Database System Concepts, 5th Ed.!

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan


See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use "
   Data Definition!
  Basic Query Structure!
  Set Operations!
  Aggregate Functions!
  Null Values!
  Nested Subqueries!
  Complex Queries !
  Views!
  Modification of the Database!
  Joined Relations** !

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.2" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   IBM Sequel language developed as part of System R project at the
IBM San Jose Research Laboratory!
  Renamed Structured Query Language (SQL)!
  ANSI and ISO standard SQL:!
  SQL-86!
  SQL-89!
  SQL-92 !
  SQL:1999 (language name became Y2K compliant!)!
  SQL:2003!
  Commercial systems offer most, if not all, SQL-92 features, plus
varying feature sets from later standards and special proprietary
features. !
  Not all examples here may work on your particular system.!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.3" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
 Allows the specification of not only a set of relations but also
information about each relation, including:!
  The schema for each relation.!
  The domain of values associated with each attribute.!
  Integrity constraints!
  The set of indices to be maintained for each relations.!
  Security and authorization information for each relation.!
  The physical storage structure of each relation on disk.!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.4" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   char(n). Fixed length character string, with user-specified length n.!
  varchar(n). Variable length character strings, with user-specified maximum
length n.!
  int. Integer (a finite subset of the integers that is machine-dependent).!
  smallint. Small integer (a machine-dependent subset of the integer
domain type).!
  numeric(p,d). Fixed point number, with user-specified precision of p digits,
with n digits to the right of decimal point. !
  real, double precision. Floating point and double-precision floating point
numbers, with machine-dependent precision.!
  float(n). Floating point number, with user-specified precision of at least n
digits.!
  More are covered in Chapter 4.!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.5" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   An SQL relation is defined using the create table command:!
! ! create table r (A1 D1, A2 D2, ..., An Dn,

! ! ! (integrity-constraint1),

! ! ! ...,

! ! ! (integrity-constraintk))!
  r is the name of the relation!
  each Ai is an attribute name in the schema of relation r!
  Di is the data type of values in the domain of attribute Ai!

  Example:!
! ! create table branch

! ! (branch_name! char(15) not null,

! ! branch_city! char(30),

! ! assets! ! integer)!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.6" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   not null"
  primary key (A1, ..., An )!

Example: Declare branch_name as the primary key for branch!

."
! create table branch

! ! (branch_name! char(15),

" " branch_city! char(30),

! ! assets! ! integer,

! ! primary key (branch_name))!

primary key declaration on an attribute automatically ensures

not null in SQL-92 onwards, needs to be explicitly stated in
SQL-89"

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.7" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   The drop table command deletes all information about the dropped
relation from the database.!
  The alter table command is used to add attributes to an existing
relation: !
" alter table r add A D!
where A is the name of the attribute to be added to relation r and D
is the domain of A.!
  All tuples in the relation are assigned null as the value for the
new attribute. !
  The alter table command can also be used to drop attributes of a
relation:!
! ! alter table r drop A !
where A is the name of an attribute of relation r!
  Dropping of attributes not supported by many databases!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.8" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   SQL is based on set and relational operations with certain
modifications and enhancements!
  A typical SQL query has the form:


! select A1, A2, ..., An


! from r1, r2, ..., rm

! where P


  Ai represents an attribute!
  Ri represents a relation!
  P is a predicate.!
  This query is equivalent to the relational algebra expression.!
! ! 


  The result of an SQL query is a relation.!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.9" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   The select clause list the attributes desired in the result of a query!
  corresponds to the projection operation of the relational algebra!
  Example: find the names of all branches in the loan relation:

! ! select branch_name

! ! from loan!
  In the relational algebra, the query would be: !
! ! ! ∏branch_name (loan)!
  NOTE: SQL names are case insensitive (i.e., you may use upper- or
lower-case letters.) !
  E.g. Branch_Name ≡ BRANCH_NAME ≡ branch_name!
  Some people use upper case wherever we use bold font.!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.10" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   SQL allows duplicates in relations as well as in query results.!
  To force the elimination of duplicates, insert the keyword distinct after
select."
  Find the names of all branches in the loan relations, and remove
duplicates!
! ! select distinct branch_name

! from loan


  The keyword all specifies that duplicates not be removed.


