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Course: Citizenship Education and Community Engagement (8606)
Level: B.Ed
Semester: Spring 2018
Assignment No: 1
Q NO:1 (a) Evaluate the role of an individual in the development of any society.
(b) Analyze culture elements of Pakistan society.
Role of Individual in Development of Society
The role of individuals envisaged by Marx and Engels must be viewed in the proper perspective. They have admitted
the crucial role of individual having exceptional qualities in the making and remaking of history and also molding the
process of development.
An outstanding individual like Oliver Cromwell or Napoleon Bonaparte or Marx himself has tremendous influence
upon the course of history. An exceptional individual has certain traits of character which ensure his role in the
progress of history.
To a very crucial point Marx and Engels have drawn our attention. Historical development took place at different
periods of time.
We also come to know that individuals gave leadership to these development processes or to this development. But
Marx and Engels have said that these individuals are not ordinary persons, they are leaders to classes and
movements/This are the key point to be properly treated.
Individuals direct the movement of history as leaders of classes, representatives of the mass. Cornforth, in this
connection, maintains “unless the individual bases his authority and his influence upon the support of some class,
whose interests and tendencies he represents, he is impotent and can exert no decisive influence”.
As without the support of classes leaders cannot influence history, so without leaders the classes and movements
cannot achieve success. The good leaders accelerate the movement and bad leaders retard it.
Marx regards individuals as a product of social being or product of materialistic situation. Individual does not come
from the vacuum. He draws his inspiration from the society. This does not, of course, mean that a particular
historical situation will produce identical individuals. Though the superstructure is the reflection of basis, it is not
devoid of varieties.
There are varieties of ideology, religion, art and literature. All these lead to the varieties of individual’s character and
attitude. Thus a capitalist base has various types of individuals. That is why in capitalist society some people
relentlessly fight against capitalism and vow to overthrow it.
In capitalist society the individual is simply a wage-earner and a machine of surplus value, i.e., surplus value-creating
agency He sells his labour and in exchange of that gets an amount of wage which just helps him to survive. The
workers are forced to stay and comfort themselves at subsistence level of wage.
The greatest “achievement” of capitalism is that it has alienated and dehumanized individual. On his labour the great
citadel of wealth is built. He is destined to sacrifice.
Individual in capitalism is the victim of exploitation, misery suffering and degradation. He is put to all sorts of
subjection. He is supposed to have freedom, which is in fact, a false one. Economic slavery makes freedom fully
meaningless.
Absence of economic freedom abnegates the political freedom. The creative activity of the individual, in capitalism,
is retarded. So what is the way out? Socialism, Marx believes, is the only way of emancipation.
It opens the floodgates of opportunities for the individual sufficient for the utilization of creative faculties which the
individual possesses.
“Socialism was vastly to enlarge the sphere of creative activity outside the production process freeing consciousness
from mystification and social life from reified forces”.
Forces of production will be released from private control. The contradictions, characteristic features of capitalist
society, will cease to exist. Abolition of the antagonistic class society will radically change the character of base and
superstructure.
Man will no longer be subject of exploitation. Both alienation and dehumanization will be buried in oblivion.
“Socialist production” observes Cliff Slaughter “will provide an entirely changed basis for individual development.
Social forces and cultural stimuli will come under individual’s control”.
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From the above analysis of base and superstructure relation or interaction we conclude that Marx makes a very
important contribution to social philosophy. Many of the concepts or ideas of Marx may be challenged or rejected
but his in-depth analysis of base and superstructure has an everlasting value.
In every capitalist society base generally controls the superstructure and sometimes the superstructure is found to
influence the base. This view of Marx is found in many systems.
Culture elements of Pakistan society
The society and culture of Pakistan comprises numerous ethnic groups: the Punjabis, Saraikis,
Pothwaris, Kashmiris, Sindhis in east, Makrani in the south; Baloch, Hazaras and Pashtunsin the west; and
the Dards, Wakhi, Baltis, Shinaki and Burusho communities in the north. The culture of these Pakistani ethnic groups
have been greatly influenced by many of its neighbours, such as the other South Asians, Turkic peoples as well as the
peoples of Central Asia and West Asia.
The region has formed a distinct unit within the main geographical complex of South Asia, West Asia the Middle
East and Central Asia from the earliest times, and is analogous to the position of Afghanistan.[1] There are differences
among the ethnic groups in cultural aspects such as dress, food, and religion, especially where pre-Islamic customs
differ from Islamic practices. Their cultural origins also reveal influences from far afield,
including China, India and Afghanistan. Pakistan was the first region of South Asia to be fully impacted by Islam and
has thus developed a distinct Islamic identity, historically different from areas further east

