RF Training Module

(Test & Integration Department Presentation Package)

Original
February 2009

Honeywell Technology Solutions Inc.

Goddard Corporate Park
Lanham, Maryland 20706 - 2291
 RF TRAINING MODULE OUTLINE
• What is RF?
– Basic Definition
– Basic RF Terminology
– RF Bands
• Basic RF systems from Spacecraft to Ground Segment
– Transponders
– Transceivers
– Antennas
– Transmission Lines
– Transmitters/Exciters
– Amplifiers
– Receivers
• Description of Basic RF test equipment
– Signal Generator
– Spectrum Analyzer
– Power meter
– Counter
• Basic RF equations
– Space and Cable loss
– Link Calculations
– Noise Figure
• Useful WEB Sites and References
• Lab Demonstration

3
 Basic Definition

• RF (Radio frequency) is a frequency or rate of oscillation within the range of about 3 Hz

to 300 GHz.
• Since most of this range is beyond the vibration rate that most mechanical systems can
respond to, RF usually refers to oscillations in electrical circuits or electromagnetic
radiation.
• Electrical currents that oscillate at RF have special properties not shared by direct current
signals.
– One such property is the ease with which it can ionize air to create a conductive path
through air.
– Another special property is an electromagnetic force that drives the RF current to the
surface of conductors, known as the skin effect which is useful when designing RF
circuits.
– Another property is the ability to appear to flow through paths that contain insulating
material, like the dielectric insulator of a capacitor.
• The degree of effect of these properties depends on the frequency of the signals.

5
 RF Terminology

• Hertz (Hz)
– A term representing cycles/second (cps).
– The unit of measure is named after Heinrich Hertz, German physicist.
– For example, 1 Hz means that an event repeats once per second, 2 Hz is twice per
second, and so on.
• Frequency
– The number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit time.
– For example:
• The frequency of the standard pitch A above middle C on a piano is usually
defined as 440 Hz, (440 cps).
• In North America the frequency of the alternating current (AC) is 60 Hz.
• Visible light from deep red to violet has frequencies of 430 to 750 THz
(Terahertz).

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 RF Terminology

• Wavelength ( )
– The wavelength is related to the frequency by the formula: wavelength = wave speed
/ frequency.
• For example: = c/f, where c is the speed of light (in meters/sec) and f is
frequency (Hz).
– Higher frequencies have shorter wavelengths.
– Lower frequencies have longer wavelengths.
• Frequency Multipliers
– Hz (Hertz) Cycles/Second 1 Hz
– kHz (kilohertz) One Thousand Hertz 1,000 Hz
– MHz (megahertz) One Million Hertz 1,000,000 Hz
– GHz (gigahertz) One Billion Hertz 1,000,000,000 Hz
– THz (terahertz) One Trillion Hertz 1,000,000,000,000 Hz

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 RF Terminology

• Decibel (dB)
– A logarithmic unit of measurement that expresses the magnitude of a physical
quantity (usually power or intensity) relative to a specified or implied reference level.
– This reference level is represented by a suffix.
• For example: "dBm" indicates the reference quantity is one milliwatt (one
thousandth of a watt) and “dBW” indicates the reference quantity is one Watt.
– Since it expresses a ratio of two quantities with the same unit, it is dimensionless.
– It has a number of advantages, such as the ability to represent very large or small
numbers.
• For example: LOG10(1,000,000) = 6; LOG10(0.000001) = -6
– It has the ability to carry out multiplication of ratios by simple addition and subtraction.
• For example: Doubling output power is 3 dB while a quadrupling is 6 dB.
Therefore, if the antenna gain is doubled (3 dB) and the transmitter power is
quadrupled (6 dB), the overall improvement is 3 + 6 = 9 dB.
• Insertion Loss (I.L.)
– The transmission loss from input to output, measured in dB.