! ! select all branch_name


! from loan!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.11" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   An asterisk in the select clause denotes “all attributes”!
" " " select *

! ! from loan!
  The select clause can contain arithmetic expressions involving the
operation, +, –, *, and /, and operating on constants or attributes of
tuples.!
  The query: !
" select loan_number, branch_name, amount * 100

from loan!
! would return a relation that is the same as the loan relation, except
that the value of the attribute amount is multiplied by 100.!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.12" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   The where clause specifies conditions that the result must satisfy!
  Corresponds to the selection predicate of the relational algebra. !
  To find all loan number for loans made at the Perryridge branch with
loan amounts greater than $1200.!
" " select loan_number

! from loan

! where branch_name = 'Perryridge' and amount > 1200!
  Comparison results can be combined using the logical connectives and,
or, and not. !
  Comparisons can be applied to results of arithmetic expressions.!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.13" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   SQL includes a between comparison operator!
  Example: Find the loan number of those loans with loan amounts between
$90,000 and $100,000 (that is, ≥ $90,000 and ≤ $100,000)
select loan_number

! from loan

! where amount between 90000 and 100000!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.14" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   The from clause lists the relations involved in the query!
  Corresponds to the Cartesian product operation of the relational algebra.!
  Find the Cartesian product borrower X loan!
" " " select *

! ! from borrower, loan!
  Find the name, loan number and loan amount of all customers 

having a loan at the Perryridge branch.

select customer_name, borrower.loan_number, amount


from borrower, loan

where borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number and

branch_name = 'Perryridge' !

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.15" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   The SQL allows renaming relations and attributes using the as clause:!
! ! old-name as new-name!
  Find the name, loan number and loan amount of all customers; rename the
column name loan_number as loan_id.!

select customer_name, borrower.loan_number as loan_id, amount


from borrower, loan

where borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.16" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   Tuple variables are defined in the from clause via the use of the as
clause.!
  Find the customer names and their loan numbers for all customers
having a loan at some branch.!

select customer_name, T.loan_number, S.amount


from borrower as T, loan as S

where T.loan_number = S.loan_number

  Find the names of all branches that have greater assets than 

some branch located in Brooklyn.!
select distinct T.branch_name

from branch as T, branch as S

where T.assets > S.assets and S.branch_city = 'Brooklyn' !
 Keyword as is optional and may be omitted

borrower as T ≡ borrower T!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.17" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   SQL includes a string-matching operator for comparisons on character
strings. The operator “like” uses patterns that are described using two
special characters:!
  percent (%). The % character matches any substring.!
  underscore (_). The _ character matches any character.!
  Find the names of all customers whose street includes the substring
“Main”.!
" " select customer_name

! from customer

! where customer_street like '% Main%'
  Match the name “Main%”!
! ! ! like 'Main\%' escape '\' !
  SQL supports a variety of string operations such as!
  concatenation (using “||”)!
  converting from upper to lower case (and vice versa)!
  finding string length, extracting substrings, etc.!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.18" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   List in alphabetic order the names of all customers having a loan in
Perryridge branch!
! ! select distinct customer_name

! from borrower, loan

! where borrower loan_number = loan.loan_number and

! branch_name = 'Perryridge' 

! order by customer_name!
  We may specify desc for descending order or asc for ascending
order, for each attribute; ascending order is the default.!
  Example: order by customer_name desc!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.19" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   In relations with duplicates, SQL can define how many copies of tuples
appear in the result.!
  Multiset versions of some of the relational algebra operators – given
multiset relations r1 and r2:!

