram 7.2 SOFTWARE DESIGN 7.2.1
Flowchart for Solar Charge Controller Fig 7.1 Flowchart for solar charge controller
68. 68. 59 7.2.2 Flowchart for Sun Tracker Fig 7.2 Flowchart of sun tracking system 7.3
SOFTWARE DUMPING PROCEDURE 1. The assembly language Instructions typed in dos
editor or notepad with an extension of .INO. 2. Compile the above .INO file with Arduino IDE
software. 3. Before uploading your sketch, you need to select the correct items from the
Tools > Board and Tools > Port menus. 4. Once you've selected the correct serial port and
board, press the upload button in the toolbar or select the Upload item from the Sketch
menu. Current Arduino boards will reset automatically and begin the upload. 5. The Arduino
Software (IDE) will display a message when the upload is complete, or show an error.
69. 69. 60 CHAPTER -8 PROPOSED HARDWARE
70. 70. 61 CHAPTER -8 PROPOSED HARDWARE 8.1 HARDWARE USED IN CIRCUIT
CONSTRUCTION Following components used in the circuit construction  MOSFET It is
switching device which can operates whenever we are giving gate pulses on it. It has three
terminal devices.  Arduino Nano The Arduino Nano employs ATmega328 microcontroller
which can operated as per programmed written. The execution will be done by this
microcontroller.  Solar panel Solar panels absorb sunlight as a source of energy to generate
electricity.  Servo motor Servo motor is used to align the solar panel perpendicular to sun
rays according to the PWM signals generated by Arduino.  Current sensor The current
sensor is used to measure the amount of current drawn by load.  Temperature sensor
Temperature sensor is used to monitor room temperature since the battery chemical reaction
varies with temperature.  LDR An LDR is a component that has a (variable) resistance that
changes with the light intensity that falls upon it. This allows them to be used in light sensing
circuits.  LED
71. 71. 62 Here LEDs Are used to indicate battery and load status. These LEDs are turned on
with the help of Arduino. 8.2 WORKING OPERATION OF THE CIRCUIT Whenever the solar
panel output voltage is greater than battery voltage, the Arduino turns on switching circuit 1
and the battery gets charged. When the battery is fully charged the Arduino turns off
switching circuit 1 thereby protecting the battery from getting overcharged. During night times
the solar panel voltage is less than battery voltage so the Arduino turns on switching circuit 2
thereby connecting the load. When the battery voltage is low the Arduino disconnects load
thereby protecting the battery from deep discharge. During daytime a pair of LDR’s are used
to track the sun and tilt the solar panel such that maximum amount of sunlight is incident on
it. Fig 8.1 Circuit diagram of the proposed system
72. 72. 63 CHAPTER -9 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
73. 73. 64 CHAPTER -9 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 9.1 PICTORIAL VIEW OF
EXPERIMENTAL SETUP 9.1 Pictorial view of experimental setup 9.2 CHARGING TEST The
test was conducted on March 10, 2018 from 10:00AM to 12:00PM. A 10W solar panel was
used to provide charging voltage. A voltage sensor was used to measure voltage of solar
panel and battery. Solar panel voltage and battery voltage was noted and recorded at the
beginning of the charging experiment. All the values are tabulated until the battery is fully
charged. The results obtained was tabulated in Table 9.1. The measured parameters include
solar panel voltage (V1), battery voltage (V2), load status and battery status.
74. 74. 65 Time Solar Panel voltage Battery voltage Load status Battery status 10:00 AM 14.4V
11.9V Off Bulk Charging 10:30 AM 14.7V 12.4V Off Bulk Charging 11:00 AM 14.72V 12.7V
Off Bulk Charging 11:30 AM 14.73V 13.4V Off Float Charging 12:00 PM 14.83V 13.7V Off
Charged Table 9.1: Charging test result 9.3 DISCHARGING TEST The voltages for
discharging test was recorded for an interval of an hour. The parameters recorded are
battery voltage and load status. The results are tabulated in Table 9.2. Time Battery voltage
Load status 7:00 PM 13.7V On 8:00 PM 13.2V On 9:00 PM 12.7V On 10:00 PM 12.3V On
11:00 PM 11.93V On 12:00 AM 11.6V Off Table 9.2: Discharging test result
75. 75. 66 CONCLUSION In this project, Solar charge controller with sun tracking has been
implemented to enhance battery life. Here PWM (Pulse width modulation) technique is
utilized to charge battery and control load variations. Here Arduino control is implemented to
prevent overcharging and undercharging of the battery. Also, solar tracker is implemented to
derive maximum efficiency of PV panel.
76. 76. 67 FUTURE SCOPE In future PWM (Pulse width modulation) technique can be replaced
by Maximum power point tracking algorithm (MPPT) to enhance the efficiency of the
Photovoltaic Panel.