Culture may be defined as an integral whole which affects human ideals, actions and modes of living. According to
E.B. Taylor,
"Culture is a complex whole which includes knowledge, beliefs, art, morals, customs and all other capabilities and
habits acquired by man as a member of a society."
Every great nation enjoys its own culture. Similarly, Pakistani culture is very distinct due to its Islamic nature and rich
historical background. Pakistani culture has the following characteristics:
i- Islamic values and traditions.
ii- National and regional languages.
iii- Mixed culture.
iv- Rich literature
v- Male dominated society.
vi- Variety of Dresses
vii- Fairs and Festivals.
viii- Sports
ix- Handicrafts.

i- Islamic Values:
Pakistani culture is actually a part of the contemporary Islamic civilization which draws its value and
traditions from Islam and rich Islamic history. Majority of population comprises of Muslims and follows
teachings of Islam, i-e., belief in one Allah, Prophethood of Hazrat Muhammad P.B.U.H, brotherhood,
equality and social justice etc. Islam is religion of peace and patience. Pakistani society is very
cooperative. National calendar is marked by religious days which are observed with great devotion.

ii- National and Regional Languages:

Pakistan is a large country which comprises of four provinces, the Federally Administered Tribal Areas
(FATA) and Federally Administered Northern Areas (FANA). All of these component parts have their own
regional languages. As such Punjabi, Pashtu, Sindhi, Balochi, Barohi and Kashmiri are regional languages.
However, Urdu is the national language which is spokin and understood in all parts of the country.

iii- Mixed Culture:

Practically speaking Pakistani culture is a beautiful blend of the Punjabi, Sindhi, Pathan, Baluchi, Barohi,
Seraiki and Kashmiri cultures. In addition, the presence of Hindu community in Sindh gives touches of

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dance and music in the Sindhi region. The Hindus sing Bhejas but Pakistani culture has adopted Qawwali
which is a praise of the Holy Propher P.B.U.H.

iv- Rich Literature:

Pakistani culture is rich in the literatures of Urdu, Punjabi, Sindhi, Pashtu, Baruhi, Baluchi and Kashmiri
languages. Urdu literature boasts of the masterpieces of Maulana Azad, Iqbal, Shibli, Hali, Ghalib, Agha
Hashar, Manto and Faiz whereas the Punjabi literature stands out with great names like Waris Shah,
Sultan Bahu, Ghulam Farid, Bulhay Shah and Shah Hussain etc. Similarly, Sindhi literature glitters with
the masterpieces of Shah Abdul Latif, Sachal Sarmast, Shah Qadir Bakhsh, and Faqir Nabi Bakhsh. The
Pushto literature also boasts of names like Sheikh Saleh, Raghoon Khan, Akhund dardeeza, Khushal Khan
Khattak and Rahman Baba. The Baluchi literature comprises of masterpieces of Jam Durk, Muhammad
Ali, Zahoor Shah Hashmi, Ghani Parvez, Hasrat Baluch, Abbas Ali Zemi and Aziz Bugti etc.

v- Male Dominated Society:

Pakistani society is dominated by male members. Each family is headed by the senior most male
member who is responsible for arranging the bread and butter of the family.

vii- Variety of Dresses:

Pakistani culture is rich in variety of dresses: The people of Punjab, the Pathans of NWFP, the Baluchi
people and the Sindhis wear their own distinct dresses. These dresses are very colourful and prominent
and give attractive look during national fairs and festivals.

viii- Fairs and Festivals:

The culture of Pakistan has great tradition of Fairs and festivals. These fairs are held in all parts of the
country. Moreover, annual urs of great saints are held to commemorate their anniversaries. On these
occasions, fairs are also held in which people take part in great numbers. Out of these the Horse and
Cattle shows of Lahore, Mianwali and Sibi are famous wheseas the Polo festival fo Gilgit is prominent at
national and international level. Moreover annual urs of Hazrat Daata Ganj Bakhsh, Madhu Lal Hussain,
Baba Bulhay Shah, Baba Farid Gunj Shakar, Baba Gulu Shah, Pir Jamaat Ali Shah, Abdul Latif Bhitaii,
Hazrat Noshah Ganj Bakhsh, Bari Imam, Lal Shahbaz Qalandar, and Bahauddin Zakriya are celebrated
with great fervour.

ix- Sports:
Pakistani people are great lovers of sports and games. Modern games like hockey, cricket, football,
badminton, squash, table tennis and lawn tennis are played throughout the coutnry. In addition
wrestling, boxing, and athletics are also very popular among masses. Pakistan has produced great
sportsmen in the past. These include Bholu in Wrestling, Hanif, Miandad, Imran, Wasim Akram, and
Inzamam in cricket, Shehnaz sheikh, Islahuddin, KHalid mahmood, Akhtar Rasool, and Munir Dar in
hockey and Jahangir, Jansher in squash.

x- Handicrafts:
Pakistan enjoys great distinction in handicrafts at international level. Wooden furniture of Chiniot, sports
goods of Sialkot and embroidery of Multan and Hyderabad is world famous.

Q NO:2 (a) How does individual and group behaviour affect school and classroom environment?
(b) what is role of teacher in molding the individual and group behaviour in the classroom
environment.

A student who intentionally creates a disturbance in class that directly interferes with the teacher's ability to instruct
the class and with other students' ability to learn is considered disruptive. Disruptive behavior can have negative
effects on not only the classroom environment, but also on the school experience as a whole.
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Types of Disruptive Behaviors

There are a variety of ways a student might behave in a disruptive manner. Some are minor and often easily ignored,
but a few types of disruptive behaviors go beyond rudeness. A student who monopolizes discussions or speaks on
particular subjects with no relevance to the current lesson is exhibiting a disruptive behavior called grandstanding, or
showing off. Excessive talking with other students during class or passing notes is another type of disruptive behavior
which can affect the entire class by making the teacher difficult to hear or forcing the teacher to interrupt the lesson
in order to stop the chatter. Another type of disruptive behavior occurs when a student challenges the teacher's
authority or knowledge on a subject because of anger over a grade or a general dislike of that particular teacher. This
type of behavior can evolve into verbal or physical threats to the teacher or other students. Less obvious disruptive
behaviors include lateness, sleeping in class, and bringing in and using phones or other electronic devices.
Negative Effects on Teaching

Disruptive students interfere with the teacher's ability to teach effectively. The behaviors require large amounts of
the teacher's time and attention. The teacher must stop the lesson or discussion to address the behavior, and this
takes away from the valuable time needed to instruct the rest of the class. If the disruptive behavior is threatening, it
may challenge the teacher's authority and can create tension in the classroom, which pushes learning to the
background. Disruptive behavior by one student also encourages other students to do the same, which compromises
the teacher's authority and ability to control the group.
Issues for Students

The learning process for other students is affected when one or more students behave in a disruptive manner.
Constant interruptions can interfere with focus. Students are forced to wait while the behavior is addressed, or they
are sidetracked by the disruptive student's attempts to be noticed. This can result in lower grades and behavioral
issues with other students as well as with the student who is causing the interruption. Peers tend to have a
significant influence over each other, and if one student is disruptive, it may encourage similar behavior in other
classmates who might not have had trouble otherwise.
Negative Impact on the School

Often schools must focus time and resources that could be used elsewhere on trying to stop disruptive behaviour in
students. This takes away from the educational mandate of most schools, which is usually to provide a safe, effective
learning environment for all students. Teachers are often not equipped to deal with some types of extreme
disruptive behaviors, and as a result, the student is either sent out of class or the school must enlist the aid of
outside professionals to try to intervene. This takes resources and funding, which could be better used to improve
the educational environment for all students instead of just one.

(b) what is role of teacher in molding the individual and group behaviour in the classroom environment.

A Virginia teacher who suffered sinusitis, bronchitis, and other ailments because of exposure to excessive
mold in her classroom could not sue her school district on a constitutional claim that her bodily integrity had
been violated, a federal appeals court has ruled.

A three-judge panel of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the 4th Circuit, in Richmond, Va., held that teacher
Christina Hood's claims were foreclosed by a 1992 U.S. Supreme Court decision that local governments,
such as cities and school districts, did not have a duty under the 14th Amendment's due-process clause to
provide minimal levels of safety and security in the workplace.

Hood worked as a 4th grade teacher at Booker T. Washington Elementary School in Suffolk, Va., in the
2007-08 school year when she encountered high levels of humidity in the school, court papers say. Books
and papers in her classroom were soggy and dehumidifiers were placed around the school.

By September 2007, Hood had suffered itchy eyes and a rash around her mouth. An assistant principal told
her that "we know there is a mold problem and it comes up through the ground in the summertime,"

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according to court papers. Hood's doctor diagnosed her with sinusitis, bronchitis, lip inflammation and
infection, and mold exposure.

School administrators took air samples from Hood's classroom and at one point claimed that mold spore
counts in the classroom were not abnormally high. But Hood says in court papers that her own look at the
test results revealed that levels of certain species of mold were higher in her classroom than outside.

Hood's condition worsened by October 2007 and her doctor instructed her not to work in the classroom.
School administrators denied her request for a transfer, her suit said, and Hood continued working at the
school. By the end of the school year, aggressive cleaning methods actually increased mold growth, her
suit said.

Hood sued the Suffolk school district, claiming that the district had a practice of concealing the harmful
effects of excessive moisture and mold. And she claimed the district and its officials deliberately created a
dangerous work environment, which violated her 14th Amendment substantive due-process right to bodily
integrity.

