p n

the networks in the next few chapters, it will be introduced in this chapter. The LCD
display is described in Chapter 20.
As the name implies, the light-emitting diode (LED) is a diode that will give off
visible light when it is energized. In any forward-biased p-n junction there is, within
the structure and primarily close to the junction, a recombination of holes and elec-
trons. This recombination requires that the energy possessed by the unbound free elec-
tron be transferred to another state. In all semiconductor p-n junctions some of this
energy will be given off as heat and some in the form of photons. In silicon and ger-
manium the greater percentage is given up in the form of heat and the emitted light
is insignificant. In other materials, such as gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) or
gallium phosphide (GaP), the number of photons of light energy emitted is sufficient
to create a very visible light source.
The process of giving off light by applying an electrical source of energy is
called electroluminescence.
As shown in Fig. 1.54 with its graphic symbol, the conducting surface connected
to the p-material is much smaller, to permit the emergence of the maximum number
of photons of light energy. Note in the figure that the recombination of the injected
carriers due to the forward-biased junction results in emitted light at the site of re-
combination. There may, of course, be some absorption of the packages of photon en-
ergy in the structure itself, but a very large percentage are able to leave, as shown in
the figure.

Figure 1.54 (a) Process of

electroluminescence in the LED;
(b) graphic symbol.
The appearance and characteristics of a subminiature high-efficiency solid-state
lamp manufactured by Hewlett-Packard appears in Fig. 1.55. Note in Fig. 1.55b that
the peak forward current is 60 mA, with 20 mA the typical average forward current.
The test conditions listed in Fig. 1.55c, however, are for a forward current of 10 mA.
The level of VD under forward-bias conditions is listed as VF and extends from 2.2
to 3 V. In other words, one can expect a typical operating current of about 10 mA at
2.5 V for good light emission.
Two quantities yet undefined appear under the heading Electrical/Optical Char-
acteristics at TA ϭ 25°C. They are the axial luminous intensity (IV) and the luminous
efficacy (␩v). Light intensity is measured in candela. One candela emits a light flux
of 4␲ lumens and establishes an illumination of 1 footcandle on a 1-ft2 area 1 ft from
the light source. Even though this description may not provide a clear understanding
of the candela as a unit of measure, its level can certainly be compared between sim-
ilar devices. The term efficacy is, by definition, a measure of the ability of a device
to produce a desired effect. For the LED this is the ratio of the number of lumens
generated per applied watt of electrical energy. The relative efficiency is defined by

1.15 Light-Emitting Diodes 39

 p n

the luminous intensity per unit current, as shown in Fig. 1.55g. The relative intensity
of each color versus wavelength appears in Fig. 1.55d.
Since the LED is a p-n junction device, it will have a forward-biased characteristic
(Fig. 1.55e) similar to the diode response curves. Note the almost linear increase in rel-
ative luminous intensity with forward current (Fig. 1.55f). Figure 1.55h reveals that the
longer the pulse duration at a particular frequency, the lower the permitted peak current
(after you pass the break value of tp). Figure 1.55i simply reveals that the intensity is
greater at 0° (or head on) and the least at 90° (when you view the device from the side).

Figure 1.55 Hewlett-Packard subminiature high-efficiency red solid-state lamp: (a) appearance;
(b) absolute maximum ratings; (c) electrical/optical characteristics; (d) relative intensity versus wave-
length; (e) forward current versus forward voltage; (f) relative luminous intensity versus forward cur-
rent; (g) relative efficiency versus peak current; (h) maximum peak current versus pulse duration;
(i) relative luminous intensity versus angular displacement. (Courtesy Hewlett-Packard Corporation.)

40 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes

 p n

1.0
TA = 25˚C
Green GaAsP Red
Yellow

Relative intensity High efficiency

Red
0.5

0
500 550 600 650 700 750
Wavelength–nm

(d)

20 1.6
3.0 TA = 25˚C 1.5
TA = 25˚C

(normalized at 10 mA dc)
IF – Forward current – mA

1.4
Relative luminous intensity

Relative efficiency
15
(normalized at 10 mA)

1.3
2.0 1.2
10 1.1
1.0
1.0 0.9
5 0.8
0.7
0 0 0.6
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 0 5 10 15 20 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

VF – Forward voltage – V IF – Forward current – mA Ipeak – Peak current – mA

(e) (f) (g)

6
Ratio of maximum tolerable

to maximum tolerable

5
tp
peak current

4
dc current

10˚ 0˚
20˚
3 30˚
40˚ 0.8
50˚
T 0.6
2
60˚
100 k

30 kH

10 kH

300
100
3 kH

1 kH

0.4
70˚
Hz
–

Hz
Hz
z

z
z

0.2
Ipeak max

80˚
Idc max

1 90˚
1.0 10 100 1000 10,000 20˚ 40˚ 60˚ 80˚ 100˚
tp – Pulse duration – µs

(h) (i)

Figure 1.55 Continued.

1.15 Light-Emitting Diodes 41

 p n

LED displays are available today in many different sizes and shapes. The light-
emitting region is available in lengths from 0.1 to 1 in. Numbers can be created by
segments such as shown in Fig. 1.56. By applying a forward bias to the proper p-type
material segment, any number from 0 to 9 can be displayed.

Figure 1.56 Litronix segment display.

There are also two-lead LED lamps that contain two LEDs, so that a reversal in
biasing will change the color from green to red, or vice versa. LEDs are presently
available in red, green, yellow, orange, and white, and white with blue soon to be
commercially available. In general, LEDs operate at voltage levels from 1.7 to 3.3 V,
which makes them completely compatible with solid-state circuits. They have a fast
response time (nanoseconds) and offer good contrast ratios for visibility. The power
requirement is typically from 10 to 150 mW with a lifetime of 100,000ϩ hours. Their
semiconductor construction adds a significant ruggedness factor.

1.16 DIODE ARRAYS—INTEGRATED

CIRCUITS
The unique characteristics of integrated circuits will be introduced in Chapter 12.
However, we have reached a plateau in our introduction to electronic circuits that per-
mits at least a surface examination of diode arrays in the integrated-circuit package.
You will find that the integrated circuit is not a unique device with characteristics to-
tally different from those we examine in these introductory chapters. It is simply a
packaging technique that permits a significant reduction in the size of electronic sys-
tems. In other words, internal to the integrated circuit are systems and discrete de-
vices that were available long before the integrated circuit as we know it today be-
came a reality.
One possible array appears in Fig. 1.57. Note that eight diodes are internal to the
diode array. That is, in the container shown in Fig. 1.58 there are diodes set in a sin-
gle silicon wafer that have all the anodes connected to pin 1 and the cathodes of each
to pins 2 through 9. Note in the same figure that pin 1 can be determined as being to
the left of the small projection in the case if we look from the bottom toward the case.
The other numbers then follow in sequence. If only one diode is to be used, then only
pins 1 and 2 (or any number from 3 to 9) would be used. The remaining diodes would
be left hanging and not affect the network to which pins 1 and 2 are connected.
Another diode array appears in Fig. 1.59 (see page 44). In this case the package
is different but the numbering sequence appears in the outline. Pin 1 is the pin di-
rectly above the small indentation as you look down on the device.

42 Chapter 1 Semiconductor Diodes