77. 77. 68 REFERENCES [1] Akarsh Sinha, M. Pavithra, K.R. Sutharshan,Sarat Kumar Sahoo,
"Arduino Based Pulse Width Modulated Output Voltage Control of a dc-dc Boost Converter
Using Proportional ,Integral and Derivative Control Strategy," Australian Journal of Basic and
Applied Sciences, vol.7, pp.l04-108, Sept 2013. [2] Md. Ashiquzzaman, Nadia Afroze, Md.
Jabed Hossain, Umama Zobayer, and Md. Mottaleb Hossain, “Cost Effective Solar Charge
Controller Using Microcontroller ”, Canadian Journal on Electrical and Electronics
Engineering vol. 2, no. 12, pp. 571-576, 2011. [3] M.K.A1am,F.H.Khan and A.S.Imtiaz, "An
efficient power electronics solution for lateral multi-junction solar cell systems," in Proc.IEEE
IECON,pp.4373-4378,2011 . [4] Gazi, S.M., Muhaiminul, and Salim, K.M “Design and
Construction of Microcontroller Based Maximum Power Point PWM Charge Controller for
Photovoltaic Application”. Development in Renewable Energy Technology (2009) 1st
International Conference, Pp. 1-4, 2009. [5] Robert Weissbach and Isaac Aunkst “A
MICROCONTROLLER-BASED SOLAR PANEL TRACKING SYSTEM”, American Society for
Engineering Education, 2007. [6] Frede Blaabjerg,Florin Iov, Remus Teodorescue, Zhe
Chen,„‟Power Electronics in Renewable Energy Systems‟‟, Aalborg University, Institute of
Energy, IEEE transaction, 2006. [7] E. Koutroulis and K. Kalaitzakis, "Novel battery charging
regulation system for photovoltaic applications", IEE Proceedings, 2004. [8] K.Ktse. S.H
Chung “ A Novel Maximum Power Point Tracker For PV panels using Switching frequency
 Modulation” IEEE Trans on power electronics vol 17, 6 Nov 2002. [9] Sanidad, L, Parsons,
R, Baghzouz, Y, and Boehm, R “Effect of ON/OFF charge controllers on stand-alone PV
system performance”. Energy Conversion Engineering Conference and Exhibit, (IECEC)
35th Intersociety, Las Vegas, NV, 1497-1501, 2000. [10] C Hua, J Lin and C Shen
“Implementation of a DSP- Controlled Photovoltaic System with Peak Power Tracking” IEEE
Trans on ind electronics vol,45 no 1,jan1998.
78. 78. It is here by certified that the paper ID : IJRASET14282, entitled Design and
Development of Solar Charge Controller with Sun Tracking by Ch. Nikhil Chakravarthy after
review is found suitable and has been published in Volume 6, Issue III, March 2018 in
International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology Good luck
for your future endeavors
79. 79. It is here by certified that the paper ID : IJRASET14282, entitled Design and
Development of Solar Charge Controller with Sun Tracking by G. Raja Sekhar after review is
found suitable and has been published in Volume 6, Issue III, March 2018 in International
Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology Good luck for your future
endeavors
80. 80. It is here by certified that the paper ID : IJRASET14282, entitled Design and
Development of Solar Charge Controller with Sun Tracking by B. K. S. A Ramlal after review
is found suitable and has been published in Volume 6, Issue III, March 2018 in International
Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology Good luck for your future
endeavors
81. 81. It is here by certified that the paper ID : IJRASET14282, entitled Design and
Development of Solar Charge Controller with Sun Tracking by B. Sreenu after review is
found suitable and has been published in Volume 6, Issue III, March 2018 in International
Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology Good luck for your future
endeavors
82. 82. It is here by certified that the paper ID : IJRASET14282, entitled Design and
Development of Solar Charge Controller with Sun Tracking by B. Siva Durga Prasad after
review is found suitable and has been published in Volume 6, Issue III, March 2018 in
International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology Good luck
for your future endeavors
83. 83. International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology
(IJRASET) ISSN: 2321-9653; IC Value: 45.98; SJ Impact Factor: 6.887 Volume 6 Issue III,
March 2018- Available at www.ijraset.com 729©IJRASET (UGC Approved Journal): All
Rights are Reserved Design and Development of Solar Charge Controller with Sun Tracking
Ch. Nikhil Chakravarthy1 , G. Raja Sekjar2 , B. K. S. A Ramlal3 , B. Sreenu4 , B. Siva Durga
Prasad5 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PVP Siddhartha
Institute of Technology, Vijayawada, India Abstract: This paper proposes the design and
development of Arduino based solar charge controller with sun tracking using PWM
technique. This PWM technique is employed using ATmega328P on Arduino board. The
Arduino is used to charge a 12V battery using 10W solar panel. The main feature of this
charge controller is to control the load. During day time when load is not connected the
battery gets charged from solar panel. When battery reaches peak value of 14.7V charging
current & further charging is interrupted by Arduino. An inbuilt analogue to digital converter is
used to determine voltage of battery, solar panel and current drawn by the load. A solar
tracking system is also implemented such that panel is always kept at right angle to incident
radiation. Keywords: photovoltaic (PV), Arduino Nano, LDR, Battery, Light Emitting Diode. I.
INTRODUCTION As the conventional are depleted day by day the world is moving towards
alternative sources, energy like solar energy, wind energy etc. Solar energy can be used to
generate power in two-ways; solar thermal conversion and solar electrical conversion. Solar
thermal is employed to heat fluids in order to produce steam to derive turbines while solar
electric (photovoltaic) is the direct conversion of sunlight into electricity through photocells.
Photovoltaic (PV) production becomes double every two years [2]. For this reason, it has
 become the world’s fastest growing energy technology all around the world [4-10]. A charge
controller is an essential part of nearly all power systems in which batteries are used to store
generated power, whether the power source is PV, wind e.tc [3]. A PV system consists a
number of solar cells which converts sunlight directly into electrical energy. A charge
controller is one of the important components of PV system. The main function of a charge
controller in a PV system is to keep batteries properly charged and safe for the long term,
and to protect it from deep discharging [3], without which the battery will overcharge.
Absence of charge controller in PV system results in high maintenance cost and frequent
battery replacement. Hence, a charge controller is important to prevent battery overcharging
excessively, over discharging, reverse current flow at night and to prolong the life of the
batteries in a PV system [3]. Voltage change in LDR where combination of voltage and
tracking position is implemented with the use of artificial intelligence algorithm which results
in a single axis tracking strategy along with charge controller When a lead acid battery is
charged, its voltage rises. When the charge current is first turned on, the internal resistance
of the battery resists the current, and the voltage immediately rises above the open circuit
voltage. Towards the end of charge, the voltage rises sharply as the battery begins to “gas”.
“Gassing” is the decomposition of the liquid water into hydrogen and oxygen gasses which is
also known as “electrolysis” [1]. If gassing is left to continue for a long period of time, the
battery is overcharged, resulting in accelerated corrosion of the battery plates, loss of
electrolyte, and physical damage of the plates. The aim of this paper is to design and
construct an Arduino based charge controller for PV application along with sun tracking
system, capable of charging a 12V battery using 10W solar panel. The hardware design is
adopted. II. MATERIALS AND METHODS A. Hardware design The system design is based
on the block diagram shown in figure 1. The LDR sensors provide analog data as an output.
This analog data is given to analog pins ATMega328P microcontroller which can work on
voltage up to 5V, so using an ATMega328P is an added advantage since reduces the cost of
separate A/D converters IC. The analog output of sensors is connected to ADC pins of
ATMega328P microcontroller and the A/D conversion is completed by using software
program.
84. 84. International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering Technology
(IJRASET) ISSN: 2321-9653; IC Value: 45.98; SJ Impact Factor: 6.887 Volume 6 Issue III,
March 2018- Available at www.ijraset.com 730©IJRASET (UGC Approved Journal): All
Rights are Reserved Figure 1: Block diagram of the system B. Voltage sensing section
Voltage divider network is used as voltage sensor for the controller. The resistance values
chosen are 20KΩ and 100KΩ such that maximum input voltage to A/D converter is 5V. C.
Current sensor The current sensor is used for measuring load current. Here in this project we
used Hall-effect sensor as a current sensor. D. Switching Circuit MOSFET is used as a
switching device because it has fast switching speed and low voltage drop. MOSFET is a
voltage-controlled device. It operates in two modes-enhanced mode and depletion mode.
IRF9540 MOSFET is used as a switch because it is easy to use and has faster switching
speed. In the hardware circuit transistor is used to switch the mosfet from microcontroller. A
MOSFET and transistor combination is used for the switching purpose between solar panel
and battery. E. Battery Battery capacity is expressed in Amp-hours or mA-hours. Battery
charge and discharge currents are expressed in terms of “C-Rate”. The solar energy is
converted into electrical energy and stored in a 12V battery. The efficiency of battery
charging system is to store the energy from solar panel. The main two types of batteries are
rechargeable and disposable. The most popular types of rechargeable batteries in use today
are the Sealed-Lead-Acid (SLA), Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd), Nickel-Metal-Hydride (NiMH), and
Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion). Weight, capacity, and cost are the primary consideration in battery
equipment. Lead-acid battery is used in this system because it is inexpensive and high
capacitated. The 12V of lead-acid battery has 6 cells. It is safe to charge most of lead- acid
batteries by current up to 0.1C rate, where C is the battery capacity in Ah. Overcharging
battery can cause reduce life span of battery. F. PV panel The solar panel is used to convert
solar energy to electrical energy. Solar energy is being used around the world. Solar panel is
connected in either series or parallel to achieve the desire output voltage and current. Three
types of solar panels are Monocrystalline (single silicon), Polycrystalline (Multi-silicon), and
amorphous thin-film. Crystalline solar cells are wired in series to produce solar panels.
Monocrystalline solar panels are more efficient than polycrystalline but also the most
expensive. The