1.! σθ (r1): If there are c1 copies of tuple t1 in r1, and t1 satisfies

selections σθ,, then there are c1 copies of t1 in σθ (r1).!
2.! ΠA (r ): For each copy of tuple t1 in r1, there is a copy of tuple
ΠA (t1) in ΠA (r1) where ΠA (t1) denotes the projection of the single
tuple t1.!
3.! r1 x r2 : If there are c1 copies of tuple t1 in r1 and c2 copies of tuple
t2 in r2, there are c1 x c2 copies of the tuple t1. t2 in r1 x r2!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.20" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   Example: Suppose multiset relations r1 (A, B) and r2 (C) are as
follows:!
! ! r1 = {(1, a) (2,a)} r2 = {(2), (3), (3)}!
  Then ΠB(r1) would be {(a), (a)}, while ΠB(r1) x r2 would be!
! ! {(a,2), (a,2), (a,3), (a,3), (a,3), (a,3)}!
  SQL duplicate semantics: !
! ! select A1,, A2, ..., An

! from r1, r2, ..., rm

! where P!
! is equivalent to the multiset version of the expression:!
! ! !

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.21" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   The set operations union, intersect, and except operate on relations
and correspond to the relational algebra operations ∪, ∩, -.!
  Each of the above operations automatically eliminates duplicates; to
retain all duplicates use the corresponding multiset versions union all,
intersect all and except all.


Suppose a tuple occurs m times in r and n times in s, then, it occurs:!

  m + n times in r union all s!
  min(m,n) times in r intersect all s!
  max(0, m – n) times in r except all s!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.22" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   These functions operate on the multiset of values of a column of
a relation, and return a value!
! ! avg: average value

! min: minimum value

! max: maximum value

! sum: sum of values

! count: number of values!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.23" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   Find the average account balance at the Perryridge branch.!

select avg (balance)


! from account

! where branch_name = 'Perryridge'

  Find the number of tuples in the customer relation.

select count (*)


! from customer

  Find the number of depositors in the bank.

select count (distinct customer_name)


! from depositor!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.24" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   Find the number of depositors for each branch.!

select branch_name, count (distinct customer_name)


from depositor, account

where depositor.account_number = account.account_number

group by branch_name

Note: Attributes in select clause outside of aggregate functions must 


appear in group by list

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.25" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   Find the names of all branches where the average account balance is
more than $1,200.!

select branch_name, avg (balance)


from account

group by branch_name

having avg (balance) > 1200

Note: predicates in the having clause are applied after the 


formation of groups whereas predicates in the where 

clause are applied before forming groups!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.26" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null, for some
of their attributes!
  null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not exist.!
  The predicate is null can be used to check for null values.!
  Example: Find all loan number which appear in the loan relation
with null values for amount.!
! ! select loan_number

! from loan

! where amount is null!
  The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is null!
  Example: 5 + null returns null!
  However, aggregate functions simply ignore nulls!
  More on next slide!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.27" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   Any comparison with null returns unknown!
  Example: 5 < null or null <> null or null = null!
  Three-valued logic using the truth value unknown:!
  OR: (unknown or true) = true,

(unknown or false) = unknown

(unknown or unknown) = unknown!
  AND: (true and unknown) = unknown, 

(false and unknown) = false,

(unknown and unknown) = unknown!
  NOT: (not unknown) = unknown!
  “P is unknown” evaluates to true if predicate P evaluates to
unknown!
  Result of where clause predicate is treated as false if it evaluates to
unknown!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.28" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   Total all loan amounts!
! ! select sum (amount )

! from loan!
  Above statement ignores null amounts!
  Result is null if there is no non-null amount!
  All aggregate operations except count(*) ignore tuples with null
values on the aggregated attributes.!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.29" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   SQL provides a mechanism for the nesting of subqueries.!
  A subquery is a select-from-where expression that is nested within
another query.!
  A common use of subqueries is to perform tests for set membership, set
comparisons, and set cardinality.!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.30" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at the bank.!

select distinct customer_name


! from borrower

! where customer_name in (select customer_name

from depositor )

  Find all customers who have a loan at the bank but do not have 

an account at the bank

select distinct customer_name


! from borrower

! where customer_name not in (select customer_name

from depositor )