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 RF Terminology
• VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio)
– SWR is simply the ratio of the resistance of the termination and the characteristic
impedance of the line.
– For example: A 75 ohm load will give an SWR of 1.5 when used to terminate a 50 ohm
cable since 75/50 = 1.5.
• Return Loss (R.L.)
– The ratio of the power reflected back from the line to the power transmitted into the
line.
• Reflective Loss
– The transmission loss due to the reflection of power at a discontinuity (mismatch).
– For example: Applying a signal from a 50 ohm source into a 90 ohm receptor is an
impedance mismatch.
• Watt
– It measures the rate of energy conversion.
– Using the units of ampere and volt, work (energy) is done at a rate of one watt when
one ampere flows through a potential difference of one volt.
– For Example: 1 watt = 1A x 1V; 120VAC applied to a 100W bulb draws 0.833 A

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 RF Terminology

• Bandwidth

– In terms of RF, Bandwidth is the difference between the upper and lower cutoff
frequencies.

– Can refer to a filter, a communication channel, an antenna or a signal spectrum, and

is typically measured in hertz.

A graph of a bandpass filter's gain

magnitude, illustrating the concept of -3
dB (or half-power) bandwidth.

10
 RF Bands

NAME SYMBOL FREQUENCY WAVELENGTH APPLICATION

Extremely Low ELF 3 to 30 Hz 10,000 to 100,000 km directly audible when converted to sound,
Frequency communication with submarines

Super Low Frequency SLF 30 to 300 Hz 1000 to 10000 km directly audible when converted to sound, AC power
grids (50 hertz and 60 hertz)

Ultra Low Frequency ULF 300 to 3000 Hz 100 to 1000 km directly audible when converted to sound,
communication with mines

Very Low Frequency VLF 3 to 30 KHz 10 to 100 km directly audible when converted to sound (below ca. 18-
20 kHz; or “ultrasound" 20-30+ kHz)

Low Frequency LF 30 to 300 KHz 1 to 10 km AM broadcasting, Navigational beacons, Low FER

Medium Frequency MF 300 to 3000 KHz 100 m to 1 km Navigational Beacons, AM Broadcasting, maritime and
aviation communication

High Frequency HF 3 to 30 MHz 10 to 100 m Shortwave, amateur radio, citizens’ band radio

Very High Frequency VHF 30 to 300 MHz 1 to 10 m FM Broadcasting, broadcast television, aviation,
GPR
Ultra High Frequency UHF 300 to 3000 MHz 10 to 100 cm Broadcast television, mobile telephones, cordless
telephones, wireless networking, remote keyless
entry for cars, microwave ovens, GPR

Super High Frequency SHF 3 to 30 GHz 1 to 10 cm Wireless networks, satellite links, microwave links,
satellite TV, door openers

Extremely High EHF 30 to 300 GHz 1 to 10 mm Microwave data links, radio astronomy, remote
Frequency sensing, advanced weapons’ systems, advanced
security scanning

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 RF Bands
Military Radar Bands

FREQUENCY WAVELENGTH BAND

3 – 30 MHz 100 – 10 m HF

30 – 300 MHz 10 -1 m VHF

300 – 1000 MHz 1 – 0.3 m UHF

2 – 4 GHz 15 – 7.5 cm S

4 – 8 GHz 7.5 – 3.75 cm C

8 – 12 GHz 3.75 – 2.5 cm X

12 – 18 GHz 2.5 – 1.67 cm Ku

18 – 27 GHz 1.67 – 1.11 cm K

27 – 40 GHz 11.1 – 7.5 mm Ka

40 – 75 GHz 7.5 – 4.0 mm V

75 – 110 GHz 4.0 – 2.7 mm W

110 – 300 GHz 2.7 – 1.0 mm mm

300 – 3000 GHz u mm

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 Basic RF Systems from Space to Ground Segment
IP Encapsulated Data

IP Cloud

Earth Horizon

+100Kz
MOC
Doppler -100Kz PTP or
Doppler FEP
Uplink Downlink 2200-2300 MHz
MOC Telemetry

Bit
Sync
IP Cloud Receivers

Recording/
Storage
PTP or
FEP Commands
& Ranging

GN
Command Acquisition Data IIRV
System

2025-2120 S-band Tracking GSFC FDF

MHz
Data Processor or
MOC
Exciter

Tracking
Ranging Data
Equipment *
* Not all stations have ranging

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Basic RF Systems from Space to Ground Segment

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 Transponders

• A transponder is the combination receiver/transmitter component of the communication

subsystem that receives, processes, and transmits radio signals.
• The term is a contraction of the words transmitter and responder.
• Many spacecraft have multiple transponders for backup protection.

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 Transponders

• The transmitter and receiver are co-located in one unit and can be phase coherent with
one another such that the transmit (downlink) carrier source is derived from and is phase
coherent with the received (uplink) carrier from the ground station.
– This coherency allows precise estimations of orbit and speed from measurements of
Doppler offset and rate of the downlink frequency at the ground station.
• The XPNDR receives and detects digital command signals that control and configure the
spacecraft.
• The XPNDR transmits telemetered data from the spacecraft data subsystem which can
contain health status and science data.
• The XPNDR demodulates the ranging signal contained in the uplink and re-modulates it
onto the downlink.
– Thus, by measuring the return propagation time, the distance between the ground
station and the satellite can be calculated.

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 Transceivers

• Short for transmitter-receiver, a device that both transmits and receives analog or digital
signals.

• In radio communications, a transceiver is a two-way radio that combines both a radio

transmitter and a receiver that exchanges information in half-duplex mode.

• The transmit frequency may be some ratio of the receive frequency but they are not
phase coherent with one another.

• Ranging and two way doppler cannot be performed when a spacecraft uses a
transceiver as its radio, but one way doppler can be performed.

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 Antennas
Antennas

• Top Ten Antenna Questions

– Frequency Range, Center Frequency, and Bandwidth

– Minimum Gain (referenced dBd or dBi)

– Maximum Allowable VSWR

– Radiation Pattern: Omni or Directional

– Polarization: Linear (Horizontal or Vertical); Elliptical (LHCP or RHCP)

– Connector type (Male or Female)

– Power Rating in Watts: Average and Peak

– Maximum Physical Size

– Where will the Antenna be mounted

– Expected lifetime

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 Antennas
Common Communication Antenna Types

TYPE Typical Gain (dBd)

• Dipole 0

• Omni 0

• Gain Omni (Directional) 3 to 12

• Mobile Whips -0.6 to 5.5

• Corner Reflector 4 to 10

• Log Periodic 3 to 8

• Horn 5 to 12

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 Antennas
Common Communication Antenna Types

TYPE Typical Gain (dBd)

• Helix 5 to 15

• Micro-Strip Patch 3 to 15

• Yagi 3 to 20

• Panel 5 to 20

• Parabolic Dish 10 to 30

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 Antennas
• Gain
– Antenna performance is primarily established by its gain.
– Gain must always be measured against a know reference.
– Unfortunately, there are many "so-called" gain references.
– Choosing the wrong reference could cost you up to 2.0 dB in performance.
– Most commercial antenna suppliers specify gain in dBd (gain over a half-wave
dipole).
• The half-wave dipole has a very predictable radiation pattern similar to that of a
donut.
– Another reference, especially at microwave frequencies, is dBi.
• This term refers to gain over an isotropic radiator, a theoretical antenna that
radiates equally well in all directions (such as the Sun).
• If an antenna is specified in dBi gain, it will appear to have approximately 2.15 dB
higher gain than dBd.
• This may be a nifty way to impress the customer but it does not mean that you
get more gain if dBi is the reference.
– Beware if the supplier only quotes antenna gain in just "dB". What is the reference?
For instance, some mobile antennas are specified in dB gain over a quarter wave
whip which is about 0.6 dB less gain than a dipole.
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 Antennas

• VSWR (voltage-standing-wave-ratio) represents the degree with which an antenna is

"matched" to the system impedance.
– Most modern antennas, receivers and transmitters are designed for peak
performance when operating into a 50 Ohm transmission line.
– If the VSWR is too high, the transmitter power may be reduced as well as the
strength of the received signal.
– The typical commercial standard for maximum allowable VSWR across the
entire bandwidth of a system is 1.5:1.
– You should specify the maximum VSWR and the operating frequency bandwidth
when specifying your antenna.
– A VSWR of 2:1 or greater usually is considered unacceptable since it increases
losses in the transmission line.
– Incidentally, decreasing the VSWR below 1.5:1 will often be expensive and will have
little noticeable improvement.

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 Antennas

• Radiation Patterns
– A graphical depiction of the relative field strength transmitted from or received by the
antenna.
– Antenna radiation patterns are taken at one frequency, one polarization, and one
plane cut.
• plots in the plane of the axis is the azimuth or "E-plane"
• plots in the plane perpendicular to the axis is the elevation or "H-plane“
– The patterns are usually presented in polar or rectilinear form with a dB strength
scale.
– Patterns are normalized to the maximum graph value, 0 dB, and a directivity is given
for the antenna.
• This means that if the side lobe level from the radiation pattern were down -13
dB, and the directivity of the antenna was 4 dB, then the sidelobe gain would be -
9 dB.
– Three types of plotting scales are in common usage; linear, linear logarithmic and
modified logarithmic.

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Antennas

24
Antennas

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 Antennas

• Another popular antenna specification is the "front-to-back" (F/B) ratio.

– It is defined as the difference in dB between the maximum gain or front of the
antenna (usually 0 degrees) and a point exactly 180 degrees behind the front.
• Another important antenna parameter is the side and rear lobe levels (if any).
– In a well designed antenna they should typically be 10-15 dB below the main beam.
– This parameter is often important but seldom seen on data sheets.
– A good logarithmic plot will easily show such lobes and the direction where they are
maximum.
• Antenna plots will assist in the proper aiming of the antenna for optimum performance on
all the desired signals.
• The narrower the beamwidth, the greater the difficulty in properly aiming the antenna.

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 Antennas
• Antenna Polarization
– Most communications systems use either vertical, horizontal or circular polarization.
– Knowing the difference between polarizations and how to maximize their
benefit is very important to the antenna user.
– A linear polarized antenna radiates wholly in one plane containing the direction of
propagation.
– A circular polarized wave radiates energy in both the horizontal and vertical planes
and all planes in between.
• The difference, if any, between the maximum and the minimum peaks as the
antenna is rotated through all angles, is called the axial ratio or ellipticity and is
usually specified in decibels (dB).
• If the axial ratio is near 0 dB, the antenna is said to be circular polarized. If the
axial ratio is greater than 1-2 dB, the polarization is often referred to as elliptical.
– In a circular polarized antenna, the plane of polarization rotates in a circle making one
complete revolution during one period of the wave.
• If the rotation is clockwise looking in the direction of propagation, the sense is
called right-hand-circular (RHC).
• If the rotation is counterclockwise, the sense is called left-hand-circular (LHC).

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 Antennas
• Polarization (continued)
– An antenna is said to be vertically polarized (linear) when its electric field is
perpendicular to the Earth's surface.
• An example of a vertical antenna is a broadcast tower for AM radio or the "whip"
antenna on an automobile.
– Horizontally polarized (linear) antennas have their electric field parallel to the Earth's
surface.
• Television transmissions in the USA use horizontal polarization.
– Maximum signal strength between stations occurs when both stations are using
identical polarization.
– In a linearly polarized system, a misalignment of polarization of 45 degrees will
degrade the signal up to 3 dB and if misaligned 90 degrees the attenuation can be 20
dB or more.
– Likewise, in a circular polarized system, both antennas must have the same sense. If
not, an additional loss of 20 dB or more will be incurred.
– Also note that linearly polarized antennas will work with circularly polarized antennas
and vice versa. However, there will be up to a 3 dB loss in signal strength.
– Circular polarization is most often used for satellite communications.

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 Transmission Lines
• Transmission lines are a very important part of a communications system.
• They carry RF signals from one place to another.
• Transmission lines are used to interconnect antennas and receivers/transmitters, and
interconnect computers in a network.
• The flow of RF through a transmission line is very different from the flow of DC along a
pair of wires.
• It is possible for a transmission line that is open-circuited at one end to look like a short
circuit at the other end and in general, the impedance one measures at the input of a
transmission line is dependent not only on the load placed at the far end of the line, but
also on the electrical length of the line.
• It is these unusual properties that make transmission lines more than just a pair of wires.

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 Transmission Lines

• Types of transmission lines:

– The simplest type of transmission line consists of two conductors
separated by a small distance. This type of transmission line is
called parallel line, open wire line, or ladder line.
– Another type of two wire transmission line consists of two parallel
wires embedded in an insulating material (typically polyethylene).
This type of transmission line is called twin-lead, and is very
similar to open wire line.
– Another type of two wire line is called unshielded twisted pair.
(UTP). It consists of two wires twisted around one another. The
most common type of UTP is CAT5 network cable. It consists of
4 UTP’s in a common sheath.
– A fourth type of transmission line is shielded pair. It consists of
two conductors insulated from each other and surrounded by a
shield made of metal braid. The braided shield prevents RF from
being radiated by the conductors as well as stray RF from
entering the transmission line.

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 Transmission Lines

• Types of transmission lines (continued):

– A fifth type is coaxial cable (coax). A coaxial cable consists of

two conductors separated by a dielectric material. The center
conductor and the outer conductor, or shield, are configured in
such a way that they form concentric cylinders with a common
axis (hence co-axial).

– Yet another type of transmission line is a hollow metal tube,

known as waveguide.

• In a waveguide the RF travels as a guided electromagnetic

wave, rather than as RF current, as is the case for the
other types of transmission lines.

• The dimensions of the waveguide must be on the order of

one wavelength of the guided RF wave, which limits
application of waveguides to frequencies in the UHF and
microwave region.

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 Transmission Lines

• Flexible (Braided) Coaxial Cable is by far the most common type of closed transmission
line because of its flexibility.
– This type of cable is used in practically all applications requiring complete shielding of
the center conductor.
– The effectiveness of the shielding depends upon the weave of the braid and the
number of braid layers.
– One of the draw-backs of braided cable is that the shielding is not 100% effective,
especially at higher frequencies. This is because the braided construction can permit
small amounts of short wavelength (high frequency) energy to radiate.
– Normally this does not present a problem; however, if a higher degree of shielding is
required, semi-rigid coaxial cable is recommended.
– In some high frequency flexible coaxial cables the outer shield consists if normal
braids and an extra aluminum foil shield to give better high frequency shielding.
• Semi-rigid Coaxial Cable uses a solid tubular outer conductor, so that all the RF energy is
contained within the cable. For applications using frequencies higher than 30 GHz a
miniature semi-rigid cable is recommended.

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 Transmitters/Exciters

• In communication and information processing, a transmitter is any object (source) which

sends information to an observer (receiver).
• In radio electronics and broadcasting, a transmitter usually has an oscillator, a
modulator, and amplifiers.

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 Transmitters/Exciters

• A crystal oscillator is generally used because of its ability to provide a very stable
reference for generating the transmitter’s signal.
– The oscillator is then multiplied up to the desired transmit frequency.
• The signal then gets modulated by commands or data.
– The information is either modulated directly onto the transmit signal (called the
carrier) or it is first modulated on a subcarrier and then onto the transmit signal.
• For the transmit signal to be at a sufficient level the final stage of the transmitter is an
amplifier.

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 Transmitters/Exciters
• There are several modulation methods used.
• Analog modulation
– Amplitude Modulation (AM): AM works by varying the strength of the transmitted
signal in relation to the information being sent.
– Single-Sideband (SSB): A refinement of amplitude modulation that more efficiently
uses electrical power and bandwidth.
– Frequency Modulation (FM): Conveys information over a carrier wave by varying its
frequency. The instantaneous frequency of the carrier is directly proportional to the
instantaneous value of the input signal.
– Phase Modulation (PM): Represents information as variations in the instantaneous
phase of a carrier wave. It tends to require more complex receiving hardware and
there can be ambiguity problems in determining whether, for example, the signal has
changed phase by +180° or -180°.
– Space Modulation (SM): This modulation method differs from internal modulation
methods inside most other radio transmitters in that the phases and powers of two
individual signals mix within airspace, rather than in a modulator.

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 Transmitters/Exciters
• Digital Modulation
– On-off Keying (OOK): Represents digital data as the presence or absence of a carrier
wave.
– Frequency Shift Keying (FSK): Digital information is transmitted through discrete
frequency changes of a carrier wave. With this scheme, the "1" is called the mark
frequency and the "0" is called the space frequency.
– Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK): Represents digital data as variations in the amplitude
of a carrier wave.
– Phase Shift Keying (PSK): Conveys data by changing, or modulating, the phase of a
reference signal (the carrier wave).
• Various forms of PSK are:
– DPSK: Differential Phase Shift Keying
– BPSK: Binary Phase Shift Keying
– QPSK: Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
– OQPSK: Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
– Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM): Conveys data by changing (modulating)
the amplitude of two carrier waves. These two waves, usually sinusoids, are out of
phase with each other by 90º and are thus called quadrature carriers.

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 Transmitters/Exciters

• Spread Spectrum
– Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS): A method of transmitting radio signals
by rapidly switching a carrier among many frequency channels, using a
pseudorandom sequence known to both transmitter and receiver.
– Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS): Phase modulation of a sine wave with a
continuous string of pseudo-noise (PN) code symbols called "chips", each of which
has a much shorter duration than an information bit.
• That is, each information bit is modulated by a sequence of much faster chips.
Therefore, the chip rate is much higher than the information bit rate.
• It uses a signal structure in which the sequence of chips produced by the
transmitter is known a priori by the receiver.
• The receiver can then use the same PN sequence to counteract the effect of the
PN sequence on the received signal in order to reconstruct the information
signal.

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 Amplifiers

• An amplifier, or simply amp, is any device that changes, usually increases, the amplitude
of a signal.
• Some types of Amplifiers:
– Power Amplifier (PA): In general a power amplifier is designated as the last
amplifier in a transmission chain (the output stage).
– Types of PAs:
• Solid State Power Amp (SSPA) Is the most common used because of its
compact size.
• Traveling-Wave Tube Amplifier (TWTA) is an electronic device used to amplify
radio frequency signals to high power. The bandwidth of a broadband TWT can
be as high as three octaves, although tuned (narrowband) versions exist, and
operating frequencies range from 300 MHz to 50 GHz.
• Klystron is a specialized linear-beam vacuum tube (evacuated electron tube).
Klystrons are used as amplifiers at microwave and radio frequencies to produce
high-power carrier waves for space communications.
– Low Noise Amplifier (LNA): This is generally the first amplification of a received
signal from the antenna.

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 Amplifiers
• Figures of merit: The quality of an amplifier can be characterized by a number of
specifications, provided below.
– Gain: The gain of an amplifier is the ratio of output to input power or amplitude, and is
usually measured in decibels. (When measured in decibels it is logarithmically related
to the power ratio: G(dB)=10 log(Pout/Pin)).
– Bandwidth: The bandwidth (BW) of an amplifier is the range of frequencies for which
the amplifier gives "satisfactory performance". Bandwidth can be defined as the
difference between the lower and upper half power points, also known as the !3 dB
bandwidth. Bandwidths for other response tolerances are sometimes quoted (!1 dB,
!6 dB etc.).
– Efficiency: A measure of how much of the DC input power is usefully applied to the
amplifier's output.
• Class A amplifiers are very inefficient, in the range of 10–20% with a max
efficiency of 25%.
• Class B amplifiers have a very high efficiency but are impractical because of high
levels of distortion. In practical design, the result of a tradeoff is the class AB
design.
• Class AB amplifiers are commonly between 35–55% efficient with a theoretical
maximum of 78.5%.

39
 Amplifiers

– Efficiency (continued):
• Class D switching amplifiers have reported efficiencies as high as 97%.
• The efficiency of the amplifier, limits the amount of total power output that is
usefully available.
• Note that more efficient amplifiers run much cooler, and often do not need any
cooling fans even in multi-kilowatt designs. The reason for this is that the loss of
efficiency produces heat as a by-product of the energy lost during the conversion
of power. In more efficient amplifiers there is less loss of energy so in turn less
heat.
– Linearity: An ideal amplifier would be a totally linear device, but real amplifiers are
only linear within certain practical limits.
– Noise: This is a measure of how much noise is introduced in the amplification
process.
– Output dynamic range: Usually given in dB, between the smallest and largest useful
output levels. The lowest useful level is limited by output noise, while the largest is
limited most often by distortion. The ratio of these two is quoted as the amplifier
dynamic range. More precisely, if S = maximal allowed signal power and N = noise
power, the dynamic range DR is DR = (S + N ) /N.
– Slew rate: The maximum rate of change of output , usually quoted in volts per
second (or microsecond).

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 Receivers

• A radio receiver is an electronic circuit that receives its input from an antenna, uses
electronic filters to separate a wanted radio signal from all other signals picked up by this
antenna, amplifies it to a level suitable for further processing, and finally converts through
demodulation and decoding the signal into a form usable for the consumer, such as
sound, pictures, digital data, measurement values, navigational positions, etc.
LNA

IFA

41
 Receivers

• Basic Receiver Characteristics

– Sensitivity: The measure of receiver’s ability to reproduce very weak signals.

• The weaker the signal that can be applied and still produce a certain signal-to-
noise (S/N) ratio, the better that receiver’s sensitivity rating.

• Usually, sensitivity is specified as the signal strength in microvolts necessary to

cause a S/N of 10 dB, or 3.16:1.

– Selectivity: Determines the extent to which the receiver is capable of distinguishing

between the desired signal and the undesired signals.

• This is achieved by using high performance filters.

– Noise: Noise is the limiting factor on the minimum usable signal that the receiver
can process and still produce a usable output.

• Expressed in decibels, it is an indication of the degree to which a circuit deviates

from the ideal.

• A noise figure of 0 decibels is ideal.

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 Receivers

• Types of Receivers:

– Basically there is one type of receiver: the superheterodyne.

• The process of mixing the received signal is called heterodyning and if the local
oscillator selected is above the received signal the system is referred to as a
superheterodyne receiver.

• The advantage of this system is the only part requiring change for receiving a
signal at a different frequency (within the operating band) is the local oscillator
used in the down conversion.

– So FM, AM, CW, PSK, BPSK, QPSK, etc signals are received using a
superheterodyne receiver as the core. Additional electronics are needed to recover
the information being transmitted.

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 Description of Basic RF test equipment

• Signal Generators
– A signal generator, also known variously as a test signal generator, function
generator, tone generator, arbitrary waveform generator, digital pattern generator or
frequency generator is an electronic device that generates repeating or non-repeating
electronic signals (in either the analog or digital domains). They are generally used in
designing, testing, troubleshooting, and repairing electronic devices..
– There are many different types of signal generators, with different purposes and
applications (and at varying levels of expense).
– In general, no device is suitable for all possible applications.
– Generators as a Continuous Wave (CW) source are often used as local oscillators in
the development or testing of transmitters and receivers.
– Used in a swept mode frequency responses of many devices, such as amplifiers,
filters, and mixers can be measured.

44
 Description of RF test equipment

• Spectrum Analyzer

– The spectrum analyzer, like an oscilloscope, is a basic tool used for observing
signals. Where the oscilloscope provides a window into the time domain, the
spectrum analyzer provides a window into the frequency domain.

45
 Description of RF test equipment

• Spectrum Analyzer (continued)

– The spectrum analyzer settings must be wisely set for application-specific
measurements, and the measurement procedure optimized to take best advantage of
the specifications.
– The resolution bandwidth (RBW) setting must be considered when concerned with
separating spectral components, setting an appropriate noise floor and demodulating
a signal.
– Before making any measurement, it is important to know that there are several
techniques that can be used to improve both amplitude and frequency measurement
accuracies.
– A spectrum analyzer’s ability to measure low-level signals is limited by the noise
generated inside the spectrum analyzer. This sensitivity to low-level signals is
affected by the analyzer settings.
– Total measurement uncertainty involves adding up the different sources of
uncertainty in the spectrum analyzer. If any controls can be left unchanged such as
the RF attenuator setting, resolution bandwidth, or reference level, all uncertainties
associated with changing these controls drop out, and the total measurement
uncertainty is minimized.

46
 Description of RF test equipment

• Power Meter

– Power measurement is the fundamental parameter for characterizing components

and systems at RF and microwave frequencies.

– Above the range of 30 MHz to 100 MHz, where the parameters of voltage and current
become inconvenient or more difficult to measure, microwave power becomes the
parameter of choice.

– Power specifications are often the critical factor in the design, and ultimately the
performance, of almost all RF and microwave equipment.

47
 Description of RF test equipment

• Counters

– The conventional counter is a digital electronic device which measures the frequency
of an input signal. It may also have been designed to perform related basic
measurements including the period of the input signal, ratio of the frequency of two
input signals, time interval between two events and totalizing a specific group of
events.

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 Basic RF Equations
• A link budget commonly refers to the complete gain and loss equation from the
transmitter, through the ambient medium (air, cable, waveguide, fiber, etc.) and through
to the receiver.

• Although the complete equation would incorporate many terms, the high-level block
diagram shown below is often used.

• Prx = Ptx + Gtx + Grx - Afs – Am; Where

– Prx = received power at detector ( dBW )

– Ptx = transmitter output power ( dBW )

– Gtx = transmitter antenna gain ( dBi )

– Grx = receiver antenna gain ( dBi )

– Afs = free space attenuation ( dB )

– Am = miscellaneous attenuation ( radome, rain, etc. )

49
 Basic RF Equations

• As the transmitted signal traverses the atmosphere its power level changes at a rate
inversely proportional to the distance traveled. The formula above accounts for only the
diminishing voltage without accounting for absorption or dispersion by the atmosphere.

• As an example, an uplink signal of 2106.40625 MHz transmitted 300 KM (a typical shuttle

altitude) would experience a loss of 148.46 dB.

– =c/f: where c (speed of light) = 2.99792458 x 108m/sec

– =0.142324 meters

50
 Basic RF Equations
• Cable attenuation is the sum of the conductor losses and the dielectric losses per the
following equations.
– d = outside diameter of inner conductor in mm.
– D = inside diameter of outer conductor in mm.
– er =relative dielectric constant.
– f =frequency in GHz.
– Prd =inner conductor material resistivity relative to copper.
– PrD =outer conductor material resistivity relative to copper.
– " =skin depth
• Typical losses for commonly used 50 ohm double shielded cables at 2.1 GHz.
– RG174 1.33 dB/m
– RG214 0.37 dB/m
– RG223 0.66 dB/m
– RG400 0.72 dB/m
– LMR240 0.39 dB/m
– LMR600 0.13 dB/m

51
 Basic RF Equations

• The antenna gain G (dBi), is related to its diameter d (m), by the following equation, where

– =wavelength

– #=antenna efficiency (#$1); typically 0.5

– f=frequency in Hz

– c=speed of light (2.99792458 x 108 m/sec

– d=the dish diameter

• For a dish with diameter 11 meters at 210640625 Hz its gain is 44.69 dBi

52
 Basic RF Equations
• Often the noise figure (NF) of a device is specified at a specific temperature (e.g. 20ºC)
because the NF goes up as the temperature goes up in a non-linear fashion.

• For example, what is the NF of an amplifier at 85ºC, having a nf of 2.0 dB at 20ºC.

– NF = 10Log[10(nf/10) – 1 + (Te/To)]; where

• NF = Noise Figure

• nf = Noise Figure at 20ºC

• Te = Operating Temperature in kelvins

• To = Ambient temperature in kelvins

• ºK = ºC + 273

– NF = 10Log[1.58 – 1 + 358/293]

– NF = 10Log[1.80] = 2.56 dB

• Often received signal strength is specified in dBm. But sometimes it is specified in dB-Hz.

53
 Basic RF Equations

• If the NF of the receiver is known, conversion is fairly simple.

– Receiver Temperature (TR)=293(10(NF/10)-1) = 171.37ºK, for a NF of 2.0
– System Temperature (TS)= TR+ TO = 171.37 + 293 = 464.37ºK
– System Noise Density (NO)= -198.6dB/Hz + 10Log (TS) = -171.93 = -172 dBm/Hz
– For a received level of 33 dB-Hz, the converted value in dBm is 33-172 = -139 dBm
– -198.6 comes from Boltzmann's constant expressed in dB: 10Log(1.3806503 x 10-
23)+30

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 USEFUL WEB SITES

• http://www.rfcafe.com
– Provides many helpful formulas and resources
• http://www.timesmicrowave.com/cable_calculators/
– Cable performance calculators
• http://www.home.agilent.com
– Go to technical support – application notes – test and measurements – RF and
Microwave
– Hundreds of applications on how to use various types of equipment to make specific
RF measurements.
• References:
– Principles of Communication Systems by Taub and Schilling 1971
– Handbook of Electronic Calculations Edited by Kaufman and Seidman 1979

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 LAB DEMONSTRATION

• Typical bench level test on a transponder.

• Display of different modulation spectrums.

56