Q NO:3 (a) Discuss the concept of socialization and identify its role In the learning process.
(b) Suggest possible ways in which teachers may socialize with their students in school and
classroom.
Socialization is a process of growth, developing an individual in unique, process of development in personality.
Inducting an individual into society is called socialization. It is a processes of training to adjust man in society. Man is
to time in various social3groups and different social situations and has to learn techniques of life to adjust in new
modes of life. Learning techniques of social life is called socialization. Learning of different social situations is to
processes of socialization.
Socialization of individual starts from the birth. When the child is born them according to a philosophy is a
“Tabullarasa” meaning allows sheet and what is taught got imprinted on that sheet. That’s why it is said that “child is
father of man”.
Socialization is a process of growth, developing an individual in unique, process of development in personality.
Inducting an individual into society is called socialization. It is a processes of training to adjust man in society. Man is
to time in various social3groups and different social situations and has to learn techniques of life to adjust in new
modes of life. Learning techniques of social life is called socialization. Learning of different social situations is to
processes of socialization.
Socialization of individual starts from the birth. When the child is born them according to a philosophy is a
“Tabullarasa” meaning allows sheet and what is taught got imprinted on that sheet. That’s why it is said that “child is
father of man”.
Woosely
“Process of transmission of culture, the process whereby man learn the rules and practices of social group”.
Joln J. Maccionis
“It is a long life social experience by which individuals develop their human potential and learn culture”.
Hoston and Hirt
“Socialization is a processes whereby one internalizes the norms of the groups among whom one likes so that a
unique “self emerges”.
Aims/Objectives and Functions of Socialization:-
1. Socialization is a process of learning
Socialization is not only term but a full process of learning of individuals how to conduct their life, morals and values.
2. Converts Individual from bio-logical being to social being
Socialization converts individual from a biological bearing to social being and social entity.
3. Personality Development
Socialization play a vital role in personality and self-development as self is not inherited but acquired from the
society by individual.
4. Teacher Discipline

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Socialization teachers discipline and conduct to the individuals and show the way to live in society.
5. Socialization Teachers Duties and Responsibilities
Male and female acquire the sense of duties and responsibilities dis-motively through socialization.
6. Establishes Knowledge and Skill
Socialization establishes knowledge and skills in individual. It is the only process which give shine and groom the
natural talent with acquired skills.
7. Stability of Social Order
Socialization brining social control and stability in social order. Social order is brought by social.
8. Transmission of culture from one generation to other
Socialization ism a bridge for transmission of culture from our generation to another processing one.
9. Development of Social Qualities
Child through socialization on uncovered to act according the accepted values and ideas of society.
Process of Socialization
The process of socialization starts from very birth of child. But that he lacks that essential elements of the social life.
As he grows, he molds himself according to the needs of the society.
At time of birth child only have “Natural Instincts”, but later on in most make on development according to needs of
society. Socialization process could be studied on following points;
• Rearing up: Brining Up
They may parents rear their child, the way he shall grow and acquire qualities and traits that are result of that way of
rearing up.
• Identification
The child develops feeling of identification from family which in term develops with him maintain of language, way
of living values etc.
• Social Teaching
From family to school, peers the child marted with social teaching. According to Miller Dolard, this social teaching is
based on following four elements.
• Derive
• Cue
• Response
• Record
• Perceiving the situation
Individual at any age has to change his or her behavior pattern according to situation. This process of perceiving is
helpful in acquiring of social ideas.
• Mutual Behavior and Cooperation
When an individual comes in contact with other, got influence by mutual corporation, the social qualities also
develop in the individual. This is another way of developing social qualities and organizing the social personality.
• Suggestions
The child also tries to adjust himself to social needs according to the suggestions from others.
Generally these suggestions are received from family, peer group, school and other agencies of socialization.
• Reward or Punishment
If acted according to social values and ideals have get record and punishment if act against the interest of society.

The Role of Socialization

The role of socialization is to acquaint individuals with the norms of a given social group or society. It prepares
individuals to participate in a group by illustrating the expectations of that group.

Socialization is very important for children, who begin the process at home with family, and continue it at
school. They are taught what will be expected of them as they mature and become full members of
society. Socialization is also important for adults who join new social groups. Broadly defined, it is the process of
transferring norms, values, beliefs, and behaviors to future group members.

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Three Goals of Socialization

This first goal is accomplished naturally: as people grow up within a particular society, they pick up on the
expectations of those around them and internalize these expectations to moderate their impulses and develop a
conscience. Second, socialization teaches individuals how to prepare for and perform certain social roles—
occupational roles, gender roles, and the roles of institutions such as marriage and parenthood. Third, socialization
cultivates shared sources of meaning and value. Through socialization, people learn to identify what is important and
valued within a particular culture.

The term “socialization” refers to a general process, but socialization always takes place in specific contexts.
Socialization is culturally specific: people in different cultures are socialized differently, to hold different beliefs and
values, and to behave in different ways. Sociologists try to understand socialization, but they do not rank different
schemes of socialization as good or bad; they study practices of socialization to determine why people behave the
way that they do.
(b)
Teacher's Role in Socializing Students

Impacting Health & Academic Success

Did you wake up feeling powerful today? Well, get ready to feel like you have the potential to make an impact on
one of the biggest issues of our time.
Supporting students to be more physically active can have a ripple effect into their future. You've probably heard
that physical activity has the potential to help people of all ages to live better, healthier lives. Did you also know that
physical activity has the potential to improve students' academic achievement? This lesson describes ways a
classroom teacher can help socialize students to move more.

Be a Role Model
One place to start is for you to consider ways you can be a role model. This doesn't mean you need to already be in
great shape or have a rigorous exercise routine. Modelling this behavior could be as simple as finding ways to
incorporate regular movement into everyday routines.
Perhaps you plan to take breaks in classroom time to encourage students to move a bit or to stretch or walk around
yourself. If you have interests that relate to physical activity, share this with your students either in conversation or
by bringing these interests into your lesson plans.
For example, let's say you're a math teacher, and you are trying to figure out how you could possibly play a role in
encouraging physical activity. While developing a math problem, you could decide to replace the language of one of
the problems with a story about students riding their bikes.
Let's say you like to take after-dinner walks sometimes. You could use yourself as the participant in a math problem
discussing how many miles are walked in a week. Any opportunity to bring up the topic in the classroom is a good
way to subtly introduce a range of activities to your students.

Involve Students
It's important to recognize that students have different ways of enjoying physical movement. Not every student will
be passionate about team sports, just as not every student will like to dance.

Q NO: 4 (a) Elucidate the role of religious groups and their influence on social behaviour.
Surrendering oneself to a higher power or losing oneself into something larger certainly motivates selfless caring
acts, yet it can also be a path to much less desirable outcomes. In another line of my research, I am interested in the
study of religion as a powerful source of influence. My interest in this topic stems from the fact that despite
promoting health and the greater good (e.g. volunteering, donation), religion is also at the core of many of the most
terrible acts of aggression (e.g. genocide, holy wars). With my co-authors, we have proposed that one way of
understanding these seemingly contradictory results is to consider religion’s role in submission and conformity.
Indeed, depending on what the religious group is valuing, conforming can lead to either good or bad outcomes. In a

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series of studies we have used the “priming” technique to momentarily activate in people’s mind concepts related to
religion (through quick flashes of religious words) and be able to test the causal hypothesis that reminders of religion
trigger submission and conformity.
In Saroglou, Corneille, and Van Cappellen (2009) we showed that for participants scoring high on dispositional
submissiveness, subliminal religious priming increased the accessibility of submission- related concepts (Study 1) and
actual compliance to a morally problematic request for revenge made by a figure of authority (Study 2) compared to
subliminal control priming (quick flashes of neutral words). In Van Cappellen, Corneille, Cols, and Saroglou (2011) we
showed that participants scoring high on dispositional submissiveness, subliminal religious priming increased
conformity: in a numeric estimation task, participants assimilated their estimates more to the ones of their peers.
Importantly in these studies, participants were not aware of the priming (unconscious activation of religious or
neutral concepts) and the measures of submission and conformity were behavioral, not self-report. These
laboratory-derived results provide a direct demonstration of a basic process that may be at play in believers’
everyday life. Although in both studies compliance to a request and conformity appeared toward neutral targets –
the figure of authority or the peers in the conformity task were not specifically identified as religious – an interesting
possibility is that the effects found here would be magnified in a religious context. These results forecast the great
power that religious leaders and institutions can have on their adherents. It is interpreted here in the context of
prosocial/antisocial behaviors but could well apply to other domains. For example, religious influence could be used
for the best to promote healthy lifestyles or treatment adherence.
Recently, I’ve proposed that religion promotes first and foremost a fundamental motivation for social affiliation,
which in turn may create fertile ground for conformity and submission. As briefly mentioned above, beyond
individual beliefs, social affiliation is a core feature of religion that has important implications for church members’
social affiliation needs and their capacity to feel good and do good. Therefore, I hypothesized that the motivation to
socially affiliate may be even stronger among religious people. Surprisingly, current evidence for a relation between
religion and affiliation remains only indirect:
relying on self-report of social affiliation or perception of social support. Across three studies, I found support for
this hypothesis, demonstrating that religious participants scored higher on implicit and behavioral measures of social
affiliation motives (e.g. sitting closer to an ostensibly occupied chair, affiliation with others in a virtual game).
However, my research also shows that this effect is limited, such that when the target of the social interaction is
explicitly identified as an outgroup member (i.e., an atheist) the social affiliation effect of religion disappears (Van
Cappellen, Fredrickson, Saroglou, & Corneille, 2017).
Religion and antisocial behaviors
Past research has shown that religious beliefs are related to prejudice and antisocial attitudes especially toward
value-threatening out-groups. In one line of research, I test whether religion-related prejudice translates into actual
antisocial behaviors. Using an implicit behavioral measure of passive aggression, I found that personal religious
beliefs were associated with more ingroup favoritism: in a virtual ball tossing game, throwing more often a ball to a
christian than to an atheist or neutral players. The distinction between ingroup/outgroup is an important one to
consider when thinking about the potnetial antisocial outcomes of religion. However, it is not the only one; as
presented above, among dispositionally submissive individuals, religious priming can increase compliance to a
morally problematic request: taking revenge against another bogus participant. This research suggests religion’s
power could be used to promote antisocial behaviors toward any group, via compliance and conformity.

(b) Analyze the role of media in manipulating social opinion.

Governments around the world are dramatically increasing their efforts to manipulate information on social media,
threatening the notion of the internet as a liberating technology, according to Freedom on the Net 2017, the latest
edition of the annual country-by-country assessment of online freedom, released today by Freedom House.
Online manipulation and disinformation tactics played an important role in elections in at least 18 countries over the
past year, including the United States, damaging citizens’ ability to choose their leaders based on factual news and
authentic debate. The content manipulation contributed to a seventh consecutive year of overall decline in internet
freedom, along with a rise in disruptions to mobile internet service and increases in physical and technical attacks on
human rights defenders and independent media.

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“The use of paid commentators and political bots to spread government propaganda was pioneered by China and
Russia but has now gone global,” said Michael J. Abramowitz, president of Freedom House. “The effects of these
rapidly spreading techniques on democracy and civic activism are potentially devastating.”
“Governments are now using social media to suppress dissent and advance an antidemocratic agenda,” said Sanja
Kelly, director of the Freedom on the Net project. “Not only is this manipulation difficult to detect, it is more difficult
to combat than other types of censorship, such as website blocking, because it’s dispersed and because of the sheer
number of people and bots deployed to do it.”
“The fabrication of grassroots support for government policies on social media creates a closed loop in which the
regime essentially endorses itself, leaving independent groups and ordinary citizens on the outside,” Kelly said.
Freedom on the Net 2017 assesses internet freedom in 65 countries, accounting for 87 percent of internet users
worldwide. The report primarily focuses on developments that occurred between June 2016 and May 2017,
although some more recent events are included as well.
Governments in a total of 30 countries deployed some form of manipulation to distort online information, up from
23 the previous year. Paid commentators, trolls, bots, false news sites, and propaganda outlets were among the
techniques used by leaders to inflate their popular support and essentially endorse themselves.
In the Philippines, members of a “keyboard army” are tasked with amplifying the impression of widespread support
of the government’s brutal crackdown on the drug trade. Meanwhile, in Turkey, reportedly 6,000 people have been
enlisted by the ruling party to counter government opponents on social media.
Most governments targeted public opinion within their own borders, but others sought to expand their interests
abroad—exemplified by a Russian disinformation campaign to influence the American election. Fake news and
aggressive trolling of journalists both during and after the presidential election contributed to a score decline in the
United States’ otherwise generally free environment.
Governments in at least 14 countries actually restricted internet freedom in a bid to address content manipulation.
Ukrainian authorities, for example, blocked Russia-based services, including the country’s most widely used social
network and search engine, after Russian agents flooded social media with fabricated stories advancing the
Kremlin’s narrative.
“When trying to combat online manipulation from abroad, it is important for countries not to overreach,” Kelly said.
“The solution to manipulation and disinformation lies not in censoring websites but in teaching citizens how to
detect fake news and commentary. Democracies should ensure that the source of political advertising online is at
least as transparent online as it is offline.”
For the third consecutive year, China was the world’s worst abuser of internet freedom, followed by Syria and
Ethiopia. In Ethiopia, the government shut down mobile networks for nearly two months as part of a state of
emergency declared in October 2016 amid large-scale antigovernment protests.
Less than one-quarter of the world’s internet users reside in countries where the internet is designated Free,
meaning there are no major obstacles to access, onerous restrictions on content, or serious violations of user rights
in the form of unchecked surveillance or unjust repercussions for legitimate speech.
Key Findings
• Governments manipulated social media to undermine democracy: Governments in 30 countries of the 65
countries assessed attempted to control online discussions. The practice has become significantly more
widespread and technically sophisticated over last few years.
• State censors targeted mobile connectivity: An increasing number of governments have restricted mobile
internet service for political or security reasons. Half of all internet shutdowns in the past year were specific to
mobile connectivity, with most others affecting mobile and fixed-line service simultaneously. Most mobile
shutdowns occurred in areas populated with ethnic or religious minorities such as Tibetan areas in China and
Oromo areas in Ethiopia.
• More governments restricted live video: As live video gained popularity with the emergence of platforms like
Facebook Live, and Snapchat’s Live Stories internet users faced restrictions or attacks for live streaming in at
least nine countries, often to prevent streaming of antigovernment protests. Countries likes Belarus disrupted
mobile connectivity to prevent livestreamed images from reaching mass audience.
• Technical attacks against news outlets, opposition, and rights defenders increased: Cyberattacks against
government critics were documented in 34 out of 65 countries. Many governments took additional steps to
restrict encryption, leaving citizens further exposed.
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• New restrictions on virtual private networks (VPNs): 14 countries now restrict tools used to circumvent
censorship in some form and six countries introduced new restrictions, either legal bans or technical blocks on
VPN websites or network traffic.
• Physical attacks against netizens and online journalists expanded dramatically: The number of countries that
featured physical reprisals for online speech increased by 50 percent over the past year—from 20 to 30 of the
countries assessed. In eight countries, people were murdered for their online expression. In Jordan, a Christian
cartoonist was murdered for mocking Islamist militants’ vision of heaven, while in Myanmar, a journalist was
murdered after posting on Facebook notes that alleged corruption.

Q NO: 5 (a) Explain how the state of Pakistani family structure is in flux?
The family forms the foundation of society in Pakistan and encompasses a wide breadth of relationships. One’s
extended relatives have great significance on a daily basis and a vast majority of Pakistanis live in multigenerational
households whereby three, four or sometimes five generations reside together (including grandparents, uncles,
siblings and cousins). Due to the low socioeconomic condition of most of Pakistan's population, family ties are
essential for people to survive economically.

The concept of ‘wasta’ – relationship forming – becomes central to this family dynamic. People generally rely on
their relatives more than anyone else for financial, social and employment opportunities (see ‘Interdependence and
Wasta’ in the Core Concepts). Furthermore, considering how big the average household is, most of the income is
spent on the upkeep of the family home. Generally, only the privileged elite classes or families who have migrated to
cities have adopted the nuclear familysetup. Even then, most people’s relatives live close to each other and rely on
one another for financial support.

The family, being such an intricate and supportive network, is kept quite private to outsiders. Significant precautions
are taken to keep all problems, financial matters and gossip away from public knowledge. This is done as a way to
protect one’s family honour and avoid the reputation of the family being shamed (see ‘Honour (Izzat)’ in Core
Concepts for further explanation on this).

Traditionally, Pakistani families are patriarchal and patrilineal. In this way, the senior male is the head of the
household, followed by the senior female, and finally, the children. Individuals are associated with their father's
family primarily and, upon marriage, a woman will move in with her husband's family and be considered one of
them.
Gender Roles
Men are generally the main source of income in households throughout Pakistan. According to Islamic custom, in the
case that both a husband and wife are employed, the woman's income is considered to be rightfully her own and
does not necessarily have to be spent on the upkeep of the home. In traditional homes, it is believed to be a man's
sole responsibility to provide for his wife, children and any extended family who reside with them or live elsewhere.
This will depend on the economic status of the family, but generally across Pakistan, men are expected to earn for
the family while women look after the home and general well-being of the family.

Some families still practise the seclusion of women (purdah) by which females can only leave the domestic realm
when veiled and accompanied by a man. This custom varies significantly between ethnicities and social backgrounds.
For example, Balochis in the highlands generally observe purdah while urban middle-class Pakistanis appear to have
stopped doing so.

However, women generally still occupy a subordinate status in Pakistani society. This is somewhat due to the fact
that they carry greater expectations of social compliance and are sometimes seen as particularly vulnerable targets
that need to be protected. Culturally, women are seen as being more liable to bring dishonour on a family. A mistake
or an instance of loss of control by a woman is considered particularly shameful and can be sometimes interpreted
as a failure of the patriarch of the family to protect her from doing so.

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In some cases, an act of dishonour by a woman has had tragic consequences by which a male relative or community
member has murdered her for bringing shame upon the family/group. While acceptance of this practice of ‘honour
killing’ is rapidly diminishing in society, it reflects the challenges women face against the strong traditionalists. It still
remains a somewhat easy excuse to blame a mistake or problem on a woman.

Ultimately, a woman’s independence and freedom to make choices for herself (i.e. to work, get an education, marry,
divorce, bear children or not) varies significantly depending on the attitude of her husband or closest male relative.
For example, traditional rural homes in areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Sindh, Balochistan and Punjab are generally
more conservative regarding women’s public participation and social roles. Nevertheless, gender equality is
progressing and becoming more widespread across many regions of Pakistan. While stratification between the
genders is visible, the increase in education is playing a large role in changing this. Through the prevalence of
education in urban areas, there is an increase in female employment, and it is more common to see both husband
and wife heading the household. Many women are among the country's leading politicians and journalists.

Marriage and Dating

Casual dating is strongly disapproved of among the older generation of Pakistanis. There remains a lot of
protectionism and paternalism surrounding women especially, and conservatism regarding their relationships. Some
of the younger generation have more liberal understandings of relationships and begin dating during or after they
finish their tertiary studies. However, the sight of two people from the opposite gender alone in public is likely to
draw varying degrees of judgment. This may range from unspoken curiosity to ambivalence depending on where you
are. As privacy is a rarity in the public areas of Pakistan, most people are likely to stare.

Many Pakistani marriages are arranged, brokered by the family elders. As nuclear family households are becoming
more common in the urban areas of Pakistan, many young adults are now choosing whom they marry. However,
even in these circumstances, it is often necessary to receive parents’ full approval and consent of their choice of
partner. Marriages are considered to be the responsibility of the parents; they pay for the event itself to a large
extent.

Generally, protection of the family and honour plays a key role in determining prospective partners. Potential
wives/husbands are usually chosen from within the same socioeconomic bracket. Marriages are rarely approved
between people of different socioeconomic tiers. Interethnic marriages are also not very common; however, they
are sometimes approved if all other social standings of the families coincided.

Marriage is often considered to be a healthy way to expand the family ties among relatives. Therefore, it is very
common to marry someone within the extended family, such as a cousin. These endogamous marriages are
considered to be compatible and, because the larger extended family is implicated if they fail, the couple is usually
strongly supported by relatives to ensure it doesn’t. Additionally, such marriages help keep family property
consolidated.

(b) How do recreational institutions influence socialization?

The notion of institutional socialization was developed during the course of discussions Meyer has presented on
the consequences of the normative belief in the socialization effects of a & dquo; college education&dquo;
(Meyer 1966, 1972a, 1972b). Colleges are typically believed to be reasonably effective socialization agents,
producing in their students (socializees), over a four years period, certain broad alternations in values, attitudes,
and beliefs. The problem with this conception of college socialization, however, is that there is no evidence
which demonstrates that any substantial effects actually occur in college students (Newcombe and Feldman
1968). Yet paradoxically, there is sufficient evidence to demontrate that a college education is an important
factor in post-college occupational achievement and status. (Thomas 1956; Collins 1971; Berg 1970; Blan and
Duncan 1967) The idea of institutional socialization was an attempt to explain this paradox.
A basic assumption of this concept is that a college has associated with it a &dquo;charter&dquo;, a license to
produce socially agreed-upon products. A college &dquo;charter&dquo; is essentially a set of normative beliefs,
beliefs about the effects of that college’s socialization process, together with agreedupon social definitions of
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the products which that process is supposed to produce. For example, medical schools are
&dquo;licenced&dquo; to produce medical doctors. The medical school &dquo;charter&dquo; is a set of
normative beliefs about the socialization effects of the medical school experience, and about the appropriate
social definitions of the product, doctors. Meyer has suggested that this socialization belief, the
&dquo;charter&dquo;, is the basis of the allocation process which forms the structural linkage between the
college, its education, and certain positions in the societal occupational structure. The fact that such a situation
as this may occur, Meyer attributes to the &dquo;uncertainties&dquo; which exist in the criteria for
occupational allocation. &dquo;the professional and personal structure of modern society in many ways resists
rationalization. There is no way to precisely define the attributes appropriate to specific occupations which the
school should presumably create... The products of schools are normatively defined as possessing the
appropriate (but in good part unknown and unmeasured) attributes for entry into particular occupations. The
activities associated with these occupations are in turn partly justified and explained by the presumed (and again
of course, mostly unmeasured) qualities of educationally.
Institutional socialization is hypothesised to occur in the following manner. If a given institutional experience is
normatively believed to have given socialization effects, then individuals who undergo this experience come to
be treated according to the assumption that the socialization effects have indeed occurred in them. On this
basis, the indi- 67 viduals come to be allocated to occupational and social roles that are consonant with the
assumed socialization effects. Taking on the occupancy of a particular role, the individual becomes exposed to an
extensive set of expectations that are based upon the assumed socialization effects. It is in response to the
pressure of these sets of expectations, the concept suggests, that the socialization effects actually occur post
facto. Anticipatory socialization can occur when the allocation linkages between a socialization institution and
specific, elite and well defined occupational and social roles are clearly perceived. In this situation the
occupational or social role end point of the institutional experience confronts the socializee. Socialization to the
occupational or social role model and its set of expectations can, thus, begin to occur prior to the actual formal
occupancy of the particular role.
The power and the effectiveness of institutional socialization, thus, lies in the perceived efficacy of the institution
to place its products in occupational and social roles that have sufficiently distinct social definitions, and which
are sufficiently prestigious. There are, therefore, some important variables involved in this concept. Firstly, the
more effective the allocation process is perceived to be, the more effective will be the institutional socialization.
Kamen has commented that, &dquo;to the extent that a college can facilitate the status transition from
’studenthood’ to adult economic and occupational roles that its students value, it gains its capability to influence
their commitment and self concepts&dquo; (1971, p. 271). Although little significant socialization occurs in
college, it is the case that those institutions which have the closest structural links with the elite professions, also
tend to have the most powerful socialization effects upon their students (Dornbusch 1955; Becker 1961). If it is
obvious that a particular institutional process effectively leads to a particular occupational role, then the relative
certainty of the allocation process results in a congruent certainty in the anticipatory role model. Anticipatory
socialization can thus proceed with less ambiguity and more effectiveness.

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