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.31" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   Find all customers who have both an account and a loan at the
Perryridge branch!

select distinct customer_name


! from borrower, loan

! where borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number and

" branch_name = 'Perryridge' and

(branch_name, customer_name ) in

" " (select branch_name, customer_name

! ! from depositor, account

! ! where depositor.account_number = 

account.account_number )

  Note: Above query can be written in a much simpler manner. The 


formulation above is simply to illustrate SQL features.!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.32" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   Find all branches that have greater assets than some branch located
in Brooklyn.!

select distinct T.branch_name


! from branch as T, branch as S

! where T.assets > S.assets and

" S.branch_city = 'Brooklyn'

  Same query using > some clause

select branch_name

! from branch

! where assets > some

" " (select assets

! ! from branch

! ! where branch_city = 'Brooklyn')

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.33" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   F <comp> some r ⇔ ∃ t ∈ r such that (F <comp> t )

Where <comp> can be: <, ≤, >, =, ≠!

0
(5 < some! 5 ) = true!
(read: 5 < some tuple in the relation) !
6
0
(5 < some! 5 ) = false!

0
(5 = some! 5 ) = true!

0
(5 ≠ some" 5 ) = true (since 0 ≠ 5)
(= some) ≡ in
However, (≠ some) ≡ not in

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.34" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   Find the names of all branches that have greater assets than all
branches located in Brooklyn.!

select branch_name

! from branch

! where assets > all

" " (select assets

! ! from branch

! ! where branch_city = 'Brooklyn')

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.35" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   F <comp> all r ⇔ ∀ t ∈ r (F <comp> t)!

0
(5 < all! 5 ) = false!
6
6
(5 < all! 10 ) = true!

4
(5 = all! 5 ) = false!

4
(5 ≠ all" 6 ) = true (since 5 ≠ 4 and 5 ≠ 6)
(≠ all) ≡ not in
However, (= all) ≡ in

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.36" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   The exists construct returns the value true if the argument subquery is
nonempty.!
  exists r ⇔ r ≠ Ø!
  not exists r ⇔ r = Ø!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.37" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   Find all customers who have an account at all branches located in
Brooklyn.!

select distinct S.customer_name


! from depositor as S

! where not exists (

" " (select branch_name

! ! from branch

! ! where branch_city = 'Brooklyn') 

! ! except

" " (select R.branch_name

! ! from depositor as T, account as R

! ! where T.account_number = R.account_number and

" " " S.customer_name = T.customer_name ))!

  Note that X – Y = Ø ⇔ X ⊆ Y!
  Note: Cannot write this query using = all and its variants

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.38" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   The unique construct tests whether a subquery has any duplicate
tuples in its result.!
  Find all customers who have at most one account at the Perryridge
branch.!
" select T.customer_name!
from depositor as T!
where unique ("
" " select R.customer_name

! from account, depositor as R

! where T.customer_name = R.customer_name and

" " R.account_number = account.account_number and

" " account.branch_name = 'Perryridge') !

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.39" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   Find all customers who have at least two accounts at the Perryridge
branch. !

select distinct T.customer_name!

from depositor as T!
where not unique (!
select R.customer_name!
from account, depositor as R!
where T.customer_name = R.customer_name and"
! R.account_number = account.account_number and"
" account.branch_name = 'Perryridge')

  Variable from outer level is known as a correlation variable !

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.40" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"
   SQL allows a subquery expression to be used in the from clause!
  Find the average account balance of those branches where the average
account balance is greater than $1200.!
! ! select branch_name, avg_balance

! from (select branch_name, avg (balance)

! ! ! from account

! ! ! group by branch_name )

! ! as branch_avg ( branch_name, avg_balance )

! where avg_balance > 1200!
! Note that we do not need to use the having clause, since we
compute the temporary (view) relation branch_avg in the from clause,
and the attributes of branch_avg can be used directly in the where
clause.!

Database System Concepts, 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006" 3.41" ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan"